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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Spectroscopy is defined as the scientific study of the many interactions between electromagnetic radiation and matter. Previously, spectroscopy came from the study of visible light that is dispersed with relation to its wavelength through a prism. As time progressed, the concept of spectroscopy was explored further and eventually included any interaction with energy derived from radiation that could be quantified and organized from its wavelength [1]. Max Planck’s definition of blackbody radiation, Albert Einstein’s view of the photoelectric effect, and Niels Bohr’s understanding of atomic structure and spectra collectively come together to define spectroscopic studies and develop what is known as quantum. Spectroscopy is utilized constantly in both analytical and physical chemistry because unique spectra are found in atoms and molecules. Therefore, spectroscopy is utilized often to discover, define, and quantify information about the molecules and atoms. There are other fields that utilize spectroscopy as well such as astronomy, for remote sensing on Earth [2]. Spectroscopy is a sufficiently broad field that many subdisciplines exist, each with numerous implementations of specific spectroscopic techniques. The various implementations and techniques can be classified in several ways. Spectroscopy is a very wide field that has multiple subcategories, each with its own application of techniques unique to spectroscopy. The various implementations and techniques can be classified in several ways. A few examples of the multitude of spectroscopy categories are scanning tunneling microscopy spectroscopy (with Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, 1981), electron paramagnetic resonance (with Yevgeny Zavoisky, 1944), nuclear magnetic resonance (with Edward Mills Purcell and Felix Bloch, 1940s), microwave spectroscopy (with James Clerk Maxwell, 1864), and infrared spectroscopy (with Sir Frederick William Herschel, 1800). These are also the most significant developments over the past three centuries [3].
This book chapter presents the treatment of group theory in spectroscopy. Group theory is a powerful formal method for analyzing abstract and physical systems in which symmetry is present and has surprising importance in physics, especially quantum mechanics. Gauss developed group theory but did not publish parts of its mathematics. Therefore, Galois is generally considered to have been the first to develop the theory. Group theory was developed in the nineteenth century and found its first remarkable applications in physics in the twentieth century by Bethe (1929), Wigner (1931), and Kohlrausch (1935). “
The group theory has also been extensively utilized in many areas such as statistical mechanics, music, and harmonic analysis. In statistical mechanics, group theory can be used to resolve the incompleteness of the statistical interpretations of mechanics developed by Willard Gibbs, relating to the summing of an infinite number of probabilities to yield a meaningful solution. In music, the presence of the 12-periodicity in the circle of fifths yields applications of elementary group theory. In harmonic analysis, Haar measures, which are integrals invariant under the translation in a Lie group, are used for pattern recognition and other image processing techniques. Due to the various applications of group theory, it has proven to be one of the most powerful mathematical tools utilized in the field of spectroscopy and in quantum chemistry. It provides opportunities for individuals to adequately understand the molecule and make informed inferences, which helps to break down complex theory and information. The most important understanding that this helps individuals to comprehend is that the set of operations associated with the symmetry elements of a molecule, collectively constitute a mathematical set called a group. What this serves to exemplify is that the application of mathematical theory can be applied when working with symmetry operations [4].
It is worth mentioning that the application of group theory in spectroscopy shed light on a molecule’s symmetry that pertains to physical characteristics. This is effective when attempting to determine important physical data of a molecule. There are certain things that the symmetry of a molecule can help to deduce such as the energy levels that the orbitals will be at. Additionally, orbital symmetries in which unique transitions can occur between energy levels can also be determined. Bond order is also relatively easier to determine with tedious computation. The aforementioned examples place an emphasis on what makes group theory a very important tool [5].
Symmetry and group theory are intertwined in a multitude of ways. For instance, a symmetry group contains symmetry characteristics of common geometrical objects. The group contains the set of transformations that leave the object unchanged and the operation of combining two such transformations by performing one after the other. Lie groups are the symmetry groups used in the Standard Model of particle physics. Poincaré groups, which are also Lie groups, can express the physical symmetry underlying special relativity and point groups are also used to help understand symmetry phenomena in molecular chemistry [6].
A group
For all elements A and B of the group G, we have
The result
The combination rule must be associative, such that
There must be an element called the identity
This is true for all elements
Each element R must have an inverse R−1, which is also a group element such that,
A group is a “
In group theory, the elements considered are symmetry operations. For a given molecular system described by the Hamiltonian
Each molecule has a set of symmetry operations that describes the molecule’s overall symmetry. This set of operations defines the point group of the molecule. Since all the elements of symmetry present in the molecule intersect at a common point, this point remains fixed under all symmetry operations of the molecule and is known as point symmetry groups. Table 1 highlights the Common Point Groups and Symmetry Elements [9]. The point groups are utilized to define molecules that are considered to be rigid when observed through the timescale of the particular spectroscopic experiment. Therefore, molecules that have a specific equilibrium configuration with no observable tunneling between two or more similar configurations can be used to define the point groups. There are five key symmetry operations for point groups. The first is the identity E, which leaves all coordinates unaltered. Next is the rotation
Point group | Symmetry elements | Simple description, chiral if applicable | Illustrative species |
---|---|---|---|
C1 | E | No symmetry, chiral | CFIBrH, Lysergic acid |
C8 | E σh | Planar, no other symmetry | Thionyl chloride, hypochlorous acid |
Ci | Ei | Inversion center | Anti 1,2-dichloro-1,2-dibromoethane |
C∞v | E2C∞ σv | Linear | Hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide |
D∞h | E2C∞ ∞σi | Linear with inversion center | Dihydrogen, azide anion, carbon dioxide |
C2 | EC2 | “open book geometry,” chiral | Hydrogen peroxide |
C3 | EC3 | Propeller, chiral | Triphenylphosphine |
C2h | E C2 | Planar with inversion center | Trans-1,2- dichloroethylene |
C3h | EC3C32 σh S3S35 | Propeller | Boric acid |
C2v | E C2 σv(xz) σv’(yz) | Angular (H2O) or see-saw (SF4) | Water, sulfur tetrafluoride, sulfuryl fluoride |
C3v | E2C33σv | Trigonal pyramidal | Ammonia, phosphorus oxychloride |
C4v | E2C4C22σv 2σd | Square pyramidal | Xenon oxytetrafluoride |
Td | E8C33C26S46σd | Tetrahedral | Methane, phosphorus pentoxide. Adamantine |
Oh | E 8C3 6C2 6C4 3C2 | Octahedral or cubic | Cubane, sulfur hexafluoride |
Ih | E 12C5 12C52 20C3 15C2 | Icosahedral | C60, B12H122− |
Common point groups and symmetry elements.
The point groups are appropriated to describe rigid molecules. However, for floppy systems or when the transition between two states does not hold the same symmetry, another, more general definition is required. Longuet-Higgins and Hougen developed the complete nuclear permutation-inversion (CNPI) groups that rely on the fact that the symmetry operations leave the Hamiltonian unaltered. There are several symmetry operations of the CNPI groups. The first is the permuation (ij) of the coordinates of two identical nuclei. i and j denote the exchange of the nucleus i with the nucleus j [7]. The second is the cyclic permutation (ijk) of the coordinates of three identical nuclei i, j, and k. The nucleus i is replaced by the nucleus j, j by k, and k by i. We have all possible circular permutations of n identical nuclei. Next we have the inversion E∗ of all coordinates of all particles through the center of the lab-fixed frame. We also have the permutation followed by an inversion (ij)∗ = E∗·(ij) of all coordinates of all particles and the cyclic permutation followed by an inversion (ijk)∗ of all coordinates of all particles. Finally, we have all possible circular permutations followed by an inversion of all coordinates of n identical nuclei. The molecular Hamiltonian is left unchanged upon these operations because the permutation operations affect identical nuclei. The CNPI groups represent a more general description that can also be applied to rigid molecules. The point groups are commonly used in the case of rigid molecules. In the following, we will consider only rigid molecules and restrict ourselves to point group symmetry, but all concepts can be extended to the CNPI and MS groups [7]. The key to applying group theory is to be able to identify the point group of the molecule that describes the molecule’s unique collection of symmetry operations. The symmetry elements of a molecule reveal the molecule’s various symmetry operations. Thus, the initial step in applying group theory to molecular properties is to recognize the molecule’s specific set of symmetry elements. The process of identifying a molecule’s symmetry elements has proven difficult for beginners, as they must observe the elements of symmetry with the naked eye in a 3D object [4].
Symmetry can help to solve many of the issues encountered in chemistry, and group theory is the primary tool that is utilized to identify symmetry. If we know how to determine the symmetry of small molecules, we can determine the symmetry of other targets. This is not only limited to the symmetry of molecules but also to the symmetries of local atoms, molecular orbitals, rotations, and vibrations of bonds. A typical example is the knowledge of the symmetries of molecular orbital wave functions allowing the identification of the nature and characteristics of the binding. Also, the particular methods associated with certain symmetries allow us to decide if the transition is prohibited and to understand the bands observed in infrared or Raman spectrum. A
The application of group theory in spectroscopy intends to investigate the way in which symmetry considerations influence the interaction of light with matter. Group theory can be used to understand the molecular orbitals in a molecule and to determine the possible electronic states accessible by absorption of a photon. Another important function of group theory is the investigation of the light that excites different vibrational modes of a polyatomic molecule [10]. A photon of the appropriate energy is able to excite an electronic transition in an atom, subject to the following selection rules:
In general, different types of spectroscopic transitions obey different selection rules. The common transitions involve changing the electronic state of an atom and involve absorption of a photon in the UV or visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum. There are analogous electronic transitions in molecules, which we will consider here. The absorption of photons in the infrared region of the spectrum controls the vibrational excitation in molecules and the absorption of photons in the microwave region commands rotational excitation. Typically, each excitation executes its own selection rules, but the general methodology for establishing the selection rules is identical in all cases. The determination of the conditions under which the probability of transition is not zero is a simple process. Therefore, the first step in understanding the origins of selection rules is to learn how transition probabilities are computed, and this requires some quantum mechanics concepts [10]. Overall, group theory plays a very important role in spectroscopy, which we can see from various applications of group theory in spectroscopy such as infrared spectrum, Raman spectrum, electronic spectrum, and so on. Typically, the change in electronic energy is greater than in vibrational energy, which is also greater than in rotational energy. Figure 1 illustrates the different energy levels in a molecule.
Molecular energy levels diagram.
When an electron is excited from one electronic state to another, this is what is called an electronic transition. The selection rules for electronic transitions are governed by the transition moment integral. Due to the fact that the electrons are coupled between two vibrational states that are between two electronic states, it is important to consider both the electronic state symmetries and the vibration state symmetries. This modification of the transition moment integral produces the symmetry of the initial electronic and vibrational states called “
This appears to be a modified version of the transition moment integral [5]. If we assume that we have a molecule in an initial state, we can determine which final states can be accessed by the absorption of a photon. So, we need to determine the symmetry of an electronic state. The symmetry of an electronic state is obtained by identifying any unpaired electrons and taking the direct product of the unrepresentative of the molecular orbitals in which they are detected. The total symmetric unrepresentative always holds the ground state of a closed-shell molecule in which all electrons are paired [10]. The determination of the unrepresentative electric dipole operator allows obtaining the electronic states accessible by absorption of photons. Light that is linearly polarized along the x, y, and z axes transforms in the same way as the functions x, y, and z in the appropriate character table. From the
The excitation from one energy level to a higher energy level happens during the electronic transitions in a molecule. The change of energy associated with these transitions gives structural information of the molecule and determines many other molecular properties such as color. Planck’s relation provides the relationship between the energy involved in the electronic transition and the frequency of radiation. Planck’s equation is sometimes termed the Planck-Einstein:
where
Absorbing species containing p, s, and n electrons.
All molecules vibrate. While these vibrations can originate from several events, the most basic of these occurs when an electron is excited within the electronic state from one eigenstate to another. When an electron is excited from one eigenstate to another within the electronic state, there is a change in interatomic distance, which results in a vibration occurring. A vibration occurs when an electron remains within the electronic state but changes from one eigenstate to another. Just as in electronic transitions, the selection rules for Vibrational transitions are dictated by the transition moment integral. Light polarized along the x, y, and z axes of the molecule may be used to excite vibrations with the same symmetry as the x, y, and z functions listed in the character table. For example, in the
The potential energy is
and the allowed energy can be obtained from Schrodinger equation,
where
and
The vibrational terms of the molecule can therefore be given by
Single photons often cannot reach vibrational modes in the molecule; however, it may still be possible to excite them. To achieve excitement, scientists often utilize Raman scattering, which is a two-photon process. These two photons utilized in Raman scattering might have different polarizations. The first photon sends the molecule into an intermediate state known as a virtual state, which is not a stationary state for the particular molecule. When considering the photon and the molecule as a system, a stationary state can be said to exist, but it exists only for a short period of time. Once the transition is over, a photon will be rapidly emitted back into the stable molecule. It is important to note that the photon may return different from its original state. The transition dipole for a particular Raman transition transforms as one of the Cartesian products. A Raman transition has the potential to excite Cartesian products if they are the product of a transformed vibrational mode. For example, modes that transform as x, y or z can be excited by a one-photon vibrational transition. Simple one-photon vibrational transitions can access all of the vibrational modes of water Raman transitions). The Cartesian products transform as follows in the
As shown in Figure 3, Raman spectroscopy transition in resonance is the excitation from one particular electronic state to another state. The rules for selection are determined by the transition moment integral discussed in the electronic spectroscopy segment. Mechanically, Raman does produce a vibration similar to infrared, but selection protocols for Raman state that there must be a change in the polarization, which means that the volume occupied by the molecule must change [5]. The utilization of group theory to identify whether or not a transition is permitted can also be done using the transition moment integral presented in the electronic transition portion.
Raman scattering energy level diagram.
The authors thank the CUNY Office Assistant Oana Teodorescu for reading and for editing the manuscript. The first author acknowledges the support from the CUNY GRANT CCRG# 1517, the CUNY RESEARCH SCHOLAR PROGRAM-2017-2018 and THE NEXT BIIG THING INQUIRY GRANT 2017. He also acknowledges the mentee’s student Francesca Serrano for helping in editing the manuscript. The contents of this chapter are solely the responsibility of the author and do not represent the official views of the NIH.
Misuse and abuse of antimicrobials are key contributors to the introduction of selective pressures in our natural environments, resulting in the rapid increase of antimicrobial resistant microbial strains. Random antimicrobial use has impelled microorganisms to adapt and survive by acquiring antimicrobial resistance genes that lead to antimicrobial resistant strains [1]. Antimicrobials are drugs or medicines, including antibacterials, antivirals, antifungals and antiparasitics, used to prevent and treat infections in humans, plants and animals [2]. Antimicrobial resistance occurs when a microbial strain is no longer susceptible to antimicrobials that would normally inhibit their growth and allows them to withstand the drugs [3]. Chromosomal or plasmid DNA encoding antimicrobial resistance is implicated in the rapid spread of multiple resistance through horizontal gene transfer [4], as shown in Figure 1.
Mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria. Acquired antimicrobial resistance genes can pass between related and unrelated species by transformation, transduction and conjugation.
Mobile genetic elements including plasmids and transposons are instrumental in horizontal gene transfer [5]. Chromosomal resistance is caused by mutations in the developing spontaneous bacterial chromosome [6] while extra chromosomal resistance depends on the extra chromosomal genetic material that can be transferred in ways such as plasmids, transposons and integro [7]. Different types of resistance occur including natural resistance, acquired resistance, cross resistance and multi drug resistance [8, 9].
The major problem with antimicrobial resistance is the selection and stabilization of mechanisms directed by foreign genes taken up by susceptible and resistant strains [2]. Microorganisms can evade the effects of the antimicrobial agents throughdecreased influx (limiting uptake of a drug), alterationof drug target site, drug inactivation using enzymes and active drug efflux (efflux pump) [10, 11] as detailed in Figure 2.
Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance.
As a result of antimicrobial resistance, antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines have become ineffective and infections are becoming increasingly difficult or impossible to treat increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness and death. Alternative strategies are being employed in order to combat antimicrobial resistance. Such strategies include the use of probiotics.
Probiotics are live microorganisms, which when administered in correct proportions confer a health benefit on a host [12]. These microbes are a combination of bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa [13], and the commonly used probiotics are Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium [14]. Beneficial probiotics are found in several locations on the body such as the gut, mouth, urinary tract, skin, lungs [8, 15]. Probiotic microorganisms can be isolated from plants, food products, environment, human and animal sources. Probiotics can be administered as supplements in a variety of forms, including in foods, drinks, capsules or pills, powders and liquids [16].
Microorganisms must possess a number of characteristics in order to be classified as probiotics, that is the microbes should be easily isolated from humans, have the ability to live in the gut after consumption, have a proven benefit and must be safe to consume [17, 18]. Some of the characteristics are shown in Figure 3.
Characteristics of probiotics.
Probiotics exert their biological effect using different mechanisms of action as shown in Figure 4, these include; inhibition of the growth of pathogenic bacteria (competitive exclusion), reduction of bacterial and/or toxin translocation, modulation of the intestinal immune system, production of specific substance such as bacteriocins, modifications of the structure and function of intestinal epithelium, competitive adhesion to epithelial receptors, vitamin absorption and provision of other nutrients [19, 20].
Mechanisms of action of probiotics.
Probiotics have a number of health benefits, including lowering the risk of some infectious diseases and reducing the need for antimicrobials to treat secondary infections. For example, the use of probiotics with antimicrobials reduces the incidence, duration and severity of antimicrobial-associated diarrhea, thereby reducing the evolution of resistance [21, 22, 23] and unlike antimicrobials which kill untargeted microbials, probiotics help to keep the gut microbiota in check. Some of the health benefits are shown in Table 1 below.
Probiotic health effects | |
---|---|
Metabolic effects | Microbiota & Immunomodulation effects |
|
|
Probiotics beneficial health effects.
Probiotics aren’t perfect, there are many safety challenges associated with the use of probiotics such as ability to acquire antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes [24], chances of microbial translocation from gut to the blood stream [25], high risk of allergic reactions [26] and that biological effects of probiotics are strain specific, therefore proper strain identification is required [27] for a specific condition. As a result, ghost probiotics have become the preferred alternative to probiotics in order to solve the majority of these safety issues [14].
Health benefits observed for physiologically active probiotics are not associated with their viability only [28]. Probiotic products containing dead cells can produce effective biological responses. This proves that probiotics merely have an expiry date and can be used beyond that. This phenomenon is known as the probiotic paradox, that is, both live and dead cells produce the same biological response [29]. Ghost probiotics (inactivated probiotics, non-viable probiotics, paraprobiotics) are inactive microbial cells or cell fractions that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the consumer, [14, 30, 31]. They consist of molecules present on the cell surfaces such as peptidoglycan, teichoic acid, cell wall polysaccharides and cell surface-associated proteins [32]. These trigger the human immune system, stimulating a positive immune response and anti-inflammatory effects in animals and humans [33].
The methods used in producing ghost probiotics are similar to the techniques used for bacterial inactivation such as thermal processing, irradiation, UV rays, high pressure and ultrasound [14, 34] as shown in Table 2 below. Thermal treatment is the most common technique for the production of ghost probiotics in laboratories [14]. The cell membranes are damaged, leading to leakage of nutrients and ions, ribosome aggregation and DNA breakage. Ohmic heating has been proposed for ghost probiotics production. It involves an electric current passing through the sample, leading to fast and uniform heating [35]. Therefore, bacterial inactivation can be caused by thermal and non-thermal damage (electroporation). Inactivation methods have an impact on the beneficial effects. This means that ghost probiotics obtained with different technologies could exhibit different functional features [36].
Methods of cell inactivation | Activities that lead to cell inactivation |
---|---|
Thermal/ heat treatment |
|
High pressure treatment |
|
Ultra Violet (UV) Irradiation |
|
Ionizing radiations |
|
High intensity ultrasound |
|
Methods used in the production of ghost probiotics.
They are quite safe, they are well-tolerated and associated with reduced risk for adverse effects in vulnerable individuals [37]. They have no risk for transferring antibiotic-resistant genes to pathogenic or commensal bacteria [38]. Their effectivity is independent of the cell viability, which ensures longer stability and improved shelf-life [39]. They present an easy industrial large-scale production [36]. They provide a wide range of health-promoting effects, some of which can be reinforced in comparison with the effect of intact viable microbial cells [40]. Another very interesting feature of ghost probiotics, is that, due to their nature, it appears feasible that they could be used with concurrent administration with antibiotic and antifungal agents.
Ghost probiotics are categorized into peptidoglycan, teichoic acid, cell wall polysaccharides, cell surface-associated proteins and proteinaceous filaments. These are the ones that mediate beneficial effects to the host [41]. Some bacterial cell walls such as
Teichoic acids (TAs) are the second main constituent of the cell wall of the microbes. They possess immunomodulatory characteristics and exert anti-inflammatory effects on the intestinal epithelial cells of humans [43]. Cell-wall polysaccharides are common in Gram-positive bacteria surfaces for example exopolysaccharides (EPS). These have the ability to facilitate the interaction of the bacteria with pathogens, have immunoregulatory effects and act as a protective layer [43]. Cell surface proteins are one of the most important components of the outermost cell envelope structure. S-layer proteins, pili proteins, moonlight proteins are part of the surface proteins. These play a role in the host biological processes [44].
To counteract the phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance, there is a need to reduce the frequency in which they are administered. Ghost probiotics are used as a possible solution in fighting against antimicrobial resistance [45]. Due to the risks and concerns of administering probiotics to livestock, scientists are now opting to use ghost probiotics.
Cows tend to suffer from inflammation of the udder (mastitis). The main pathogens that stimulate the infection are
Increased animal production keeps animals crowded, facilitating the transmission of various diseases. The use of ghost probiotics on farms can naturally bring about a balance of gut microbes, reduce the growth of pathogens and reduce the use of antibiotics for disease prevention [49]. Thus, reducing the occurrence of resistance effects among pathogenic bacteria as the major spread of antimicrobial resistance is through food chains [50]. In a study carried out using
A variety of ghost probiotics from the
There is an innate immune response of macrophages to non-viable
The capability of ghost probiotics to safeguard the host’s health against serious infections induced by pathogens is fulfilled through various mechanisms such as inhibition of pathogenic adhesion, invasion, biofilm formation, and improvement of immune responses in thegut environment. Additionally, some ghost probiotics derived from
To address the safety concerns surrounding probiotics, the attention has switched to the use of non-viable microbial cells, commonly known as ghost probiotics. Ghost probiotic and probiotic cells exhibit similar immunological responses by means of using the same or different mechanisms of action [14, 31, 32]. This has been demonstrated by an experiment done on the human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cell line, both viable and UV-inactivated
Furthermore, various inactivation methods for making ghost probiotics, such as high-pressure treatment and high-intensity ultrasound, have been reported to cause membrane rupture and cell lysis, respectively [14, 63]. Inactivation of microbial cells by cell lysis can produce additional beneficial effects, the contact between the released molecule and the host cells is improved [36, 40], increasing chances of MAMP-PRR interactions which are important for eliciting immunological responses, making ghost probiotics attractive than probiotics.
Misuse of antimicrobials in agriculture and medicine has resulted in development of antimicrobial-resistant microbes in animals. And also, interaction of microbes in gut might result in acquisition of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes in strains that previously lacked these through horizontal gene transfer. Alarmingly, antibiotic-resistant
Industrial processing and storage of probiotic products present viability and stability challenges, probiotic cultures should remain viable and sufficient numbers must reach the target site after thermal processing, storage, and gastrointestinal transit. To avoid these technological challenges, ghost probiotics are used. The dead inactivated cells, ghost probiotics do not require refrigeration to maintain the cultures in a stable and viable state. This reduces the cost of storing and transporting ghost probiotics, allowing them to be used by the poor in impoverished locations such as rural areas where refrigeration machines and facilities are lacking. [14], making them a cheaper and accessible option than probiotics.
Remarkably, ghost probiotics can remain stable in extreme environmental conditions, like water activity (Aw), temperature and pH which are considered stressful to probiotics and they have a longer shelf life. In addition, they can be supplemented into foods, other than dairy products like fruit juices and other cereal products [14], thus provide beneficial effects to lactose intolerant individuals. The heat-inactivated
Ghost probiotics, being dead and inactive cells, are unable to create metabolites such as bacteriocins, lactic acid, vitamins, and enzymes that are essential for probiotic health effects [14]. Additionally, the chemical mechanism of action of ghost probiotics is unknown; nevertheless, cell wall polysaccharides, peptidoglycans, surface proteins, and teichoic acids are known to activate immunological responses. Unlike postbiotic components which exist in purified form, ghost probiotics mechanism of action is unclear and is difficult to point out which molecule does what due to complex bacterial architecture [36]. Some methods of microbial inactivation such as thermal treatment affect the physiological activity of the resulting dead cells and the stability of their beneficial effects during shelf life, resulting in altered and non-identical biological responses [14, 36]. For instance, heat treatment at 121°C for 15 minutes of multispecies of lactic acid bacteriaie.,
Their side effects have not been fully understood. Studies have been done on how the microbiome of the gut reconstituted itself after antimicrobial treatment with and without ghost probiotic administration [68]. This means the impact ghost probiotics can have in the medical industry is questionable. There is an issue of, what is being studied is not exactly what would be administered to people [69]. For instance, when research is being carried out it involves a specific organism defined by genus, species and strain (these are pure and carefully dosed). But when buying off the shelf mixed with other products such as food products, people become skeptical about what they are getting dosage wise [70].
Research being carried out is claimed to be of low quality, small in size and often funded by companies with significant conflicts of interest [71].
The inactivation method of ghost probiotics functions can interrupt the bacterial cells and allow for an interface between intracellular bioactive compounds and the host cells on the administration of ghost probiotics. Delivery and formulation of ghost probiotics has been limited in the clinical field [31].
In light of the safety and technological challenges associated with probiotics [14, 40], use of ghost probiotics will expand in near future. Therefore, there is an urgent need to clarify several points to support regulatory authoritiesin defining the requirements for the registration and approval of functional foods containing ghost probiotics and those that have health claims to protect consumers. There is currently an overlap of terminology in defining the biotics terms, ghost probiotics and post biotics which makes communication difficult among researchers, manufacturers, and customers [14]. Therefore, there is a need for internationally recognized clear-cut definitions to avoid confusion that currently exists in biotics, especially for probiotics, postbiotics and ghost probiotics [14]. As result of this mayhem, the ghost probiotics are currently marketed as probiotics [72]. Chiefly, ghost probiotics production, detection, and quantification methods need to be look into closely [14] and standardized [14], before regulations and/or requirements are laid out and implemented. The FDA should then layout the ghost probiotics specific requirements and specifications to iron out the mix-up.
Global commercialization of ghost probiotics is also one of the issues recognized from a regulatory view point because of the geographical differences, for example some traditional probiotics are classified differently across countries like Generally Regarded As Safe for USA and QPS for Europe and additionally some probiotics do not follow the same regulation globally. The regulatory process followed so as to launch a non-traditional probiotic is as complicated as one required for drugs [73].
The current regulations on probiotics are inadequate to protect the consumers and the prescribing doctors, there is abuse of the word probiotics and no specifics of microorganism are indicated in products [74]. Obviously, just like probiotics, ghost probiotics cannot be approved as drugs, even though they are sometimes used for the prevention, management or treatment of disease [75]. In the United States, and many regions of the world, probiotic products are marketed as dietary supplements (not drugs) and are therefore subject to different manufacturing and quality control standards than approved drugs are [75, 76], the same should apply to ghost probiotics. Exemption should be given to ghost probiotics with health claims, these should be treated aspharmaceutical products and regulated as such [75]. To assure safety to end-users, pharmacists should be aware of product quality when recommending these dietary supplements to risk populations like immunocompromised individuals [75] and infants and manufacturing quality control standards should be steeper especial for this vulnerable group [40].
Additionally, manufacturers should be in a position to provide evidence of quality criteriawhen required to and they should guide pharmacists on the safe use of specific products [75]. Manufacturers should have quality management systems in place, and third-party and/or regulatory organizations should verify compliance. Accordingly, the regulatory aspects that need to be considered for ghost probiotics are efficacy, safety, andquality control of manufacturing.
There is a need for large randomized placebo-controlled single strain trials with standard dosing, formulation and duration of treatment in various diseases to get consistent results. At this moment it is difficult to recommend any particular ghost probiotic for a particular disease as the preparation and dosing may not be available commercially. The interaction of the gut microbiota with its host and mutual regulation has become one of the important topics of biomedical research. Their relevance in human diseases require much more research. The popularity of ghost probiotics is fast increasing shortly they will be used in food, medicine, and agriculture. Additionally, the diet microbiota host interface can give rise to newer therapeutic approaches based on selective alteration of microbial metabolite production to support human health and prevent diseases. The metabolic profiling approach, suggests how mining the microbiota may lead to personalized treatment.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). 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