Retention time and fragment of phenolic compounds.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7583",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics for Emerging Engineering Processes - Eulerian vs. Lagrangian",title:"Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics for Emerging Engineering Processes",subtitle:"Eulerian vs. Lagrangian",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"As researchers deal with processes and phenomena that are geometrically complex and phenomenologically coupled the demand for high-performance computational fluid dynamics (CFD) increases continuously. The intrinsic nature of coupled irreversibility requires computational tools that can provide physically meaningful results within a reasonable time. This book collects the state-of-the-art CFD research activities and future R&D directions of advanced fluid dynamics. Topics covered include in-depth fundamentals of the Navier-Stokes equation, advanced multi-phase fluid flow, and coupling algorithms of computational fluid and particle dynamics. In the near future, true multi-physics and multi-scale simulation tools must be developed by combining micro-hydrodynamics, fluid dynamics, and chemical reactions within an umbrella of irreversible statistical physics.",isbn:"978-1-78985-031-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-372-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-032-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77312",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advanced-computational-fluid-dynamics-for-emerging-engineering-processes-eulerian-vs-lagrangian",numberOfPages:172,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"896509fa2e7e659811bffd0f9779ca9d",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7583.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6225,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:11,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 19th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 9th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 27th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 26th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21045/images/system/21045.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Albert S. Kim earned his physics degree of BS from Kyung Hee University and MS from Yonsei University, South Korea. He received his MS (1997) and Ph.D. (2000) in Civil and Environmental Engineering from the University of California at Los Angeles, USA. He joined the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Hawaii at Manoa in 2001. \r\nDr. Kim’s scientific accomplishments include the US National Science Foundation Faculty Early Career (CAREER) Award (2005), the University of Hawaii Regents’ Medal for Excellence in Research (2006) and the Medal for Excellence in Teaching (2017). Professor Kim has published almost 60 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters. He researches on computational environmental physics for engineering purposes.",institutionString:"University of Hawaii at Manoa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Hawaii at Manoa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"935",title:"Fluid Dynamics",slug:"materials-science-fluid-mechanics-fluid-dynamics"}],chapters:[{id:"67767",title:"A Coupling Algorithm of Computational Fluid and Particle Dynamics (CFPD)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86895",slug:"a-coupling-algorithm-of-computational-fluid-and-particle-dynamics-cfpd-",totalDownloads:795,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and particle hydrodynamics (PHD) have been developed almost independently. CFD is classified into Eulerian and Lagrangian. The Eulerian approach observes fluid motion at specific locations in the space, and the Lagrangian approach looks at fluid motion where the observer follows an individual fluid parcel moving through space and time. In classical mechanics, particle dynamic simulations include molecular dynamics, Brownian dynamics, dissipated particle dynamics, Stokesian dynamics, and granular dynamics (often called discrete element method). Dissipative hydrodynamic method unifies these dynamic simulation algorithms and provides a general view of how to mimic particle motion in gas and liquid. Studies on an accurate and rigorous coupling of CFD and PHD are in literature still in a growing stage. This chapter shortly reviews the past development of CFD and PHD and proposes a general algorithm to couple the two dynamic simulations without losing theoretical rigor and numerical accuracy of the coupled simulation.",signatures:"Albert S. Kim and Hyeon-Ju Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67767",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67767",authors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"63506",title:"Response Behavior of Nonspherical Particles in Homogeneous Isotropic Turbulent Flows",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81045",slug:"response-behavior-of-nonspherical-particles-in-homogeneous-isotropic-turbulent-flows",totalDownloads:711,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, the responsiveness of nonspherical particles, specifically ellipsoids and cylinders, in homogeneous and isotropic turbulence is investigated through kinematic simulations of the fluid velocity field. Particle tracking in such flow field includes not only the translational and rotational components but also the orientation through the Euler angles and parameters. Correlations for the flow coefficients, forces and torques, of the nonspherical particles in the range of intermediate Reynolds number are obtained from the literature. The Lagrangian time autocorrelation function, the translational and rotational particle response, and preferential orientation of the nonspherical particles in the turbulent flow are studied as function of their shape and inertia. As a result, particle autocorrelation functions, translational and rotational, decrease with aspect ratio, and particle linear root mean square velocity increases with aspect ratio, while rotational root mean square velocity first increases, reaches a maximum around aspect ratio 2, and then decreases again. Finally, cylinders do not present any preferential orientation in homogeneous isotropic turbulence, but ellipsoids do, resulting in preferred orientations that maximize the cross section exposed to the flow.",signatures:"Santiago Laín",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63506",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63506",authors:[{id:"255468",title:"Prof.",name:"Santiago",surname:"Lain",slug:"santiago-lain",fullName:"Santiago Lain"}],corrections:null},{id:"64075",title:"An Eulerian-Lagrangian Coupled Model for Droplets Dispersion from Nozzle Spray",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81110",slug:"an-eulerian-lagrangian-coupled-model-for-droplets-dispersion-from-nozzle-spray",totalDownloads:690,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, an Euler-Lagrangian double-way coupled model is presented for simulating the liquid particle dispersion ejected from a high-pressure nozzle. The Eulerian code is advanced regional prediction system (ARPS), developed by Center of Analysis and Prediction of Storm (CAPS) and Oklahoma University, USA, which is specialized in weather simulation. This code is the double way coupled with a Lagrangian one-particle model. The theoretical remarks of the double-way coupling, the simulation of the liquid droplet trajectory, and, finally, the droplet collision in the spray cloud using a binary collision model are descripts. The results of droplet velocities and diameters are compared with experimental laboratory measurements. Finally, agrochemical spraying over a cultivated field in weak wind and high air temperature conditions is showed.",signatures:"Carlos G. Sedano, César Augusto Aguirre and Armando B. Brizuela",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64075",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64075",authors:[{id:"179132",title:"Dr.",name:"César",surname:"Aguirre",slug:"cesar-aguirre",fullName:"César Aguirre"},{id:"185180",title:"Prof.",name:"Armando Benito",surname:"Brizuela",slug:"armando-benito-brizuela",fullName:"Armando Benito Brizuela"},{id:"263540",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Sedano",slug:"carlos-sedano",fullName:"Carlos Sedano"}],corrections:null},{id:"66523",title:"Scalar Conservation Laws",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83637",slug:"scalar-conservation-laws",totalDownloads:1046,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We present a theoretical aspect of conservation laws by using simplest scalar models with essential properties. We start by rewriting the general scalar conservation law as a quasilinear partial differential equation and solve it by method of characteristics. Here we come across with the notion of strong and weak solutions depending on the initial value of the problem. Taking into account a special initial data for the left and right side of a discontinuity point, we get the related Riemann problem. An illustration of this problem is provided by some examples. In the remaining part of the chapter, we extend this analysis to the gas dynamics given in the Euler system of equations in one dimension. The transformations of this system into the Lagrangian coordinates follow by applying a suitable change of coordinates which is one of the main issues of this section. We next introduce a first-order Godunov finite volume scheme for scalar conservation laws which leads us to write Godunov schemes in both Eulerian and Lagrangian coordinates in one dimension where, in particular, the Lagrangian scheme is reformulated as a finite volume method. Finally, we end up the chapter by providing a comparison of Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches.",signatures:"Baver Okutmuştur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66523",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66523",authors:[{id:"256074",title:"Dr.",name:"Baver",surname:"Okutmuştur",slug:"baver-okutmustur",fullName:"Baver Okutmuştur"}],corrections:null},{id:"63694",title:"Unsteady CFD with Heat and Mass Transfer Simulation of Solar Adsorption Cooling System for Optimal Design and Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81144",slug:"unsteady-cfd-with-heat-and-mass-transfer-simulation-of-solar-adsorption-cooling-system-for-optimal-d",totalDownloads:975,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of the work described here was to investigate the effects of design and operating parameters on the performance of an adsorption cooling system. An unsteady Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) coupled with heat a mass transfer model was created for predicting the flow behaviour, pressure, temperature, and water adsorption distributions. Silica gel and zeolite 13X were both considered as possible adsorbents, though the study included silica gel given the lower working temperature range required for operation, which makes it more appropriate for residential cooling applications powered by solar heat. Validation of the unsteady computation results with experimental data found in the literature has shown a good agreement. Different computation cases during the desorption process were simulated in a parametric study that considered adsorbent bed thickness (lbed), heat exchanger tube thickness (b), heat transfer fluid (HTF) velocity (v), and adsorbent particle diameter (dp), to systematically analyse the effects of key geometrical and operating parameters on the system performance. The CFD results revealed the importance of v, lbed and dp while b had relatively insignificant changes in the system performance. Moreover, the coupled CFD with heat and mass transfer model is suitable as a valuable tool for simulating and optimising adsorption cooling systems and for predicting their performance.",signatures:"Wahiba Yaïci and Evgueniy Entchev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63694",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63694",authors:[{id:"240528",title:"Dr.",name:"Wahiba",surname:"Yaïci",slug:"wahiba-yaici",fullName:"Wahiba Yaïci"},{id:"268764",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgueniy",surname:"Entchev",slug:"evgueniy-entchev",fullName:"Evgueniy Entchev"}],corrections:null},{id:"64860",title:"Modeling of Fluid-Solid Two-Phase Geophysical Flows",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81449",slug:"modeling-of-fluid-solid-two-phase-geophysical-flows",totalDownloads:1126,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fluid-solid two-phase flows are frequently encountered in geophysical flow problems such as sediment transport and submarine landslides. It is still a challenge to the current experiment techniques to provide information such as detailed flow and pressure fields of each phase, which however is easily obtainable through numerical simulations using fluid-solid two-phase flow models. This chapter focuses on the Eulerian-Eulerian approach to two-phase geophysical flows. Brief derivations of the governing equations and some closure models are provided, and the numerical implementation in the finite-volume framework of OpenFOAM® is described. Two applications in sediment transport and submarine landslides are also included at the end of the chapter.",signatures:"Zhenhua Huang and Cheng-Hsien Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64860",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64860",authors:[{id:"258389",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhenhua",surname:"Huang",slug:"zhenhua-huang",fullName:"Zhenhua Huang"},{id:"258396",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng-Hsien",surname:"Lee",slug:"cheng-hsien-lee",fullName:"Cheng-Hsien Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"64670",title:"CFD Simulation of Flow Phenomena in Selected Centrifugal Pumps, Industrial Fans and Positive Displacement Pumps",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82266",slug:"cfd-simulation-of-flow-phenomena-in-selected-centrifugal-pumps-industrial-fans-and-positive-displace",totalDownloads:883,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter presents simulation models for the analysis of centrifugal pumps, fans and positive displacement pumps. In centrifugal pumps based on the “sliding mesh” method, a CFD model was created to calculate the flow characteristics, and the pump operating parameters were determined at which an unfavourable phenomenon of cavitation occurs. In the case of a radial fan, the CFD model was used to determine the influence of inlet channel geometry on the efficiency of an industrial installation. The main purpose of the CFD simulation was to obtain the pressure distributions and determine the areas in which cavitation may occur. To investigate the flow phenomena that occur in external gear pumps and double-acting vane pumps, the “immersed solid” method was used. The results of 2D and 3D simulation studies for various operating parameters of pumps have been presented.",signatures:"Wieslaw Fiebig, Paulina Szwemin and Maciej Zawislak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64670",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64670",authors:[{id:"260477",title:"Prof.",name:"Wiesław",surname:"Fiebig",slug:"wieslaw-fiebig",fullName:"Wiesław Fiebig"},{id:"260484",title:"Dr.",name:"Maciej",surname:"Zawislak",slug:"maciej-zawislak",fullName:"Maciej Zawislak"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8416",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",bookSignature:"Albert S. 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Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",slug:"medical-internet-of-things-m-iot-enabling-technologies-and-emerging-applications",publishedDate:"February 27th 2019",bookSignature:"Hamed Farhadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6655.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171143",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamed",middleName:null,surname:"Farhadi",slug:"hamed-farhadi",fullName:"Hamed Farhadi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10831",leadTitle:null,title:"Mesothelioma - Diagnostics, Treatment and Basic Research",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tThe book aims to focus on the state of the art, pitfalls and perspectives in the diagnostics and treatment of mesothelioma – a peculiar malignant tumour, arising from mesothelial cells that line the pleura, the pericardium and the peritoneum. Mesothelioma is known for strong association with asbestos exposure, difficult surgical treatment and dismal prognosis. However, recent years have yielded significant discoveries, e.g., on germline mutations in BAP1 gene coding BRCA1-associated protein 1, pathogenetic role of inflammation, and innovative treatment approaches like immune checkpoint blockers and PARP inhibitors. The current book intends to summarise the classic concepts and innovations in the diagnostics, treatment and scientific studies of mesothelioma, resulting in a comprehensive reference for clinicians as well as a source of ideas for relevant clinical and basic research. We welcome high-quality original studies, meta-analyses and literature reviews. Case reports are encouraged as an attractive form of scientific article, preferably supplemented by a scientifically sound literature review ensuring a representative insight in the given pathology.
\r\n\r\n\tThe topics broadly include but are not limited to:
\r\n\r\n\t1) Epidemiology and legal aspects of mesothelioma: global and regional incidence and mortality, epidemiological time trends and geographic variations, local experience, limitations and bias affecting diagnostics and coding of mesothelioma, asbestos-related legislation, historical use of asbestos.
\r\n\t2) Causes of mesothelioma: asbestos, asbestiform fibres, non-asbestos causes, germline mutations of BAP1, mismatch repair genes, TP53, BRCA2 and other genes, gene-environment interaction in mesothelioma.
\r\n\t3) Pathogenesis of mesothelioma: asbestos-induced cytotoxicity, role of local inflammation, including M2 macrophages and/or reactive oxygen species among other mechanisms, markers of systemic inflammation (neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio, Glasgow Prognostic Score etc.), BAP1-related molecular pathways, other genetic and epigenetic alterations, miRNAs, stemness, tumour microenvironment and hypoxia.
\r\n\t4) Radiology in diagnostics and staging of mesothelioma: computed tomography, positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging.
\r\n\t5) Tissue-based diagnostics of mesothelioma: cytology, histology and immunohistochemistry, informativity and limitations of the relevant methods, markers for differential diagnosis between benign versus malignant mesothelial cells and primary versus metastatic neoplasms in pleura or peritoneum, diagnostic protocols and algorithms, future developments via digital pathology, machine-based learning etc.
\r\n\t6) Clinical and histological features of BAP1-associated mesothelioma.
\r\n\t7) Liquid biopsy in mesothelioma: proteins, miRNAs, CTC, ctDNA etc.
\r\n\t8) Staging and prognosis of mesothelioma: state of the art, techniques and limitations of current staging systems, survival and prognostic factors, long-term survival.
\r\n\t9) Surgical management of mesothelioma: benefits and controversies of extrapleural pneumonectomy, pleurectomy/decortication (P/D) and extended P/D.
\r\n\t10) Systemic chemotherapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, BAP1-pathway-targeting agents, PARP inhibitors and other innovations, mechanisms of chemoresistance in mesothelioma.
\r\n\t11) Radiotherapy.
\r\n\t12) Intracavitary chemo- and/or photodynamic therapy.
\r\n\t13) Peritoneal mesothelioma (PM): cytoreductive surgery, hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy and early postoperative intraperitoneal chemotherapy.
\r\n\t14) Rare locations and histological types: pericardiac mesothelioma, multicystic mesothelioma etc.
\r\n\t15) Mesothelioma in wild and domestic animals.
\r\n\t16) Communication and support: communicating diagnosis to the patient, palliative treatment, nutritional maintenance and psychological support.
According to the WHO World report on disability 2011, About 15% of the world’s population lives with some form of disability, of whom 2–4% experience significant difficulties in functioning. The global disability prevalence is higher than previous WHO estimates, which date from the 1970s and suggested a figure of around 10%. This global estimate for disability is on the rise due to population aging and the rapid spread of chronic diseases, as well as improvements in the methodologies used to measure disability.
Individuals with disabilities have generally poorer health, lower education, fewer economic opportunities, and higher rates of poverty than people without disabilities. This is mainly due to the obstacles they face in their daily lives and the lack of services available to them. Regarding oral health and access to dental care, the same obstacles are of concern. Oral health is mostly ignored, oral hygiene is neglected, and dental treatments are postponed after other health issues. As a result, individuals with special needs present more dental caries, periodontal problems, orthodontic anomalies, and are more prone to dental diseases compared with the healthy population.
Cerebral palsy is a non-progressive movement, posture, and tone disorder characterized by the impairment of motor activities in the developing fetal or infant brain. Motor disorders are often accompanied by sensory, perception, communication, and behavioral disorders, epilepsy, and musculoskeletal problems [1]. In these patients, muscle weakness or paralysis, unbalanced and irregular gait, uncoordinated movements, sudden seizures, mental retardation, emotional disorders, learning, speech communication disorders, and weakness of swallowing, and coughing reflexes are seen. Because brain development continues during the first 2 years of life, cerebral palsy may develop as a result of brain damage occurring in the prenatal, perinatal, or postnatal periods [2]. However, more than 80% of cases are due to problems in the prenatal period.
Etiologically, in the prenatal period; maternal diseases, trauma, genetics, drug use, bleeding, consanguineous marriage, radiation, in the natal period; premature/late birth, birth trauma due to inappropriate position, low/high birth weight, cord entanglement, lack of oxygen, multiple pregnancies, difficult birth, birth trauma, in the postnatal period; febrile diseases, trauma, hyperbilirubinemia, hypoglycemia, seizure, and cerebral hemorrhage are risk factors for cerebral palsy [3].
It has been reported that the rate of drooling in children with cerebral palsy is 10–58% [4]. Although drooling is normal in infants and young children, it is considered pathological after 4 years of age. Most children with cerebral palsy, who are drooling, are unable to swallow normal saliva due to oral-motor dysfunction, although not much saliva is produced. Perioral eczema, infection, and dehydration occur as a result of drooling out of the mouth [5].
Bruxism, especially in the “Spastic” type, is commonly observed in individuals with cerebral palsy [6]. It has been reported that 36.9–51% of children with cerebral palsy have bruxism. In addition to bruxism, the presence of parafunctional habits such as pacifier-finger sucking, biting objects have also been detected [7].
Periodontal diseases occur more often in children with cerebral palsy due to physical inadequacies, malocclusions, poor oral hygiene, chewing, swallowing difficulties, and consumption of soft food with high carbohydrate content. Besides, the use of phenytoin for seizure control causes gingival hyperplasia [8].
Caries formation is observed at a high rate in children with cerebral palsy. The most important reason for this situation is poor oral hygiene. Other risk factors for caries formation are mouth breathing, the effect of drugs used, and enamel hypoplasia [8]. Differences in food form, increased duration of food consumption, difficult cooperation, and structural defects in the teeth cause an increase in the prevalence of dental caries in children with cerebral palsy, and it has been reported that there are more extracted and untreated teeth compared with healthy children [9].
Malocclusions are observed two times more when compared with healthy individuals, and these patients have unilateral crossbite with excessive overbite and overjet. It has been reported that patients with cerebral palsy have a higher prevalence of malocclusion than healthy individuals, but the severity of malocclusion varies according to the degree of neurological disorder. In these individuals, musculoskeletal anomalies, altered cranial base relationships, premature tooth eruption, mouth breathing, and inadequate lip closure, as well as increased overjet and overbite, can be observed [10, 11].
It has been reported that cerebral palsy is not an etiological factor for erosion, but an increase in erosion since gastro-esophageal reflux is frequently observed in these individuals [12]. It has been reported that in children with cerebral palsy accompanied by gastro-esophageal reflux, especially in the quadriplegia type, the risk of dental erosion is considerably increased and the incidence of oral diseases is quite high [13].
Neuromuscular problems specific to cerebral palsy affect oral health in different ways. Changes in the orofacial region cause nutritional problems as well as the development of parafunctional habits and difficulties in maintaining oral hygiene [14]. In addition, dyskinetic movements cause pathological oral reflexes such as sudden biting or nausea. Gastric reflux associated with a blended diet, often rich in sugar, further puts these patients’ oral health at risk. Neuromuscular problems also prevent the patient from brushing their teeth correctly [15]. Patients with cerebral palsy have difficulty in chewing and swallowing due to changes in tongue, cheek, and lip motility. In these patients, there is an imbalance in the oral microbiota, which favors the proliferation of acidogenic bacterial species, which initiate the caries process [15].
Treatment sessions should be kept brief for patients with cerebral palsy. Patients may need to be moved from a wheelchair to a dental chair. The patient should be placed in the middle of the dental chair with arms and legs as close to the body as possible. After the patient is placed properly in a dental chair, the patient should be checked whether he/she is comfortable and the position of the extremities is correct. To keep the airway open, the patient should be seated at a 45-degree angle, but not in the supine position. The dental chair should be moved slowly, and the light reflector should be turned on slowly to prevent spastic muscle movements and to eliminate the risk of seizure. Myorelaxant agents should be used when necessary.
During dental treatment procedures, it is crucial to balance the patient’s head at all stages. Various mouthguards should be used to control involuntary jaw movements and accidental bites. The airway should be controlled, and frequent breaks should be given to allow the patient to relax and breathe normally. To minimize the startle reflex, the patient should be warned at every stage. The use of stimuli such as sudden movements, sounds, and lights should be avoided. Efficient, fast treatment should be done, and chair time should be minimized to reduce muscle fatigue. In patients with more complex situations, sedation or general anesthesia may be an option [15, 16, 17].
Down syndrome, defined by Down in 1866, is an autosomal anomaly associated with the trisomy of the 21st chromosome pair. Its incidence in the population is 1/800, and it is the most common chromosomal change. There is an extra 21st chromosome (trisomy) in 95% of cases. In some cases, there are 46 normal chromosomes, but the 21st chromosome has been replaced with another chromosome [18, 19]. Mosaic Down syndrome, on the other hand, is caused by the inability of chromosomes to fully divide during cell division in the embryonic period. Some cells of the mosaic type have 47 chromosomes, while others have 46 chromosomes [19]. Individuals with Down syndrome represent learning difficulties, neuropsychiatric disorders, and behavioral problems as well as congenital cardiac anomalies, thyroid problems, seizures, visual and hearing disorders, early-onset dementia, and frequent infections. Also, some individuals with Down syndrome are hepatitis B carriers, and leukemia can be seen in patients with Down syndrome [20].
The only factor known to cause Down syndrome is the age of the mother during pregnancy, the risk increases in pregnancies over the age of 35. However, because young women, in general, have more babies, 75–80% of children with Down syndrome are babies of young mothers. There is no difference between country, nationality, or socioeconomic status [21].
Craniofacial features of individuals with Down syndrome include brachycephaly, broad and short neck, maxillary hypoplasia, sloping palpebral fissures, short ears, midface hypoplasia, curved eyes, narrow, flat nose [22].
Although individuals with Down syndrome have usually a cooperative personality, providing sufficient oral hygiene depends on the family’s knowledge and education level. Down syndrome children might also experience anxiety or fear of dental visits and parents are usually not aware of the dental problems of their children. Also, Down syndrome children using medical agents suffering from seizures experience dry mouth due to a decrease in the salivary flow rate, which may lead to xerostomia preparing a suitable environment for caries and periodontal problems [29, 30]. In addition, high levels of tooth wear are observed in these patients. This is mainly due to bruxism and the acidic oral environment (reflux and vomiting) [22].
The behavior management skills of the dental professional are the key factor in a child’s acceptance of dental treatment [19]. Before determining the right approach to the Down syndrome child, the dentist should consider the level of the mental, emotional, and social development of the child [31]. Most Down syndrome children are affectionate and cooperative for their dental treatment and can be treated easily with the tell-show-do technique [32].
When treating Down Syndrome children, the need for prophylaxis of subacute bacterial endocarditis and the patient’s compliance level should be considered [22]. During treatment, the gag reflex can be reduced by behavioral management techniques, as comforting and distracting patients. It can also be reduced by intraoral massage and pharmacological or non-pharmacological interventions [33]. The recalls should be planned frequently, and preventive dental treatments should be included in the treatment plan. The education of caregivers is crucial for sufficient oral hygiene provision and follow-ups. Mild sedation may be used in children with moderate anxiety. Extremely resistant patients may require general anesthesia [17].
Autism was first described in 1943 by an American child psychiatrist, Leo Kanner. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder, characterized by difficulties in communication, social relationships, and limited and repetitive behaviors [34, 35].
Individuals with ASD have characteristics such as stereotypical or repetitive motor behavior (flapping, rocking back and forth), repetitive use of objects (turning coins, putting objects in order), or making repetitive speeches. Many patients adhere to rigid routines in their lives and may have a more rigid thinking pattern. They react negatively to even minor changes or transitions [36].
No specific etiology has been identified for ASD. However, studies indicate a combination of genetical and environmental factors before and after birth, such as parental age, fetal environment (e.g., sex steroids, maternal infections/immune activation, obesity, diabetes, hypertension, or ultrasound examinations), perinatal and obstetric events (e.g., hypoxia), medication (valproate, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), smoking and alcohol use, nutrition (e.g., short inter-pregnancy intervals, e.g., vitamin D, iron, zinc, and copper), vaccination, and toxic exposures (air pollution, heavy metals, pesticides, organic pollutants) and low birth weight [37, 38].
In addition, problems such as tongue thrusting, erosion, hyperactive gag reflex, and some malocclusions such as anterior open bite and maxillary retrognathia were also reported in these individuals [42, 43].
Clinical conditions that ASD children present, such as sensorimotor and attention deficits, anxiety and related emotion regulation, comprehensive difficulties, and general speech disorders, create various difficulties for families, educators, and dentists in the provision of oral health care of these children [44]. Besides, parents face difficulties in brushing the teeth of the ASD children due to the sensory sensitivities of their children and the unpredictable or aggressive behavior that may require physical restraints.
In the literature, the caries experience of ASD individuals is controversial. Research reports state that ASD children are more prone to dental caries due to the consumption of sugar-containing food [45, 46, 47]. Besides, insufficient chewing and prolonged time of food staying in the mouth also increase caries formation [48]. The fact that autistic individuals are more difficult to accept oral and dental health care than healthy individuals and that their hand skills are not sufficiently developed and that they cannot perform adequate and effective tooth brushing is also effective in the formation of caries [49].
The impaired behavioral activities and complicated medical conditions make the dental management of patients with ASD challenges. Children with ASD have remarkable difficulties in establishing relationships with other people, understanding and the following information, and dentists may be insufficient in providing cooperation during the dental treatment process [40]. Furthermore, the invasive nature of dental treatment procedures along with the hypersensitivity of children with ASD to sensory stimulation (sound, touch, and light) may trigger undesired responses during dental treatment.
In the dental treatment of autistic individuals, many basic behavior management techniques such as tell-show-do, desensitization, and voice control behavior management can be successfully applied [50].
The dental treatment sessions of autistic individuals should be kept short and the sensory stimulation should be minimized. However, it has been reported that in many cases it may be necessary to use advanced behavior management techniques including sedation and general anesthesia [51, 52]. Also, a dental office filled with unpleasant smells, sounds, and colors can be an overstimulating environment for patients with autism [53].
To minimize anxiety and uncooperative behavior pattern, soothing light, rhythmic music with or without headphones, and having minimal visual stimuli on the walls should be considered. It may also be beneficial to improve cooperation by having the same dental professional in the same operating room at all sessions [54].
If traumatic ulcers or lesions are observed on oral mucosa or gingiva, a mouth guard may be prescribed for patients who have problems with self-injurious behavior or bruxism.
The term intellectual disability (ID) is generally used to describe mental retardation. The most widely used current definition of disability is the World Health Organization’s (WHO) International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), which incorporates the complex interactions between health conditions, environmental factors, and personal factors. Regarding a person with an ID, this definition would consider how their factors, health condition, and environment affect their lives (WHO 2001). Three elements are common for people with ID:
Significant impairment of intelligence,
A resultant significant reduction in adaptive behavior/social functioning and
The development of the condition (which persists throughout life) before the age of 18 years.
Mental retardation is a developmental disorder that occurs before the age of 18. In addition to having significant retardation in normal functions, there is an inadequacy in the adaptive skills necessary to maintain daily life. Adaptive skills cover skill areas such as self-care skills such as feeding, dressing, bathing, home life skills such as housekeeping, speaking and understanding language, as well as communication skills, social skills, social usefulness, and professional skills [55].
Intellectual disability may be caused by a problem that starts any time before a child turns 18 years old—even before birth. It can be caused by injury, disease, or a problem in the brain. For many children, the cause of their intellectual disability is not known. Some of the most common known causes of intellectual disability—such as Down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome, fragile X syndrome, genetic conditions, birth defects, and infections—occur before birth. Others occur during or soon after birth. Besides, other reasons for intellectual disability do not occur until a child is older; these include serious head injury, stroke, or certain infections [56].
Patients with intellectual disability associated with a syndrome may present typical facial appearance; e.g., in these individuals, the tongue is placed in a protruding position due to macroglossia with micrognathia. Malocclusion, enamel defects, short conical roots, delayed eruption of teeth, congenital tooth agenesis, and tooth malformation are other common intraoral findings [57]. Due to certain genetic conditions or a history of high fever, children with disabilities may have their enamel defects or malformation and thus be more prone to dental caries.
These individuals also have inadequate lip closure, impaired tongue movement, and destabilization of the chewing muscles [55]. Salivary flow rate alterations due to the use of multiple medications along with poor oral hygiene may increase dental plaque and calculus formation, which may lead to dental and periodontal disease and halitosis.
Due to early loss of teeth, speech disorders may also be observed in these individuals [58]. Individuals with intellectual disabilities often consume a cariogenic and soft diet. Besides, individuals consuming daily medicine in the form of syrup constantly have a high risk of caries due to the high sugar content.
It has been shown that individuals with MR (mental retardation) aged 4–18 present significantly higher mean DMFT and dental erosion scores than healthy individuals [59].
Individuals with severe intellectual disability present impaired oral motor functions and weakened muscles, which cause chewing and swallowing problems. These patients often consume a soft diet including puree or semi-solid foods. In addition, individuals with an intellectual disability usually need the help of their caregivers to consume liquids and do not benefit enough from the washing and cleansing effect of liquids because they consume less liquid than healthy individuals. Oral hygiene procedures such as tooth brushing, which require manual dexterity, may not be performed adequately due to varying degrees of motor dysfunction as well as cognitive deficiencies in mentally retarded individuals [55].
Medical history is quite essential to assess the degree and type of ID and associated medical problems [60]. Complete information should be obtained from the parents/caregivers about the medical background, the medicine consumption, the level of communication of the child, the daily functions she/he can perform individually, and if there are behavior problems at home/institution [61].
It may be helpful to familiarize patients and/or caregivers with the clinical environment without any treatment at the first appointment. Dental office and instruments should be introduced patiently, and the tell-show-do method may be also introduced.
In the next session, the dental instruments that may cause anxiety are introduced, and then treatment may start. It is essential to keep the sessions short. The treatment session should begin with the easy-to-tolerate procedures and no pain stimulus should be created during the first procedure.
Behavior management with positive direction and distraction with movies or music may be applied. Perception difficulties are observed in patients with MR. In these patients, directions and explanations should be short and simple and the instructions should be repeated. General anesthesia or sedation should be considered in patients who do not comply and cannot cooperate [55].
Visual impairment was defined as visual acuity less than 20/40 in the better eye. Hearing impairment was defined as the pure-tone average air-conduction hearing threshold worse than 25-dB hearing level (dB HL) in the better ear, averaged over four frequencies: 500, 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz. [62] Hearing loss can be mild, moderate, moderate, severe, or profound and can affect one or both ears.
Major causes of hearing loss include congenital or early-onset childhood hearing loss due to various chronic middle ear infections, noise-induced hearing loss, age-related hearing loss, and ototoxic drugs that damage the inner ear [62]. Hereditary hearing loss can be conductive, sensorineural, or mixed and is sometimes the result of a genetic trait passed down from a parent.
Children with hearing loss experience social isolation, loneliness, and frustration, and delayed language development due to the loss of ability to communicate with others [62].
Visual impairment is usually defined as a best-corrected visual acuity worse than 20/40 or 20/60 [63]. Visual impairment, or vision loss, is a degree of reduced vision that causes problems that cannot be corrected by general methods, such as with glasses [64]. The term blindness is used for complete or near-complete loss of vision. Physical injury risks such as falling, hitting, and traumatic injuries are reported higher in visually impaired children. Besides, their conceptual development and cognitive skills may be delayed, and they have challenges especially in skills that require abstract thinking [65].
The most common causes of visual impairment are globally uncorrected refractive error (43%), cataracts (33%), and glaucoma (2%). Refractive errors include myopia, hypermetropia, presbyopia, and astigmatism. Cataracts are the most common cause of blindness [66]. Other disorders that may cause visual problems include age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, corneal clouding, childhood blindness, and several infections [67]. Visual impairment can also be caused by problems in the brain due to stroke, premature birth, or trauma, among others [68].
Visual impairment may have a negative impact on an individual’s oral hygiene. As a result of the inability to remove the microbial dental plaque appropriately, visually impaired individuals experience more dental caries, calculus, and gingivitis compared with healthy individuals [69]. Reluctance to consume solid foods due to prolonged infantile swallowing patterns and poor oral hygiene may be the main reason for the oral health problems. Besides, enamel hypomineralization has been identified as a possible oral manifestation in visually impaired children.
Visually impaired children are more prone to traumatic dental injuries, especially in the anterior teeth is also a predisposing factor. Visually impaired people generally require a high level of orthodontic treatment due to the increasing prevalence and severity of malocclusions [70].
Hard tissue anomalies such as enamel hypoplasia and higher rates of demineralization in the teeth are seen in patients with hearing impairment. Also, a high incidence of bruxism is one of the problems that occur especially when the individual has both hearing loss and visual impairment [71].
Due to the difficulties of providing oral hygiene, diet type, and problems of accessibility to the routine dental check-ups, dental caries are quite often seen in patients with hearing impairment [72]. The prevalence of gingivitis is also higher in these individuals due to poor oral hygiene and mouth breathing, and they are more prone to develop periodontitis early in life [73, 74].
Visually impaired individuals experience difficulties maintaining oral hygiene since they cannot visualize plaque on the tooth surface and adequately assess whether dental plaque is removed effectively. This leads to the progression of dental caries and also to oral inflammatory diseases [74].
Compared with healthy children, individuals with hearing impairment may have a higher risk of experiencing oral diseases, including dental caries or periodontal disease, as they have difficulties maintaining good oral hygiene [75].
Individuals with hearing impairment should be informed about the procedures to be performed at the first appointment, and an individual method should be developed for the communication during treatment sessions.
The degree of hearing loss should be noted in the patient’s medical history. In the first appointment, it is necessary to avoid exaggerated facial movements and mimics when communicating with the patient, not to cause difficulty to read lips. Comforting the child patient and increasing the sense of trust by smiling will help to establish confidence and healthy communication with the dental professional.
Before starting the dental treatment session, the instruments should be introduced using the show-tell-do method. If the hearing-impaired patient feels that she/he is unable to understand directions, she/he may show fear or aggression. For this reason, communication should be facilitated by reducing external sounds such as high-speed air turbines, dental aspirator, and radio or TV as much as possible. Mirrors, models, pictures, and written information should be used to establish communication [71].
In visually impaired individuals, treatment should be explained using the senses of touch, taste, and smell instead of the tell-show-do technique. The environment should be introduced, and necessary definitions should be made before each treatment. The dental professional should speak to the patient in a clear, warm tone of voice and should use a descriptive manner to explain the procedures. Also, patients should be informed about how the equipment may feel and sound and how the procedures will be performed before the instruments are inserted into the mouth.
The dental restorative materials should be placed in small pieces as the sharp taste may irritate the patient. Since such patients cannot see and remove dental plaque, tooth brushing should be explained by the dentist by holding the brush together with the patient. Oral hygiene education and motivation should be given by the doctor to whom he is accustomed to the treatment of the patient [70, 75].
Special healthcare need patients are literally special patients who need special attention by means of healthcare provision including dental care. The major challenges they have with their overall health may create barriers to access to proper oral healthcare. Oral healthcare for this special group is often neglected or down the list, and as a result, they often attend to dental clinics with emergency.
Individuals with special needs are the most underserved regarding healthcare needs in almost all populations. Due to the challenges of nutrition and insufficient oral hygiene provision, this population is usually more prone to dental caries, periodontal disease, and orthodontic problems. Besides, they face more difficulties accessing professional dental care than other segments of the population.
The field of special care dentistry is attracting more interest of pediatric dentists and general dental practitioners. The inclusion of the specialty programs in the dentistry faculty curriculum may initiate the ideal treatment procedures and regular recalls of these special patients, which may facilitate the access to sufficient dental care provision and regular check-ups for this special group.
Though many countries developed community-based systems to improve oral health for people with special needs, providing good oral health mainly depends on the effort of the families. Therefore the education of the caregiver about oral hygiene provision is also critical for the special needs patient to enjoy a lifetime of oral health the same as other members of the society.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Rice
Rice paddy consists of hull and caryopsis. The hull or the outer layer constitutes about 20% of the total paddy rice contain minerals and cellulose. The hulling process also separated the hull from the grain or kernel. After removing of husk, whole-grain rice is the unpolished version of the grains consisting of the germ (2-3%), bran (6-7%), and endosperm (about 90%), and is also called brown rice [3]. Consequently, the process of milling is carried out to obtained white rice, also referred to as milled or polished rice, by removing 8-10% of external layers (mainly bran) from brown rice [4]. The endosperm of rice contains water 12%, carbohydrate 75–80%, and protein 7% [5]. Rice carbohydrate is primarily a starch which is made up of linear amylose and branched amylopectin [6, 7, 8]. According to the amylose content in rice, rice cultivars can be classified into five groups including waxy (1-2%), very low (2-9%), low (10-20%), intermediate (20-25%) and high (25-33%) [9].
White rice is a common source of starches and phtochemicals including phenolic compounds, sterols, γ-oryzanol, tocotrienols and tocopherols which locate particularly in the outer layer such as pericarp and aleurone of rice grains [10]. In addition, pigmented or colored rice including black, red and dark purple rice is well known by the rice pericarp or grain having a black, red brown or dark purple color in its covering layers. The pigments, which are located in the aleuronic layer of rice grain, have been reported to consist of a mixture of anthocyanin compounds [6, 10, 11, 12, 13]. The pigmented rice has been cultivated and consumed in Asia including China, Japan, Korea, and South East Asian countries for a long time and is widely known as “forbidden rice.” Royal families and kings used to consume these special varieties of rice in order to have their health improvement and to enhance their wealth [14]. In addition, many varieties of dark pigmented rice including Japonica black rice, Chinese black rice, Thai black rice and Indonesian black rice have been widely studied. Similar to white rice, pigmented rice is found in short-grained and long-grained, waxy (glutinous) and non-waxy (non-glutinous), husked and early maturing stages. The black and red rice have been used as a functional food and their extracts are also used as food colorants in breads, ice cream and liquor [8, 15].
Interestingly, an increased incidence in non-communicate including heart disease, Type II diabetes, obesity, and cancers in both developing and developed countries has been observed. Recently, pigmented rice varieties have gained an increase in attention from consumers due to its high nutritional value and bioactive compounds, providing its potential health benefits including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antidiabetic [8, 11, 16, 17]. In addition, many epidemiological and interventional studies have reported that the consumption of fruits and vegetables, cereal, whole grains, wine, cocoa, coffee and tea can reduce the risks of non-communicable disease including obesity, neurodegenerative diseases, Type II diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases [18, 19]. For the most part, the biological functional effects in acute and chronic diseases of plants have been traced to their phenolic compounds. Various studies have shown that phenolic compounds act as antioxidants [20]. Antioxidants control and reduce the oxidative damage in foods by delaying or inhibiting oxidation caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS), extending the shelf-life and quality of food products [21]. In addition, beta carotene, ascorbic acid, and phenolic compounds play important roles in delaying aging, reducing inflammation, and preventing certain cancers in human. The health benefits of whole grains are mainly contributed by one of its major constituents of phenolic compounds including phenolic acids, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins, which are the most common secondary metabolites in cereal grains, exist in pigmented grains and are considered to be the most effective antioxidants in nature [12]. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to provide an up-to-date coverage of pigmented rice in regard to bioactive constituents, extraction and analytical methods, and their potential health benefits. Special attention is paid to bioactivities of pigmented rice and its main anthocyanins.
Cereal grains are composed of nutrients and phytochemicals. Phytochemicals are bioactive, non-nutritional plant compounds, which typically occur in small quantities in plants foods, for example, fruits and vegetables, whole grains and cereals. The most important groups of dietary phytochemicals can be divided into general categories as phenolics, alkaloids, nitrogen-containing compounds, organosulfur compounds, phytosterols, and carotenoids [18]. In addition, bioactive compounds including phenolic compounds, phytosterols, tocols, dietary fibers (mainly beta-glucan), lignans, alkylresorcinols, phytic acid, γ-oryzanols, avenanthramides, inositols and betaine are obtained from whole grain cereals [19, 22]. Some bioactive compounds are quite specific to certain cereals, for example, γ-oryzanol in rice, avenanthramide and saponins in oats, beta glucans in oats and barley and alkylresorcinol in rye, although these are also present in other cereals like wheat but relatively in fewer amounts.
Phenolics compounds or polyphenols contain one or more aromatic rings with one or more hydroxyl groups and generally are categorized as phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, coumarins and tannins [18]. Phenolic compounds are the secondary metabolites plants, providing essential function in the reproduction and growth of the plant, acting as defense mechanisms against pathogens, parasites and environments (light, chilling, pollution, etc.), and contributing to the color of plant [23, 24]. In addition to their roles in plants, phenolic compounds in human diet provide health benefits associated with reduced risk of chronic diseases [22].
Phenolic acids in rice grain present in two forms including soluble and insoluble forms. The soluble form, including free and conjugated forms, the former of which can be extracted by solvent, such as aqueous methanol, ethanol, and acetone, and the latter can be hydrolyzed from soluble phenolics by alkali. However, the insoluble form, also called bound phenolics, which esterify to the cell walls. Among these three phenolic fractions, the most abundant is insoluble bound phenolic acids, followed by soluble conjugated phenolic acids and the least is soluble free phenolic acids [25]. In addition, phenolic acids mainly exist in rice bran with trace amounts in endosperm in different rice genotypes. Phenolic acids are widely distributed into two sub-classes including hydrobenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives. Figure 1 shows the structure of some common phenolic acids detected in rice. Hydroxybenzoic acid derivates include
The chemical structures of the main phenolic acids.
Like as phenolic acids, flavonoids are secondary metabolites of plants with polyphenolic structure. Flavonoids consist of a 15-carbon skeleton organized by a three-carbon chain (C6–C3–C6 structure) and they are the most diverse compounds in the plant kingdom. Flavonoids can be classified in to several sub-classes including flavanols, flavones, flavones, isoflavones and anthocyanins. The most common flavonoids of rice belong to a wide variety of sub-families such as flavonols, flavones, flavanols, flavanons, and anthocyanins.
Anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins are known as color pigments found in several varieties of rice as bioactive compounds. These colorful pigment bioactive compounds are located in the aleurone layer of rice grain [26]. Pigmented rice is diverse in the color, mainly due to the grain’s high anthocyanin content. Several pigmented rice including black, brown, dark brown, dark purple and red-grain rice have been reported have been reported, which its color is depend upon the kinds of pigment colors [17].
Anthocyanins is a group of reddish to purple water-soluble flavonoids existing in pigmented rice and other cereal grains [27, 28]. The anthocyanidins or aglycons, the basic structure of anthocyanins, consist of an aromatic C6 (A ring) that bonded to a heterocyclic C3 (C ring) that contains oxygen, which is bonded by a carbon-carbon bond to a third aromatic C6 (B ring). When the anthocyanidins are bonded to a sugar moiety in the glycosidic linkage, they are known as anthocyanins [26]. In plants, they are found in mono, di, or tri of O-glycosides and acylglycosides of anthocyanidins [17]. Individual differences in anthocyanidins are related to the number of hydroxyl groups; the nature, number and position of sugars linked to the molecule; and the presence of aliphatic or aromatic acids attached to the sugar molecule. Anthocyanins are derived from the most common six anthocyanidins (aglycones) including cyanidin, delphinidin, petunidin, peonidin, malvidin and pelargonidin. Several anthocyanins have been isolated and identified from pigmented rice including cyaniding 3-glucoside, cyaniding 3-galactoside, cyaniding 3-rutinoside, cyaniding 3, 5-diglucoside, malvidin 3-galactoside, peonidin 3-glucoside, and pelargonidin 3, 5-diglucoside [6, 13, 28] and the basic chemical structures of the main anthocyanidins are shown in Figure 2. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside has been identified in black rice as the significantly higher than others [6, 13].
The chemical structures of the main anthocyanidins.
Proanthocyanidins are a group of polymeric phenolic compounds consisting mainly of flavan-3-ol units such as afzelechin, epiafzelechin, catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin, and epigallocatechin (Figure 3) [26]. More complex proanthocyanidins, having the same polymeric building block, form the group of tannins. Proanthocyanidins can be A-type or B type structure with flavan-3-ol units doubly linked by C4-C8 and C2-O7 or C4-C6 and C2-O7 for the former, and linked mainly through C4-C8 or C4-C6 for the latter B-type proanthocyanidin is very common in nature. In red rice, the block unit of proanthocyanidin consists of catechin and epicatechin. Proanthocyanidins are synthesized in plants by using anthocyanidins as key intermediates. These pigmented compounds are also responsible for red and purple color in rice.
The chemical structures of the main proanthocyanidins.
The determination of phenolic compounds is a necessary prerequisite not only to define the nutritional qualities of whole grain rice, but mostly to investigate on the health benefits associated to the consumption of these food plants [29]. Therefore, the most recent techniques for the extraction of the target compounds from rice along with the analytical approaches adopted for the separation, identification and quantification of phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins must be fully studied. Extraction is a process used for separating bioactive compounds from solutions using specific solvents by applying standard procedures. In addition, extraction of bioactive compounds can be obtained by using either conventional or non-conventional methods [30, 31].
Conventional extraction is being used at a small-scale level to extract bioactive components from several plant materials. This technique is usually based on the extraction efficiency of different solvents, which are being used for this purpose. The manual solvent extraction at ambient temperature is the most commonly used method in extracting bioactive compounds from grains. The solvents included acidified methanol with 1.0 N HCl (85:15, v/v), acidified methanol with 1 M phosphoric acid (95:5 v/v), acidified methanol with trifluoro acetic acid (99.8:0.2, v/v), acidified methanol with glacial acetic acid (95:5, v/v), and acetone/water (80:20, v/v). The extraction ratio was a material to solvent at 1:10 (w/v) [30]. In addition, in cold conditions, methanol (85%) and HCl (1 mol/L) was found to be an appropriate extraction solvent for anthocyanins, along with 85% methanol or 70:29.5:0.5, v/v acetone:water:acetic acid for free proanthocyanidins [17].
According to Shao et al., [12] soluble-free, soluble-conjugated and insoluble-bound phenolics of white, red and black rice were extracted by using 80% methanol. The soluble phenolics mixture was extracted and concentrated to obtain soluble phenolics. In order to get soluble-free phenolics, the concentrated soluble phenolics were further extracted by ethyl acetate three times, and then dried by a rotary evaporator, and dissolved in 5 mL of 50% methanol. To get soluble-conjugated phenolics, the concentrated soluble phenolics were hydrolyzed using 4 M NaOH for 2 h followed by adjusting pH to 1.5–2.0, extraction with ethyl acetate, drying using a vacuum evaporator, and then dissolving in 5 mL of 50% methanol. After the extraction of soluble phenolics, the residues were used to extract insoluble-bound phenolics. Similarly, the soluble-conjugated phenolics could be prepared from the concentrated soluble phenolics extracts by using 4 M NaOH and ethyl acetate.
In addition, our group [13] also used solid phase extraction (SPE) techniques to purify and prepare soluble-free (unbound fraction) and soluble-conjugated (polyphenol-rich bound fraction) phenolic compounds of pigmented rice. The crude extracts of colored rice were purified by applied to C18 solid phase extraction unit. The solid phase cartridge was pre-washed in 0.2% (v/v) formic acid in acetonitrile and then pre-equilibrated in 0.2% (v/v) formic acid in water. The unbound materials including free sugars, organic acids and vitamin C were collected. The SPE unit was then washed with a unit volume of 0.2% (v/v) aqueous formic acid and then with 2 volumes of ultra-pure water. The polyphenol-rich bound fraction was eluted with a unit volume of 80% (v/v) acetonitrile in water.
The longer extraction time, costly and high purity solvent, evaporation of the huge amount of solvent, low extraction selectivity, and thermal decomposition of thermolabile compounds are major challenges of conventional extraction. These limitations of conventional extraction methods can be improved by introducing the promising techniques or non-conventional extraction techniques, for example, ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) [31].
Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) has been used in applications of food-processing technology to extract bioactive compounds from plant materials. Ultrasound at levels greater than 20 kHz is used to disrupt plant cell walls. It helps to improve the solvent’s ability to penetrate the cells and obtain a higher extraction yield. The UAE operates at a low operating temperature through processing and maintain a high extract quality for compounds. Recently, Setyaningsiha et al. (2019) reported the optimization of the UAE conditions for individual phenolic compounds extraction from rice grains using 80% methanol in water for 25 min at 45°C with amplitude 47%, cycle 0.4 s − 1, pH 4.25 and sample-to solvent ratio of 1:5 [32]. The developed method presented the acceptable value for linearity and precision (RSD). Therefore, the proposed UAE method is an effective technique for the determination of individual phenolic compounds including caffeic,
After the extraction of bioactive compounds, the separation, identification and quantitation are necessary to sudied. In the past few decades, there are a huge number of published reports on HPLC analysis of extracted bioactive compounds from rice grains describe as the most widely used analytical method. Recently, Prabhakaran et al. (2019) reported the analyzed method of selected phenolic compounds in rice grains and its by-products using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) [33].
In addition, our group developed an identification and quantification techniques for phenolic acids and anthocyanins in pigmented rice by using UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS analysis [13]. The analysis was performed using a UPLC coupled with a mass spectrometer. The separation was carried out by UPLC HSS T3 column 1.8 μm, 2.1 × 100 mm. Column temperature was maintained at 35°C. The mobile phase consisted of 0.1% formic acid (solvent A) and 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile (solvent B) and the flow rate was set at 0.4 mL/min. The injection volume was 2.0 μL. A stepwise gradients B (%) including an initial isocratic at 2.0% for 1 min, then linear gradient to 98% in 5 min, and by return to the initial condition of 2% B in 7 min. Therefore, the total operation time was 12 min. The solvents and extracts were previously filtered through a 0.45 μm filter membrane. Mass spectral data were obtained in positive or negative mode with a mass range between
Qualified compound | Retention time (min) | m/z Precursor ion | m/z Quantifier | m/z Qualifier |
---|---|---|---|---|
(+)-Catechin | 3.04 ± 0.01 | 291.10 | 130.01 | 123.03 |
Caffeic acid | 3.29 ± 0.01 | 181.02 | 163.03 | 145.01 |
3.72 ± 0.01 | 162.95 | 118.96 | 92.95 | |
Ferulic acid | 3.87 ± 0.01 | 195.02 | 134.00 | 145.02 |
Quercetin | 4.59 ± 0.01 | 300.90 | 178.05 | 150.92 |
Cyanidin-3-glucoside | 2.87 ± 0.01 | 449.10 | 287.05 | 137.00 |
Pelargonidin-3-glucoside | 3.03 ± 0.01 | 433.10 | 271.05 | 121.00 |
Peonidin-3-glucoside | 3.10 ± 0.01 | 463.10 | 301.08 | 286.03 |
Pigmented rice is diverse in color, mainly due to the grain’s high anthocyanins content. The contents of phenolic compounds and anthocyanins are summarized in Tables 2 and 3, respectively, as examples of the phytochemicals that were isolated and analyzed from pigmented rice including black, red, and purple rice varieties. A range of phenolic compounds including vanillic,
Phenolic acids | Pigmented rice varieties | Extracting solvent | Analysis method | Content (mg/g) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vanillic acid | Purple Rice | Methanol | HPLC | 0.19 ± 0.06 | [34] |
95% Ethanol | HPLC | 0.77 ± 0.02 | |||
Deionized water | HPLC | 1.15 ± 0.08 | |||
Purple rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | 0.34 ± 0.02 | [35] | |
Red rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | nd | ||
p-Coumaric acid | Black rice cv. Hom nil | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.05 ± 0.01 | [13] |
Black rice cv. Rice berry | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.04 ± 0.00 | ||
Purple rice cv. Khoa kum | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.02 ± 0.00 | ||
Red rice cv. Hom deang | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.06 ± 0.00 | ||
Purple rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | 0.31 ± 0.02 | [34] | |
Red rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | 0.01 ± 0.20 | ||
Protocatechuic acid | Purple Rice | Methanol | HPLC | 0.24 ± 0.05 | [34] |
95% Ethanol | HPLC | 1.02 ± 0.08 | |||
Deionized water | HPLC | 1.26 ± 0.01 | |||
Protocatechuic acid | Purple rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | 1.60 ± 0.02 | [35] |
Red rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | 0.31 ± 0.02 | ||
Caffeic acid | Black rice cv. Hom nil | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | nd | [13] |
Black rice cv. Rice berry | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | nd | ||
Purple rice cv. Khoa kum | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | nd | ||
Red rice cv. Hom deang | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.02 ± 0.00 | ||
Purple rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | 0.98 ± 0.32 | [35] | |
Red rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | nd | ||
Ferulic acid | Black rice cv. Hom nil | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.25 ± 0.01 | [13] |
Black rice cv. Rice berry | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.40 ± 0.03 | ||
Purple rice cv. Khoa kum | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.24 ± 0.02 | ||
Red rice cv. Hom deang | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.57 ± 0.02 | ||
Purple rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | 1.03 ± 0.02 | [12] | |
Red rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | 0.34 ± 0.05 | ||
Catechin | Purple Rice | Methanol | HPLC | 0.09 ± 0.01 | [34] |
95% Ethanol | HPLC | 1.73 ± 0.05 | |||
Deionized water | HPLC | 0.37 ± 0.09 | |||
Black rice cv. Hom nil | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.12 ± 0.01 | [13] | |
Black rice cv. Rice berry | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.10 ± 0.01 | ||
Purple rice cv. Khoa kum | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.01 ± 0.00 | ||
Red rice cv. Hom deang | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.91 ± 0.08 | ||
Quercetin | Purple rice | 80% Methanol | Reversed-phase HPLC | 0.29 ± 0.22 | [35] |
Red rice | 80% Methanol | n.d | |||
Black rice cv. Hom nil | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.07 ± 0.03 | [13] | |
Black rice cv. Rice berry | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.08 ± 0.00 | ||
Purple rice cv. Khoa kum | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.10 ± 0.01 |
Phenolic compound contents in pigmented rice.
n.d: not detectable.
Anthocyanins | Pigmented rice varieties | Extracting solvent | Analysis method HPLC | Content (mg/g) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cyanidin 3-glucoside | Black rice cv. Niaw Dam Pleuak Khao | Acidified methanol | HPLC | 137.41 ± 16.66 | [6] |
Black rice cv. Niaw Dam Pleuak Dam | Acidified methanol | HPLC | 19.39 ± 0.09 | ||
Purple Rice | Methanol | HPLC | 21.09 ± 1.09 | [34] | |
Ethanol | HPLC | 8.40 ± 0.00 | |||
Deionized water | HPLC | n.d | |||
Thai black rice | Acidified methanol | HPLC | 142 ± 1.5 | [36] | |
Thai Jasmine red rice | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | n.d | ||
Black rice cv. Hom nil | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 132.96 ± 393 | [13] | |
Black rice cv. Rice berry | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 47.80 ± 0.44 | ||
Purple rice cv. Khoa kum | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 11.75 ± 0.32 | ||
Red rice cv. Hom deang | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.06 ± 0.00 | ||
Pelargonidin 3-glucoside | Black rice cv. Hom nil | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.23 ± 0.01 | [13] |
Black rice cv. Rice berry | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.07 ± 0.00 | |||
Purple rice cv. Khoa kum | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.03 ± 0.00 | |||
Red rice cv. Hom deang | n.d | ||||
Malvidin 3-glucoside | Purple Rice | Methanol | HPLC | n.d | [34] |
Ethanol | HPLC | n.d | |||
Deionized water | HPLC | n.d | |||
Peonidin-3-glucoside | Black rice cv. Niaw Dam Pleuak Khao | Acidified methanol | HPLC | 11.07 ± 0.97 | [6] |
Black rice cv. Niaw Dam Pleuak Dam | Acidified methanol | HPLC | 12.75 ± 0.51 | ||
Black rice cv. Hom nil | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 19.56 ± 0.39 | [13] | |
Black rice cv. Rice berry | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 6.94 ± 0.26 | ||
Purple rice cv. Khoa kum | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 5.29 ± 0.10 | ||
Red rice cv. Hom deang | Acidified methanol | UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS | 0.01 ± 0.0 | ||
Thai black rice | Acidified methanol | HPLC | 98 ± 0.5 | [36] | |
n.d | |||||
Thai Jasmine red rice | Acidified methanol | HPLC | n.d |
Anthocyanins contents in pigmented rice.
n.d: not detectable.
Our UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS analysis for phenolic acids and anthocyanins in pigmented rice showed that the retention times for the target phenolic compounds ranged between 2.9 and 4.6 min An example of a UPLC-ESI-QqQ-MS/MS chromatogram for cyanidin-3-O-glucoside for the polyphenol-rich bound fraction of black rice cv.
Chromatogram of cyanidin 3-O-glucoside [
(a) MS/MS spectrum of cyanidin 3-O-glucoside. (b) MS/MS spectrum of pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside. (c) MS/MS spectrum of peonidin 3-O-glucoside [
Proanthocyanidins are high molecular weight of flavan-3-ol polymers that consist of catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin, and epigallocatechin units that can also be found in rice germ and bran, particularly in pigmented rice. Proanthocyanidins were only detected in red and black rice, and their contents were dependent on the genotypes which differed from 15.57 mg/kg to 1417.12 mg/kg, respectively. In red rice, the majority of proanthocyanidins are oligomers of 5–8 mers (40%), whereas the polymers (DP > 10) accounted for 29% [12]. Moreover, total proanthocyanidins of the traditional Sri Lankan red-grained rice varieties ranged from 11.95 to 24.70 mg/g in bran samples and from 1.07 to 2.27 mg/g in brown rice samples [39].
Phenolic compounds have many biological activities, for instance, antioxidant [40, 41] and anti-inflammatory properties [42]. Several epidemiological studies suggested that high dietary consumption of polyphenols is associated with decreased risk of a range of diseases including antidiabetic [43, 44], cardiovascular disease (CVD) [45], and neurodegenerative diseases [46].
Phenolic acids and flavonoids function as reducing agents, free radical scavengers, and quenchers of singlet oxygen formation. The antioxidant property of the phenolic ring depends on the number and location of the hydroxy groups [47]. Pigmented rice varieties showed high antioxidant capacity along with the highest flavonoid and polyphenol content [42]. Flavonoids and phenolic acids components play important roles in the control of oxidative stress, which is considered to be substantial in an initiation and development of many current conditions and diseases including inflammation, hyperglycemia, hypertension, heart diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, cancer and in the aging process. However, antioxidants are substances that significantly delay or prevent the oxidation of an oxidisable substrate when present in low concentrations compared to the substrate.
Hyperglycaemia, or high blood sugar, is one of the most common disorders. Antidiabetic activity of phenolic acids and flavonoids has been reported by several studies. It has been reported that these anthocyanins have various beneficial effects, including inhibitory effects against carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes, including in α-amylase and α-glucosidase. Our study on α-amylose inhibitory action of cyanidin-3-glucoside, ranged from 0.1 mg/100 g DM in the red rice sample to 138.8 mg/100 g DM in the black rice sample, showed that the IC50 value for potential inhibition against α-amylase activity of crude extract of colored rice samples ranged from 2.5 μg/mL to 14.4 μg/mL. The potential inhibition against α-amylase activity in black rice samples were higher than those in red and purple rice samples, respectively [13]. In addition, the percentage inhibition on α-glucosidase and α-amylase of fragrant black rice fractions had higher potential than acarbose, a synthetic antidiabetic drug [48]. However, variation in the structure of anthocyanins makes it difficult to determine their effects on Type II diabetes. Understanding the absorption and metabolism of anthocyanins is important for understanding their role in the improvement of this disease. Previous literature suggested that anthocyanins may lower blood glucose by improving insulin resistance, protecting β cells, increasing secretion of insulin and reducing digestion of sugars in the small intestine. The mechanisms of action are primarily related to their antioxidant properties, but enzymatic inhibition and other pathways may also be relevant [49].
Overproduction of free radicals and/or oxidants can cause oxidative stress and oxidative damage to biological macromolecules including lipid, protein and nucleic acids, which are associated with chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and neurological disease [42]. In addition, free radicals including superoxide anion, (NO) and peroxynitrite play important roles in the inflammatory process. According to the study carried out by Chalermpong et al. (2012) on the anti-inflammatory activities of bioactive rich extracts from Thai glutinous purple rice bran [50], the extracts of five purple rice bran sample showed a strong anti-inflammatory activity through inhibitory effect on nitric/oxide (NO) production in combined LPS-IFN-γ-activated RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells. Moreover, the results also indicated that γ-oryzanol rich extracts from Thai glutinous purple rice bran were acting as a lipophilic radical scavenger better than a hydrophilic radical scavenger. Moreover, these extracts exert a potent anti-inflammatory activity.
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a chronic disease related to a range of genetic and environmental factors including smoking, high saturated fat diets and physical inactivity. Moreover, coronary heart disease and stroke are a major cause of mortality in developed countries Dyslipidemia is an abnormal high level of dietary lipids such as plasma cholesterol, triglycerides, or a low level of high-density lipoproteins (HDL). In addition, dyslipidemia often increases the risk factor for atherosclerosis, which further increases the risk for developing coronary heart diseases that are the leading cause of death among the aged population [51]. Several studies indicated a correlation between the intake of flavonols, flavones and flavanols and a reduced risk of coronary artery disease and anthocyanin and flavanone intake and reduced CVD related mortality. Lo et al., (2016
Neurodegenerative disorders including Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases have been increasing in our aging societies. Flavonoids may act to protect the brain in a number of ways, including by protection of vulnerable neurons, the enhancement of existing neuronal function or by stimulating neuronal regeneration. Vargas et al. (2018) reported the of studies using neuron-like cells, such as the SH-SY5Y cell line, allowed the evaluation of the antioxidant activity of compounds in human cells with biochemical characteristics similar to neurons, indicated the extract of bioactive compounds in red and black rice brans extracts was able to prevent H2O2-induced oxidative damage in SH-SY5Y cells [46].
Pigmented rice especially black rick contains a wide range of biologically active compounds for example cyanidin O-glucoside that can be used in a various in functional foods and in nutraceuticals applications. The advancement of isolation and quail-quantification techniques provides more opportunities for
The author would like to thank Mae Fah Luang University for a financial support of this work.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Health",slug:"heavy-metals-and-human-health",totalDownloads:18969,totalCrossrefCites:87,totalDimensionsCites:196,abstract:null,book:{id:"1012",slug:"environmental-health-emerging-issues-and-practice",title:"Environmental Health",fullTitle:"Environmental Health - Emerging Issues and Practice"},signatures:"Simone Morais, Fernando Garcia e Costa and Maria de Lourdes Pereira",authors:[{id:"13875",title:"Prof.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Morais",slug:"simone-morais",fullName:"Simone Morais"},{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira"},{id:"87294",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia E Costa",slug:"fernando-garcia-e-costa",fullName:"Fernando Garcia E Costa"}]},{id:"36935",doi:"10.5772/37886",title:"Gender Differences in Food Choice and Dietary Intake in Modern Western Societies",slug:"gender-differences-in-food-choice-and-dietary-intake-in-modern-western-societies",totalDownloads:17765,totalCrossrefCites:47,totalDimensionsCites:120,abstract:null,book:{id:"1811",slug:"public-health-social-and-behavioral-health",title:"Public Health",fullTitle:"Public Health - Social and Behavioral Health"},signatures:"Claudia Arganini, Anna Saba, Raffaella Comitato, Fabio Virgili and Aida Turrini",authors:[{id:"114665",title:"Dr.",name:"Aida",middleName:null,surname:"Turrini",slug:"aida-turrini",fullName:"Aida Turrini"},{id:"116008",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Arganini",slug:"claudia-arganini",fullName:"Claudia Arganini"},{id:"116171",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Saba",slug:"anna-saba",fullName:"Anna Saba"},{id:"116173",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Virgili",slug:"fabio-virgili",fullName:"Fabio 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Legumes are nutritionally valuable, providing proteins (20–45%) with essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates (±60%) and dietary fibre (5–37%). Legumes also have no cholesterol and are generally low in fat, with ±5% energy from fat, with the exception of peanuts (±45%), chickpeas (±15%) and soybeans (±47%) and provide essential minerals and vitamins. In addition to their nutritional superiority, legumes have also been ascribed economical, cultural, physiological and medicinal roles owing to their possession of beneficial bioactive compounds. Research has shown that most of the bioactive compounds in legumes possess antioxidant properties, which play a role in the prevention of some cancers, heart diseases, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. Because of their composition, legumes are attractive to health conscious consumers, celiac and diabetic patients as well as consumers concerned with weight management. The incorporation of legumes in diets, especially in developing countries, could play a major role in eradicating protein-energy malnutrition especially in developing Afro-Asian countries. Legumes could be a base for the development of many functional foods to promote human health.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. Jideani",authors:[{id:"201151",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yvonne",middleName:null,surname:"Maphosa",slug:"yvonne-maphosa",fullName:"Yvonne Maphosa"}]},{id:"29979",doi:"10.5772/25344",title:"The Therapeutic Benefits of Essential Oils",slug:"the-therapeutic-benefits-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:24100,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:103,abstract:null,book:{id:"1419",slug:"nutrition-well-being-and-health",title:"Nutrition, Well-Being and Health",fullTitle:"Nutrition, Well-Being and Health"},signatures:"Abdelouaheb Djilani and Amadou Dicko",authors:[{id:"63044",title:"Prof.",name:"Jilani",middleName:null,surname:"AbdelWahab",slug:"jilani-abdelwahab",fullName:"Jilani AbdelWahab"},{id:"116762",title:"Prof.",name:"Amadou",middleName:null,surname:"Dicko",slug:"amadou-dicko",fullName:"Amadou Dicko"}]},{id:"29974",doi:"10.5772/29471",title:"Antioxidant and Pro-Oxidant Effects of Polyphenolic Compounds and Structure-Activity Relationship Evidence",slug:"antioxidant-and-prooxidant-effect-of-polyphenol-compounds-and-structure-activity-relationship-eviden",totalDownloads:8702,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:82,abstract:null,book:{id:"1419",slug:"nutrition-well-being-and-health",title:"Nutrition, Well-Being and Health",fullTitle:"Nutrition, Well-Being and Health"},signatures:"Estela Guardado Yordi, Enrique Molina Pérez, Maria João Matos and Eugenio Uriarte Villares",authors:[{id:"78010",title:"MSc.",name:"Estela",middleName:null,surname:"Guardado Yordi",slug:"estela-guardado-yordi",fullName:"Estela Guardado Yordi"},{id:"79173",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Molina Perez",slug:"enrique-molina-perez",fullName:"Enrique Molina Perez"},{id:"97576",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenio",middleName:null,surname:"Uriarte Villares",slug:"eugenio-uriarte-villares",fullName:"Eugenio Uriarte Villares"},{id:"120476",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Joao Matos",slug:"maria-joao-matos",fullName:"Maria Joao Matos"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"76640",title:"Control of Clinical Laboratory Errors by FMEA Model",slug:"control-of-clinical-laboratory-errors-by-fmea-model",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Patient safety is an aim for clinical applications and is a fundamental principle of healthcare and quality management. The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"69876",title:"Leadership Styles in Nursing",slug:"leadership-styles-in-nursing",totalDownloads:3157,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Recent developments in the field of management-organization and organizational behavior and new concepts have also led to the emergence of new leadership styles in leadership. Leadership in health services is important for following innovations and adapting to current situations. Nurses working together with other health personnel in hospitals providing health services constitute an important group in leadership. Nursing, which is a key force for patient safety and safe care, is a human-centered profession, and therefore leadership is a key skill for nurses at all levels. The leadership styles of nurse managers are believed to be an important determinant of job satisfaction and persistence of nurses. The need for nurses with leadership skills and the need for nurses to develop their leadership skills are increasing day by day. There are several leadership styles defined in nursing literature. These leadership styles are examined under the titles of relational leadership style, transformational leadership, resonant leadership, emotional intelligence leadership, and participatory leadership. The task-focused leadership style is explored under the headings of transactional and autocratic leadership, laissez-faire leadership, and instrumental leadership.",book:{id:"9047",slug:"nursing-new-perspectives",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing - New Perspectives"},signatures:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş and Kamile Kırca",authors:null},{id:"58916",title:"Factors Affecting the Attitudes of Women toward Family Planning",slug:"factors-affecting-the-attitudes-of-women-toward-family-planning",totalDownloads:8548,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Everyone has the right to decide on the number and timing of children without discrimination, violence and oppression, to have the necessary information and facilities for it, to access sexual and reproductive health services at the highest standard. Deficient or incorrect family planning methods, wrong attitudes and behaviors toward the methods and consequent unplanned pregnancies, increased maternal and infant mortality rates are the main health problems in most countries. Individuals’ learning modern family planning methods and having positive attitude for these methods may increase the usage of these methods and contributes the formation of healthy communities. It is considered important to examine the current attitudes and determinants in order to spread the choice of effective method.",book:{id:"6142",slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Nazli Sensoy, Yasemin Korkut, Selcuk Akturan, Mehmet Yilmaz,\nCanan Tuz and Bilge Tuncel",authors:[{id:"216377",title:"Prof.",name:"Nazli",middleName:null,surname:"Sensoy",slug:"nazli-sensoy",fullName:"Nazli Sensoy"},{id:"216589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Korkut",slug:"yasemin-korkut",fullName:"Yasemin Korkut"},{id:"216595",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcuk",middleName:null,surname:"Akturan",slug:"selcuk-akturan",fullName:"Selcuk Akturan"},{id:"216596",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",middleName:null,surname:"Tuz",slug:"canan-tuz",fullName:"Canan Tuz"},{id:"216598",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",middleName:null,surname:"Tuncel",slug:"bilge-tuncel",fullName:"Bilge Tuncel"},{id:"216599",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"mehmet-yilmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Yilmaz"}]},{id:"69631",title:"Cultural Practices and Health Consequences: Health or Habits, the Choice Is Ours",slug:"cultural-practices-and-health-consequences-health-or-habits-the-choice-is-ours",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human beings are social animals with an innate desire to conform to socially accepted norms and values. Over periods of time, some of these norms become standards that all members of the community are expected to adhere to. Deviance from these standards is seen as absurd, wrong, or frankly abnormal. However, many of these cultural mores have no scientific basis and, some of them actually promote behaviors with negative health consequences. This chapter examines the cultural practices of some communities in Africa and their health consequences and, explores ways to address the challenges.",book:{id:"9138",slug:"public-health-in-developing-countries-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Public Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Radiance Ogundipe",authors:[{id:"302308",title:"Dr.",name:"Radiance",middleName:null,surname:"Ogundipe",slug:"radiance-ogundipe",fullName:"Radiance Ogundipe"}]},{id:"55808",title:"The Role of Legumes in Human Nutrition",slug:"the-role-of-legumes-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5433,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:109,abstract:"Legumes are valued worldwide as a sustainable and inexpensive meat alternative and are considered the second most important food source after cereals. Legumes are nutritionally valuable, providing proteins (20–45%) with essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates (±60%) and dietary fibre (5–37%). Legumes also have no cholesterol and are generally low in fat, with ±5% energy from fat, with the exception of peanuts (±45%), chickpeas (±15%) and soybeans (±47%) and provide essential minerals and vitamins. In addition to their nutritional superiority, legumes have also been ascribed economical, cultural, physiological and medicinal roles owing to their possession of beneficial bioactive compounds. Research has shown that most of the bioactive compounds in legumes possess antioxidant properties, which play a role in the prevention of some cancers, heart diseases, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. Because of their composition, legumes are attractive to health conscious consumers, celiac and diabetic patients as well as consumers concerned with weight management. The incorporation of legumes in diets, especially in developing countries, could play a major role in eradicating protein-energy malnutrition especially in developing Afro-Asian countries. Legumes could be a base for the development of many functional foods to promote human health.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. Jideani",authors:[{id:"201151",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yvonne",middleName:null,surname:"Maphosa",slug:"yvonne-maphosa",fullName:"Yvonne Maphosa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"200",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82616",title:"The Quantum Theory of Reproduction – How Unique is an Individual?",slug:"the-quantum-theory-of-reproduction-how-unique-is-an-individual",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105769",abstract:"Our understanding of nature’s way is founded on quantum mechanics. In its existence of over 80 years, quantum theory has been describing the physical world. The attraction of studying quantum mechanics is the perception of the conceptual structure of nature. This is aided by the mathematical structure that exposes the internal logic of the subject by inventing a notation that embeds the philosophy of the question. To describe how unique each individual is. A calculation method was applied. The uniqueness of an individual is one in two nonillion, octillion, septillion, sextillion, quintillion, quadrillion, trillion, billion, million and thousand. Individuals are indefinitely unique.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Zouhair O. Amarin"},{id:"81930",title:"Smoking and Its Consequences on Male and Female Reproductive Health",slug:"smoking-and-its-consequences-on-male-and-female-reproductive-health",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104941",abstract:"Smoking contributes to the death of around one in 10 adults worldwide. Specifically, cigarettes are known to contain around 4000 toxins and chemicals that are hazardous in nature. The negative effects of smoking on human health and interest in smoking-related diseases have a long history. Among these concerns are the harmful effects of smoking on reproductive health. Thirteen percent of female infertility is due to smoking. Female smoking can lead to gamete mutagenesis, early loss of reproductive function, and thus advance the time to menopause. It has been also associated with ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. Even when it comes to assisted reproductive technologies cycles, smokers require more cycles, almost double the number of cycles needed to conceive as non-smokers. Male smoking is shown to be correlated with poorer semen parameters and sperm DNA fragmentation. Not only active smokers but also passive smokers, when excessively exposed to smoking, can have reproductive problems comparable to those seen in smokers. In this book chapter, we will approach the effect of tobacco, especially tobacco smoking, on male and female reproductive health. This aims to take a preventive approach to infertility by discouraging smoking and helping to eliminate exposure to tobacco smoke in both women and men.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Amor Houda, Jankowski Peter Michael, Micu Romeo and Hammadeh Mohamad Eid"},{id:"81468",title:"The Knowledge and Use of Intra-Uterine Device by Women Attending Ante-Natal Clinic at Enugu State Teaching Hospital, Parklane",slug:"the-knowledge-and-use-of-intra-uterine-device-by-women-attending-ante-natal-clinic-at-enugu-state-te",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104097",abstract:"Intrauterine contraception has been recognized globally as one of the modern long-term reversible contraceptive methods suitable for women of all reproductive ages. It represents the most cost-effective method for preventing unwanted pregnancies, scientifically proven for its safety, efficacy and cost-effectiveness and is known to last longer in preventing pregnancy than other methods. This study assessed the knowledge of mothers attending ESUT teaching hospital, Parklane on intrauterine contraceptive device, the use as well as the common side effects experienced by the users. A descriptive survey research design was used to sample 175 mothers. A structured researcher developed questionnaire was used for data collection. The findings revealed that more than half of the respondents have good knowledge of intrauterine device but only 23 (14%) respondents make use of it. The commonly experienced side effects identified were irregular bleeding (75%) and vaginal discharge (62.5%). Although, the respondents had good knowledge of intrauterine device, their uptake of the method was poor. Therefore, there is a need to improve contraceptive counseling to ensure that women understand the relative effectiveness of IUDS. The study also recommended the need for better education for both clients and providers to improve the accessibility and acceptability of intrauterine device.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Chukwuasokam Caleb Aniechi and Uloma Cynthia Ezuma"},{id:"81003",title:"Perspective Chapter: Modern Birth Control Methods",slug:"perspective-chapter-modern-birth-control-methods",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103858",abstract:"This chapter focuses on various modern birth control methods, including combined oral contraceptives, progestogen-only pills, progestogen-only injectables, progestogen-only implants, intrauterine devices, barrier contraceptives, and emergency contraceptive pills. Each contraceptive method is covered in detail, including mechanism of action, effectiveness, health benefits, advantages, disadvantages, risks, and side-effects.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Rahma Al Kindi, Asma Al Salmani, Rahma Al Hadhrami, Sanaa Al Sumri and Hana Al Sumri"},{id:"80084",title:"Contraceptive Implants",slug:"contraceptive-implants",totalDownloads:174,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101999",abstract:"Contraceptive implants or implantable contraceptive are five subdermal implants, rods the size of pencil lead that are embedded just under the skin on the inside of the upper arm. The rods contain etonogestrel, the metabolite of desogestrel, an equivalent progestin. Implants are often used during breastfeeding without an impact on milk production. It was identified that age does not affect the use of contraceptive implants but educational status is significant to its usage; there is an association between the age at first birth and the use of contraceptive implants; the number of liveborn children has a significant impact or influence on the use of implants; etc. This chapter focuses on types of contraceptive implants and its mechanism of action; global statistics on contraceptive implants; side effects; health benefits and positive characteristics of contraceptive implants; those who can and cannot use contraceptive implants; reasons women are not interested in contraceptive implants and factors influencing its usage.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Paul Hassan Ilegbusi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. 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From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. 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Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:16,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. 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From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. Mothupi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"337613",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tshakane",middleName:null,surname:"R.M.D. Ralephenya",slug:"tshakane-r.m.d.-ralephenya",fullName:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life 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