Summary of the signal processing methods.
\r\n\tSynthetic zeolites can be formed from different raw materials and among these many wastes represent some interesting sources due to their chemical and mineralogical composition. Today, a large number of different types of waste resulting from many human activities are produced in the world (e.g. industrial, municipal, agricultural waste) and most of them are deposed of in landfills thus determining a great environmental problem.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art on the possibility to transform the different types of waste materials into useful products, zeolites, through conventional processes and innovative methods. The aim is to demonstrate that waste can be a problem or a resource depending on how it is managed.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-426-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-425-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-427-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3ed0dfd842de9cd1143212415903e6ad",bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Belviso",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11561.jpg",keywords:"Structure, Properties, Natural Material, Synthetic Product, Type, Composition, Production, Disposal, Hydrothermal Method, Pre-fusion Process, Sonication, Multiple Steps",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 25th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 24th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 12th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 11th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Since 2002, Dr. Claudia Belviso has been carrying out research activity in the field of mineralogy and geochemistry aimed at environmental protection. She is responsible for the research activity on zeolite synthesis from waste materials and natural sources which has allowed her to be the inventor of an International Patent, publish numerous scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals, and carry out scientific research in national and international projects.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61457/images/system/61457.jpg",biography:"Claudia Belviso is a researcher at the Institute of Methodologies of Environmental Analysis (IMAA) of CNR. After graduating in Geological Sciences and qualifying as a professional geologist, she earned a Ph.D. in Earth Sciences. Since 2002 has been carrying out her research activity in the field of mineralogy and geochemistry aimed at environmental protection. She is responsible for the research activity on zeolite synthesis from waste materials and natural sources as well as their application to solving environmental problems and as new raw material. 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In fact, more than 100 billion nerve cells are interconnected to build the functionality of human brain. Such a complicated architecture allows the brain to control the body as well as carry out the executive functions, such as making reasons, processing thoughts, and planning for next tasks. Interestingly, electrophysiology and hemodynamic response are the two techniques that have been used to study this complex organ to understand the mechanism the brain applies to finish works. Typically, electrophysiological measurements are performed by placing electrodes or sensors on the biological tissue [1, 2]. In neuroscience and neuro-engineering, the electrophysiological techniques are used for studying electrical properties by measuring the electrical activities of neurons in the form of electroencephalogram (EEG). EEG may be measured by two different approaches: invasive and noninvasive. Invasive procedures need a surgery to place the EEG sensor deep under the scalp. In comparison, noninvasive procedure places the electrodes on the scalp. One of the ways to study the brain is to stimulate it by presenting a paradigm.
\nThe event-related potential (ERP) was first reported by Sutton [3]. An ERP is an electrophysiological response or electrocortical potentials triggered by a stimulation and firing of neurons. A specific psychological event or a sensor can be employed to generate the stimulation. In general, visual, auditory, and tactile are three major sources of ERP stimulation. For instance, ERP can be elicited by a surprise appearance of a character on a visual screen, or a “novel” tone presented over earphones, or by sudden pressing of a button by the subject, including myriad of other events. Presented stimulus generates a detectable but time-delayed electrical wave in EEG. EEG is recorded starting from the time of presenting the stimulus to the time when EEG settles down. Depending on the necessity, simple detection method such as ensemble averaging or advanced processes such as linear discriminant analysis or support vector machine algorithms are applied on EEG to measure the ERP. This chapter discusses the application of ERP in brain-computer interface (BCI) where P300 wave is of particular interest. ERP is time-locked to an event and appears as a series of positive and negative voltage fluctuation in the EEG that is referred to as P300 components.
\nP300 is a form of visually evoked potential (VEP) and P300 ERP is embedded within the EEG signal recordable from the scalp of human brain. Depending on the components appearance following the eliciting event, the P300 can be divided into exogenous and endogenous. Early (exogenous) components are distributed over first 150 ms, whereas longer latency (endogenous) components elicit after 150 ms. Although the P300 positive deflection occurs in the EEG about 300 ms after an eliciting stimulus is delivered (which is the major reason it is termed as P300), latency can be within the range from 250 to 750 ms.
\nAlthough the actual origin of the P300 is still unclear, it is suggested that P300 is elicited by the decision making or learning that a rare event has occurred, and some things appear to be learned if and only if they are surprising [4]. The variable latency is associated with the difficulty of the decision making. In addition, the largest P300 responses are obtained over parietal zone of human head while it is attenuated with the electrodes that are gradually placed farther from this area.
\nTo generate the P300 ERP, three different types of paradigms are being used: (1) single-stimulus, (2) oddball, and (3) three-stimulus paradigm. In each case, the subject is instructed to follow the occurrence of the target by pressing a button or mentally counting [5]. Figure 1 presents these paradigms [5, 6]. The single-stimulus paradigm irregularly presents just one type of stimuli or target with zero occurrence of any other type of target. A typical oddball paradigm can be presented to the subject with a computer screen, a group of light-emitting diodes (LEDs), or other medium to generate a sequence of events that can be categorized into two classes: frequently presented standard (nontarget or irrelevant) and rarely presented target stimuli [7]. In an oddball paradigm, two events are presented with different probabilities in a random order, but only the irregular and rare event (the oddball event) embosses the P300 peak into the EEG about 300 ms after the stimulus onset. The three-stimulus paradigm is a modified oddball task which includes nontarget distractor (infrequent nontarget) stimuli in addition to target and standard stimuli. The distractor elicits P3a which is large over the frontal/central area [8]. In contrast, target elicits a P3b (P300), which is maximum over the parietal electrode sites. Though P3a and P3b are subcomponents of P300, P3a is dominant in the frontal/central lobe with a shorter latency and habituates faster [9].
\nSchematic account of three paradigms: single-stimulus (top), oddball (middle), and three-stimulus (bottom). Elicited ERP is presented at right (adapted from Ref. [
Humans’ ability to communicate to each other plays a critical role in building relationship with society and others. With the advent of modern logistics and necessities, communication between people has become richer and more complex than any other time of human history. Furthermore, as brain science and computer technologies mature, it is critical to have an ultimate interaction interface that will develop a direct communication between the user’s brain and a computer; in other words, a BCI system which facilitates to build a real-time communication between a user and a computer system. The core purpose of a BCI is to detect brain activity in EEG and communicate that activity to a computer or electronic device. BCI allows a user to voluntarily send messages or control commands bypassing the brain’s natural output pathways. There have been different approaches for BCI. P300 BCI is a safe and noninvasive system, which requires the user to wear a small head cap carrying a set of electrical probes to detect brain P300 ERP. The P300 BCI has many potential advantages over many other input modes [10].
\nDetection of P300 requires the subject to properly recognize the stimulus event to generate a strong and perceivable P300 ERP. Noticeable P300 amplitude is also critical for information transfer, which might not be possible if the stimulation is presented too fast or the targets appear too frequently [6]. It is important to design a BCI paradigm with easily discriminable stimuli. BCI should be adjustable to the users’ adaptability of signal detection by controlling the stimulus presentation at a slower rate, brighter intensity, or with otherwise increasing perceptibility. Studies also show that target-to-target interval (TTI) plays an important role in evoking larger P300 ERP [11, 12]. If the overall BCI paradigm presents the stimulation at a constant rate, targets with low probability results in longer TTL, which is also a useful means to obtain perceivable P300 amplitude [13]. In sum, for stronger P300 ERP, the BCI system should maintain a minimum probability or maximum TTI. Unfortunately, such an action reduces the frequency of the target stimulation and, thereby, reduces the overall system speed. This tradeoff has been explored in several early BCI studies [14]. It is evident that due to the nature of P300 ERP generation, P300 amplitude can be increased by incorporating high temporal uncertainty. In this case, subjects are completely unaware of the exact time when the stimulation occurs. Few articles reported that P300 amplitude becomes larger for familiar or learned items [15–17]. For example, if a list of characters is presented to a subject repeatedly, P300 amplitudes for repeated characters (which are recalled by the subject) are higher than the characters that are forgotten by the user.
\nIn addition, there are several other factors which should be considered for P300 detection. Among these are attentional blink, which occurs in case the intervals between two different targets become less than 500 ms [18]; repetition blindness, which leaves the second target unnoticed if two identical targets flash at intervals between 100 and 500 ms [19]; and habituation, which makes fainted P300 amplitude due to the repeated presentation of the same stimulus [20]. Apart from this, human factors such as motivation, fatigue, and user comfortability affect the performance and accuracy of the P300 BCI [21–23], which should be considered in the design of paradigms.
\nA P300-based BCI measures EEG signals from the human scalp and processes them in real time to detect P300 ERP that reflect the subject’s intent. As noted earlier, P300-evoked potential is elicited as positive EEG peaks in reaction to infrequent or irregular appearance of stimuli. As the EEG signals are typically on the order of 100 microvolts, appropriate signal processing strategy is critical in revealing the electrical information and relevant complex issues in relation to the distinctive cognitive functions. Moreover, optimization of accuracy in P300 detection and enhancement of the system speed heavily depends on a suitable signal processing scheme.
\nEEG-based BCI system can have three stages to process signals: preprocessing, feature extraction, and detection and classification of P300. Preprocessing is accomplished after data acquisition but before extracting any feature. Preprocessing is an important step which leaves the significant information intact while amplifying EEG signals and simplifying subsequent processing operations. It is also important to note that the classifier performance depends greatly on an efficient data preprocessing stage [24]. Signal strengthening ensures signal quality by improving the so-called signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Presence of background noise may bury the interesting brain patterns into the rest of signal making it difficult to detect P300 response resulting in a bad or small SNR. On the other hand, P300 detection and classification becomes easier when the input EEG signal has high SNR. After acquiring the EEG signal from microelectrodes or macroelectrodes, the electrical information is amplified by a factor of as high as 5000–10,000 and converted from an analog to a digital signal. Though analog to digital A/D conversion can be done at a rate of few GHz, human brain does not operate that fast to justify such a high sampling frequency. EEG data is typically sampled at 256 Hz which satisfies the Nyquist sampling theorem as this rate is larger than two times the maximum frequency generated by cognitive actions, yet low enough to avoid irrelevant data [25]. To realize the high SNR, bandpass filtering is utilized to remove the DC bias and high frequency noise. Sometime, researchers also combine transformation and filtering techniques and apply to remove or abate signal components that are not of interest for the application [26, 27]. As AC current is usually of 50–60 Hz, depending on the particular living zone of the globe, a notch filter at either 50–60 Hz is used to remove power line effect on EEG. During filter set up, it should be kept in mind that certain types of artifact occur at known frequencies and cognitive activity usually limits itself in the 3–40 Hz range.
\nOnce the EEG is preprocessed, variety of approaches can be applied to extract the features and classify the P300 ERP. A calibration session is exploited to develop these feature vectors. Before classification test and actual use of the P300 BCI, the classifier is trained and supervised using a classification algorithm and the feature vectors labeled as “target” and “nontarget” [27]. On the other hand, during the classification task the feature vectors corresponding to known stimuli are submitted to a trained classifier. The trained classifier discriminates the brain response best resembling to a target stimulus from nontarget stimulus. In case of a P300 Speller, the classifier detects the letter with a maximum probability [10, 28–30].
\nDifferent methods have been employed for feature extraction such as discrete wavelet transform [31], independent component analysis [32, 33], and principal component analysis [34]. As stated earlier, extracted features are given as input to the EEG classifiers for P300 ERP identification and classification applying different classification methods. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) is a popular pattern classification technique used by Guger et al. [35]. Stepwise linear discriminant analysis (SWDA) has evolved from LDA classification method which uses only selective features. Farwell and Donchin used SWDA to classify the ERP using individual averages for rows and columns of a 6 × 6 row/column paradigm [25]. Some classification methods apply machine learning technique for the P300 detection such as support vector machine (SVM) [36]. SVM takes advantage of small data size to give high throughput at high transfer rate. However, LDA outperforms SVM classifiers for the P300 detection if the input data is comparatively larger in size [37]. Moreover, many BCI groups have exercised their study with other classifiers such as Bayesian linear discriminant analysis (BLDA), Pearson’s correlation method (PCM), linear support vector machine (LSVM), and Gaussian support vector machine (GSVM) [24, 38, 39]. Although different features and classifiers have been compared, there has not been a comprehensive comparison of all different features extraction and classification methods applied to the same data set. However, a research group in Ref. [24] examined multiple feature extraction and classification methods applying to the same data set. This study found that SWDA and Fisher’s linear discriminant (FLD) yield the best overall classification performance in comparison to any other classifier. Most frequently used signal processing methods have been described in Table 1 with reference to the relevant study.
\nMethods | \nSystem performance | \n
---|---|
Discrete wavelet transform (DWT); 6 × 6 targets on the menu; 36 feature vectors; feature vectors were continually ranked and either a correlation/threshold was used to select a cell | \n7.8 characters/min and 80% accuracy; Accuracy >90% for 5 subjects [31]. 2.3 characters/min [25] | \n
Genetic algorithm (GA); high resource consumption; possible premature convergence | \nVariable accuracy, 34~90% [40] | \n
Bayesian analysis, Bayesian linear discriminant analysis (BLDA); feature vector is labeled to the class to which it has the highest probability | \nTransfer rate of 7 commands/min with 95% false positive classification accuracy [41] | \n
Linear discriminant analysis (LDA); simple, low computation | \nAccuracy for the able-bodied subjects was on average close to 100% and the best classification accuracy for disabled subjects was on average 100%. 15.9 bits/min for the disabled subjects and 29.3 bits/min for the able-bodied subjects. Accuracy varies with electrodes 4–32 [42] | \n
Support vector machine (SVM); linear and nonlinear (Gaussian) modalities, faster processing | \n96.5% accuracy [43]. Accuracies are 66, 69, and 72% for LDA, neural networks, and SVM, respectively [44] Accuracy 84.5% and information transfer rate of up to 84.7 bits/min [45] | \n
Maximum likelihood (ML); feature detection using a priori knowledge, uses thresholds for a set of classes | \nAccuracy 90% with a communication rate of 4.19 symbols/min [33] | \n
Summary of the signal processing methods.
There are properties of P300 BCI that make it attractive in many applications including daily life usages [35]: (1) the typical P300 BCI can be controlled with high accuracy; (2) the P300 BCI classifier offers fast response; (3) it may be used in gaming applications where an even shorter calibration can be used if classifier accuracy is not critical; (4) almost all healthy people and many severely paralyzed patients are able to use the P300 BCI [20, 46, 47]; (5) unlike other BCI (e.g., the motor imagery-based BCI), no special training is needed to operate this BCI; and (6) P300 BCI is noninvasive, calibration time is limited to few minutes, and it is effective for most users and more than 90% users feel comfortable with this system.
\nIn 1988, Farwell and Donchin furnished a seminal study to demonstrate the potential of P300-based communication with a P300 ERP-based speller [25]. Since then, many P300-based BCI systems have followed this as a benchmark for P300 ERP application. However, until the year 2000, it drew very little attention from research community and no P300 BCI peer-reviewed papers were available before this time [31]. Later on, some researchers have explored the offline analysis of previously collected BCI data resulting in a moderate increase in P300 BCI articles [32, 48]. However, in the last decade, extensive studies and interests have been observed with a particular focus on the importance of P300-based BCIs. In addition to improving information transfer rate, current P300-based BCI mainly explores new electrode montage, paradigms, and applications to increase the performance of the BCI systems which can also assist disabled users in home settings [10, 28, 47]. For example, effect of contrast and color, modified stimulus presentation, enhanced users’ attention, and new paradigms [49, 50] for eliciting the P300 have been introduced as new ways to improve ERPs and its classification [51, 52]. As a result of strong interest in P300 BCI, BCI community has experienced a high volume of research works involving P300 ERP in past 6 years. Figure 2 portrays the number of peer-reviewed journal publications that were accounted by PubMed and Scopus search engines from 2000 to 2016 with the phrase “[(BCI OR Brain Computer Interface) AND (P300 OR P3)].” Even though conference proceedings were not included in the result, novel studies were reflected by the large number of articles. Although, in particular, BCIs are still slower than normal electronic input devices, such as the mouse or game controllers, endless exploration of new options with considerable success promises a P300 BCI system with substantial increase in BCI speed and accuracy and, thereby, extending P300 BCIs to new applications.
\nNumber of published journal papers in PubMed and Scopus from 2000 to 2016 when the searching keyword “[(BCI OR Brain Computer Interface) AND (P300 OR P3)]” was used.
A P300 BCI is particularly suitable for selection applications [53]. For instance, the most typical application of P300 BCI is P300 speller. In such an arrangement, the visual paradigm is made up of a matrix consisting of letters of the alphabet. Depending on the requirement, a speller can be optimized for quick selection or accuracy of the spelled letters. Similarly, other P300 BCI investigations have made extensive progress to develop other attractive applications such as painting artwork, controlling smart home, designing games, stroke rehabilitation, lie detection, and furnishing Internet tasks [54]. However, recognizing the importance of P300 speller, a detail description of P300 speller is presented in the following sections.
\nA smart home populates different electronic devices which can be controlled using a P300 BCI. A virtual reality-based smart home was the test-bed of such BCI application [35]. This BCI system allowed to execute a group of modest controlling commands such as moving the cart or wheelchair, receiving or making phone calls, operating television, switching the light on and off, playing song in multimedia player, or controlling the doors and windows [35].
\nP300 BCI can be used to select the Internet keys to provide assistance to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients browsing the websites. Subjects can surf through Internet pages and select the desired links to browse the Internet or read the news [55].
\nIt was observed by the researchers that performing natural tasks bring better quality to life in ALS patients. A P300 BCI application known as “Brain Painting” (BP) offers a medium of entertainment for the patients by improving their playful mood [56].
\nP300 BCI has been used to design paradigm to control simple games that do not require strong time constraints such as to play chess [57]. Other popular games are MindGame [58], Bacteria Hunt [59], Brain Invaders [60], etc. In MindGame, the users move depends on the brain response; if P300 ERP is stronger, the game character can move larger distance. In Bacteria Hunt, users can change the color of the image, or enlarge, or rotate it. Similarly, in Brain Invaders, the user needs to select appropriate target arms to destroy the aliens, which make the game interesting to the video gamers. As no training is required to start playing simple P300 BCI games as mentioned here, it can be useful to familiarize individuals to the BCI tools. In fact, proper design to utilize the P300 wave’s strong dependence on attention would allow the scientists to study attention training and effects of engaging in a particular task.
\nOne of the sufferings of poststroke patients is that they would like to say what they want but trouble of cortical circuits will not allow them to express it through natural motor pathways. P300 BCI paradigm was used to provide a communication channel to the participants diagnosed with poststroke aphasia. P300 BCI not only allowed to activate their language circuits, but also made their poststroke recovery faster [23].
\nDifferent brain regions work together and generate activities to process deceptive information which elicits P300 ERP in the brain signal. The concealed information can be identified through the concealed information test (CIT) [61]. Most of the earlier experiments with lie detectors used just a few channels limiting the number of EEG features to classify these two types of information [61–64]. These studies mostly used an oddball paradigm using three different types of stimuli: target, probe, and irrelevant. Like a typical P300-based system, the targets are presented rarely though they are usually made of irrelevant items which are presented in the paradigm to ensure participants’ cooperation in discriminating the target items from others. On the contrary, the irrelevant items are presented frequently, but they are neither related to the criminal act nor related to the experimental task. The underlying principle of the item is that subjects will have different responses to stimuli according to their crime-relevant status. The probes are the critical detail stimuli under investigation which appear infrequently. Probes elicit P300 only for subjects who are knowledgeable or deceiving the information. Otherwise they act similarly as irrelevant for the subject. However, to ensure reliable differences between liars and truth-tellers it is important to engage multiple channels resulting in ERP features from different brain areas. One study investigated the functional connectivity of the brain network under deception condition [65]. They found the correlation between different EEG signals from multiple channels to understand the interactions between the brain regions and functional connectivity. Their results suggest that incorporation of additional features helps separating innocent group from the liars with about 90% accuracy.
\nPerhaps most important and popular use of P300 BCI is P300 speller. BCI speller has been utilized as a communication tool for the last two decades by people suffering from various neuromuscular disorders such as ALS, brainstem stroke, brain or spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophies, multiple sclerosis, and other impaired patients who are unable to use the normal neuronal pathway [66]. Persistent research in BCI to improve the accuracy and speed of P300 speller has resulted in numerous P300 stimuli presentation paradigms. They are discussed in details in the following sections.
\nThe Farwell and Donchin matrix speller paradigm was the first BCI row-column speller (Figure 3). They used an alphabetical square matrix interface to produce P300 in EEG [25]. Rows and columns of this 6 × 6 matrix were constructed with alphanumeric characters. These characters are flashed randomly following either a row or a column and the subject is asked to mentally count the number of times that the attended character is flashed. During the brain signal measurement in the parietal area, the P300 ERP appears in EEG as evoked response. However, the nonflashing rows and columns do not generate P300. Due to the nature of the stimulation mechanism and to increase the accuracy of detection, the P300 system requires multiple trials to reach an acceptable accuracy. In practice, the nontarget rows also generate P300 for a very short amount of time but the amplitude is too faint to detect. The computational device can determine the target row and column after averaging several P300 ERP responses. Due to the averaging task, it may take a longer time to detect a character. In general, reducing the number of characters would eliminate the longer detection time but not without a loss in spelling characters option. So far, this is the mostly used and discussed P300 speller in BCI community.
\nThe row-column (RC) paradigm. One row (MNOPQR) is flashing.
This is possibly one of the simplest spellers designed so far. It randomly flashes one character at a time with very short interflash interval (Figure 4). This paradigm also uses a 6 × 6 alphanumeric matrix like the RC paradigm. It was reported that the RC paradigm takes less time than the SC paradigm to flash all the characters at least once. Nevertheless, in Ref. [35] it was noticed that if the number of flashes is constant, the SC speller produces stronger P300 ERP than the RC speller.
\nSingle character (SC) paradigm: single character (M) is flashed.
The major idea behind the region-based (RB) paradigm is to distribute the characters in larger area than the RC paradigm. Here, choice of an object is split in dual selection levels which decreased the near-target effect and human error and adjacency problem significantly [49, 67]. In this paradigm, space of the visual paradigm is divided into seven different regions (Figure 5). The desired characters are split into seven groups and each group is placed into a single region as shown in Figure 5. For any given spelling task, user has few seconds to focus on the characters before the action of each level. This action produces the P300 ERP for the first-level target. It is important to note that, instead of the rows and columns as in Farwell and Donchin RC paradigm, regions are flashed in a random order by repeatedly changing its color between black and white. Choice of color needs to be justified with the purpose of the application. For simple spelling task, common black-white transition usually outcomes better contrast. Combined action of these two levels is needed to detect a single character. For instance, the first level is used to select the desired region containing the character of interest while the second level is used to select the target character from the enlarged region. Expansion at the second level largely increases the intercharacter space so that each character is highly visible to the user. Each time a target is flashed, a strong P300 ERP potential is expected in the EEG wave. Although Farwell and Donchin paradigm allows one to spell 36 characters, the use of seven-region RB paradigm allows to spell 49 characters. In addition, this arrangement allows to manipulate and distribute the characters spatially on the screen considering their probability of linguistics use in a word. As paralyzed people need to spell the desired word with a minimum movement, the arrangement of the letters can be adjusted accordingly to optimize the performance [10]. Later on, RB paradigm was modified by implementing the findings about the probability of characters’ usage [68]. In fact, it was developed considering the frequency of use of the characters. The list of characters used in seven regions in the first level of this modified edition is presented in Table 2. In a comparative study, it was found that the overall spelling accuracies averaged for the same set of subjects, trials, and characters for RC, SC, and two variations of RB paradigms were 85, 72.2, 86.1, and 90.6%, respectively [14, 69]. It is interesting to note that other than P300 BCI, application of RB paradigm has been extended to other BCI modalities too [54, 70–72].
\nRegion | \nFirst-level characters | \n
---|---|
Region 1 | \nE T A O N R I | \n
Region 2 | \nS H D L F C M | \n
Region 3 | \nU GY P W B V | \n
Region 4 | \nK X J Q Z 1 2 | \n
Region 5 | \n3 4 5 6 7 8 9 | \n
Region 6 | \n0 / * − + . ? | \n
Region 7 | \n“ ! @ # $ % & | \n
List of characters in each region in the first-level of region-based paradigm.
Region-based (RB) paradigm with the locations of seven regions, where a region of a set of seven characters “ABCDEFG” in level 1 is expanded in level 2 for spelling a single character “B”.
A standard RC presentation method has couple of limitations which were addressed by the CB paradigm (Figure 6). First of all, in checkerboard paradigm in Ref. [50], row-column paradigm was modified to eliminate the error caused by adjacency problem as it was discussed by Fazel-Rezai [73] as human error in P300 BCI. So the error resulting from the nontarget items receiving apparent target responses is reduced to a great extent. Second, 72 characters in a standard 9 × 8 matrix are distributed in two virtual levels where each level is a virtual checkerboard, a modification to row/column (RC) paradigm implemented in a checkerboard (CB) paradigm. This eliminates the chances of the same character flashing twice in succession, thereby increasing the time between successive flashes of a target character.
\nStandard checkerboard (CB) paradigm with a 9 × 8 matrix (adapted from Ref. [
There exist many future directions to improve the information throughput in P300 BCIs, which also equally true for many other types of BCI systems. To uncover the applications of P300 ERP to other modalities, underlying physiological mechanism and brain response in each of the particular application need to be carefully investigated. For example, study to unfold more insight of the cognitive process showed that neurofeedback can be applied to augment the cognitive diagnosis [74]. In order to increase the BCI accuracy, error correction mechanisms can be incorporated into the BCI system. It will also increase the user acceptability of P300 BCI. Although improving information throughput of BCI is of paramount importance, many other aspects of BCIs also demands substantial consideration. For example, future BCIs need to be faster, inexpensive, and easy to use. Fortunately, BCI community comprises of many other disciplines, such as engineering, cognitive and neuroscience, semantics, mathematics, psychology, clinical science, and software writing. Eventually, scientists and researchers from various avenues continuously help finding a universal platform for BCI development utilizing available resources free for academic research. In particular, future expansion of BCI application depends a lot on the thorough investigation of users’ comfort in using BCI. So different conditions should be well explored to find reasons behind why most users may or may not like a BCI system or paradigm. Many articles have introduced questionnaires and surveys to learn the comfort zone of the P300 BCI users [52, 56]. To promote the use of BCI to the target users with new applications, record and study of the human factors should be employed.
\nAn ERP is a change in voltage which is time-locked to a specific sensory, motor, or cognitive event. ERP provides a distinctive pattern as an indication of how the stimulus is processed. Many BCI applications have been developed based on ERP as a response to stimulus. Among these, P300-based BCI is the most prominent ERP BCI. Over the last two decades, countless P300 BCI works have exploded beyond laboratory experiments with the help of modern high-speed computational and sensor technologies. Because of its noninvasive nature and stable performance, P300 applications range from the potential improvement of the lifestyle to the financial benefits. In fact, fundamental research on recording hardware, signal processing methods, stimulus presentation parameters, supporting interaction paradigm, and neurophysiology will further refine the P300-based BCI design. Though a BCI design is accomplished with keeping a specific application in mind, further insightful study and research can revive opportunities toward exploring other usability areas which are still not unearthed. This chapter has covered several aspects and applications of P300 ERP in BCI research. The interfacing paradigm of a P300 BCI can be designed to capture the ERP-evoked potentials in a manner so that many human factors are properly taken care of to diminish their overall negative impact. Many new applications are also emerging with efficient design of the control interface and associated signal processing scheme.
\n“This is like a world war, except in this case, we’re all on the same side” (Gates 2020)
In spite of skepticisms at various levels including by scientists, the COVID-19 pandemic is spreading at unprecedented speed across borders severely impacting global health and economy [1, 2, 3]. Globalization, which has often been celebrated for interconnecting countries, has now offered much more space and opportunity for the pandemic to easily cross boundaries and has seemingly ‘tipped the scales in favor of pathogens’ [4, 5]. The pandemic is still unchecked with thousands of life lost every day. Although the highly severe projections have yet to materialize [6, 7], COVID-19 is now well established in Africa [8, 9]. Estimates of future deaths projected to be in millions, in Africa, because of general poverty, malnutrition, prevalence of diseases such as HIV and TB, constrained health services etc. [6, 10]. While the potential role of climate, demography, BCG and other vaccines, and weakness in the reporting system including low rate of testing could not be ruled out [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16], the relatively low number of cases seem to be in part because many African countries have taken swift, progressive, and adaptable responses despite resource limitations. Some studies indicate that, having garnered experience from several recent epidemics, Africa might have got it right after all [17] even though there is ‘no room for complacency’ [15, 18, 19].
Lockdown and social/physical distancing has been imposed in several countries. These and pandemic related pressures on the health system could have potentially unintended consequences including disruption of routine health services; widespread economic challenge and hunger; worsening food insecurity; and increased violence with major impact on health/mortality [20, 21]. Even though the basic principles of infection control are universal, their concrete applications should be context specific [22]. Decisions must be based on risk sciences and as thorough risk and cost–benefit analyses [23, 24]. There are indications that early interventions could avert substantial number of infections and deaths [25, 26]. Thus, governments and public health authorities must play a balancing role as the evidence does not indicate a simple trade-off between lives lost to the pandemic and economic recession related to response [27]. The bottom line is policies must be internationally coordinated, as WHO has called for since the disease has first appeared, and must recognize that neither abandoning control nor eternal lockdown are healthy options [10, 28, 29].
The Director General of the World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that the outbreak is a test of political, financial and scientific solidarity for the world to fight a common enemy that does not respect borders… what matters now is stopping the outbreak and saving lives [30]. However, this solidarity has failed to materialize to date because the pandemic has highlighted weaknesses in both ‘authoritarian’ and ‘democratic’ states with all trying to trade blames or downplay the danger for various reasons [4, 31, 32]. As compared to the previous pandemics, the current one shock the fabrics of society and threatens to change the course of history. As in previous pandemics, ‘public hysteria, fear, and conspiracy theories tend to derail public health responses’ [5]. ‘We Are Living in a Failed State’ – for USA no less [33] but also the world order is being seriously tested [34], with some predicting revolutions ‘re-inventing Communism’ or ‘a new barbarian capitalism’ [35]. The post-pandemic is going to be tough although it is considered as an opportunity to re-evaluate what we want to prioritize as a civilization [36]. Therefore, it is imperative that we prepare for it as we struggle through the current one.
Most predictions of the next pandemic had influenza in mind, even though other catastrophe such as asteroids, mega volcanic eruptions or coronal mass ejection (CME) cannot be ruled out. Influenza is a truly universal disease. No virus poses a greater threat to more people [37, 38]. It is only good fortune that we haven’t seen another pandemic as severe as 1918 [39]. It is almost a certainty that there will be another influenza or other (of the some hundreds of new coronavirus species and the 10,000 potentially zoonotic mammalian viruses) [40] pandemic of one magnitude/type or another [30, 37]. The world is more interconnected. Global travel, internal migration; and large-scale population displacement following natural disasters or conflicts has increased tremendously [41]; humans have seemingly ‘tipped the scales in favor of pathogens’ [5]. Ethiopian Airlines alone transported more than 10 million passengers in 2018, 21% more as compared to 2017 [42].
Bearing in mind that rarely has scientific provisions been as challenged as it is now even in the most developed countries, it is advisable to remember that medical scientists in general and tropical medicine specialists in particular ignore history at their peril [35, 39, 43]. So we should, as we struggle to control the current one, do so with preparation for the future in mind and hopefully break ‘the cycle of panic then forget’ since the first recorded pandemic [5, 44].
To date we have more tools at our disposal: better surveillance and diagnostic systems, stronger frameworks and regulations, such as the Global Health Security Agenda and Joint External Evaluations (JEE), and a deeper understanding of how diseases spread and what is needed to stop the spread of the virus [38, 41, 45]. So, what led to the near global chaos in the current pandemic was that, in spite of repeated warnings, the global community was ill prepared including the fact that lifesaving innovations are not reaching those who need them [29, 38, 41]. If the virus continues to spread throughout 2020, it will demonstrate in a very cruel way how well the public health systems of individual countries are functioning. These will be very important lessons in preparation for a future pandemic, which could be even more dangerous [46]. Already, attempts are being made to draw lessons from the various country experiences [47, 48]. Evidently, there is a political/economic dimension to pandemic preparedness. Epidemic preparedness is not beyond any country’s capacity although take proactive action remains a matter of political choice [38]. Uncannily, the COVID-19 pandemic began a few weeks after the end of PREDICT-2, the last-standing United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Emerging Pandemic Threats funding program, which supported a decade of virology, ecology, and epidemiology around the world [40].
As all low-income countries (LIC), Ethiopia is predicted to be heavily impacted by the current pandemic [49]. However, the force and united action garnered to fight the virus to recover from the COVID-19 economic losses and address the plethora of challenges that are impeding progress and sustainable development [50].
A global ‘governance crisis is unfolding’ [18]. While adjustments to the Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) declaration process might be warranted [51], the rule, as advised globally, should be to follow World Health Organization’s advice, end secrecy in decision-making and cooperate globally [24, 29, 52].
This should be done while resisting undue biologicalization/biomedical tunnel vision” (Thorp HH, 2020) of the disease or seeing the goal of containing COVID-19 as a purely technocratic or law-and-order problem and developing context-specific, ethical approach to physical distancing [8, 22].
This rapid review was undertaken to articulate ways to support the current efforts to mitigate COVID-19 pandemic, leverage current efforts to strengthen the health system including monitoring and surveillance systems for early detection, management of future such pandemic and leverage current effort to strengthen research and evidence generation.
We employed a rapid review of evidences in the forms of publications and reports on coronaviruses and associated policy and management. Although numerous evidences are available, some are to date non-conclusive and others were not relevant to the theme in question. The rapid review thus helps to scope fragmented, opinion-based, large scale and sometimes-contradictory resources for easy use.
We searched through reports as well research outcomes on PubMed, and Google Scholar databases employing the key terms: “COVID-19”, “SARS-CoV-2”, “corona virus”, and “viral infections”, post “COVID-19”. Additional resources from the databases and dashboards on the websites of relevant institutions and guidelines of international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI) were include as we saw it fit. The search period went as far back as 2016 to July 15, 2020.
Considering the broad scope of the theme under discussion, we maintained flexibility in terms of the documents that were eligible. Publications ranging from observational to experimental studies and from grey literatures to editorials and perspectives were included.
Data extraction and analysis included bringing together the evidences generated from different sources under current interventions and improving, leveraging the pandemic response to strengthen health systems, research and education. The research team comprising of four senior public health experts reviewed the contents of evidences separately to align them under defined categories.
The findings is presented following specific themes in line with the objectives of the review. As such, articulation of ways to support current effort to contain the pandemic, strengthening the health system including monitoring and surveillance systems for early detection and management of future such pandemic and research interest were the major themes under which the findings are summarized.
The immediate focus of all concerned should, understandably, be to support the country articulate better ways to move out of the current crisis with as limited damage as possible. Moving out of the current crisis will clearly be a whole-society/multi-sectoral effort as the pandemic will have major impact on the economic and social determinants of health [2, 49, 53]. Depending on measures taken, various outcomes are possible [54]. Experience show that pandemics hold several surprises and their control will require highly coordinated effort from all, scientists and policy makers in particular. WHO could strengthen the global effort by focusing on providing regularly updated recommendations from independent expert committees on preventive strategies and potential treatments for COVID-19; proposing universal and standardized ways of epidemiological data collection and reporting from countries. It could seek for ways of accelerating the evaluation, selection, and prequalification of diagnostic tests; consolidate information on COVID-19 vaccine research progress and work upstream with partners to ensure equitable access and affordability of therapeutics and vaccines as they become available. It could facilitate logistical coordination and supply of reagents, personal protective equipment, and potential treatments. Finally, it could support countries with fragile health systems to maintain continuity of routine health care, particularly for chronic diseases, and primary health care [29]. Since we currently have only non-pharmaceutical response measures, the involvement of social and behavioral scientists is critical [55]. Success in the science with strong political and social leadership determine which scenarios unfold, so it is time to focus on what we can all do to help [56].
In the health sector, this implies strengthening the primary health care (PHC) approach i.e. empowering people and communities; developing multisectoral policy and action for health; and strengthening and integrating health services, with good-quality primary care supported by essential public health functions at the core [22]. The aim should be to ‘crush the curve’ of the pandemic [57].
Mathematical projections/outbreak science has become the driving force behind the pandemic responses with growing calls to follow science including potential lessons from other risk science experiences [23]. However, we should bear in mind that mathematical models are useful exploration of questions are also dangerous way to assert answers. Various teams, primarily comprised of academic modelers, organized by, for example, the World Health Organization, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have been involved [58, 59]. Obviously, research does not get much more policy-relevant since governments across the globe relying on these projections [59]. However, there is yet a lot to be learned about how the virus spreads that the models should be constantly updated with increasing knowledge and information; a formidable task even with the best surveillance systems [60]. Because any single data type is likely to yield under- or over- estimate of the extent and spread of the disease, it is important to consider multiple data types and be cautious in relying on estimates without considering sources of bias [41]. Models (equation-based, agent-based …) are, at best, simplified representations of reality based on assumptions on the behaviors of the virus (reproductive rate, incubation period, death rate …), environmental/climate and individuals/societies including demographic composition and mobility [61, 62]. Even the best systems need regular updating and improvement based more on real data derived from epidemiologic investigations rather than assumptions [41, 63, 64]. In short, models should be used with prudence and we should ensure that modelling should not be considered with certainty than the models deserve; and politicians must not be allowed to offload accountability to models of their choosing.
In the Ethiopian context, the situation is compounded by the weak health management information system, diverse population and limited experience at modeling [65]. A recent modeling, for example (Figure 1), seems to clearly underestimate deaths by their won assumptions, leaving out possible deaths among those not hospitalized [66]. However, evidences reveal that majority of confirmed cases and deaths are from Addis Ababa.
Attempt at Modeling the COVID Pandemic for Ethiopia. (Source: Adapted from [
Countries are expected to develop their own estimates based on demographic and epidemiological characteristics and update them periodically as data/info improves while networking and learning from the various efforts elsewhere. Typically, repeated runs with varying inputs and assumptions are undertaken on several modes to avoid too much reliance on one mode [58]. The need, to develop the capacity to generate real-time, reliable, accessible and actionable data to empower leaders to act faster [42].
Based on experiences from the US, we should aim to change the health system by accelerating use of telemedicine; move away from traditional models of employer-based health insurance; move away from nursing homes; address health disparities and the social determinants of health; improve drugs affordability; increase local production of drugs; enhance epidemic preparedness with more task shifting and improved financial management [57].
Organizational structures vary from country to country [58] but, in the Ethiopian context, the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH), the Ethiopian Public Health Institute (EPHI), Regional Health Bureaus (RHB) etc. are destined to play the major role. It seems advisable to create a multi/interdisciplinary (epidemiologists, clinicians, health managers, social scientists, mathematicians …) team in 2–3 universities and establish network or even a National Infectious Disease Forecasting Center or revamp EPHI to play this role [42]. The network/center should have a direct link with policy makers, adequate funding and access to data during outbreaks. Models are only as robust as the data used to build them. In many settings, the infrastructure for collecting, collating, and cleaning high-quality data is underdeveloped [58]. The network/center could attempt to create one data bank; the aim being to achieve precision public health which requires robust primary surveillance data, rapid application of sophisticated analytics to track the geographical distribution of disease, and the capacity to act on such information. It could also join the WHO Global Research and Innovation Forum [30, 62]. Its term of reference (TOR) could include other non-epidemic issues see, for example, BARDA, CDC Health Economics and Modeling Unit; The Research and Policy for Infectious Disease Dynamics (RAPIDD) group in the Fogarty International Center at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), The International Initiative on Spatial Life course Epidemiology (ISLE) which could serve as possible contacts. Collaboration with other (neighboring) African countries should be promoted [42, 62]. It is also important to consolidate training in field epidemiology and outbreak science methodologies [58] and, remember that no public-health research is complete until the key findings are effectively communicated and, ideally, implemented [67].
The experience to date has, if need be, taught us the importance of timely, honest, credible, empathetic, informative and balanced information as lack of information can become misinformation and lead to untowardly consequences [23, 27, 32]. Even ensuring clear and effective communication with staff and students in higher education systems could prove challenging [68]. Credible sources such as religious or community leaders should be identified and engaged as appropriate. Attention should be paid to ‘infodemic’, the misinformation type – i.e., conspiracy theories, fake news etc. - in particular, on messenger apps and social media which could harm public health and put millions of lives at risk [55, 69].
The information should be conveyed using local context and vernacular languages and as jargon free as possible, making science accessible [67]. It should avoid language [that] creates a public health discourse that seems reactive rather than proactive, reductive rather than holistic, disempowering rather than empowering [70]. This has proved a slippery ground even under seemingly more auspicious circumstances that leads to increasing erosion of trust in science [71, 72]. There is, therefore, need to be especially careful to communicate transparent information about our capabilities, uncertainties, disagreements or agreements and being trustworthy including on vaccines indicated areas for improvement [73, 74]. A study in a major town, after less than two weeks of the outbreak in Ethiopia shows widespread misconceptions about the pandemic [75]. There have also been calls to make full use of digital technologies but their limitations in deprived areas, where access to the internet is relatively scarce, patients have little digital literacy, and language barriers abound should be factored [9, 76, 77].
Innovations are required in testing, contact tracing, treatments, vaccines, policies for opening up since no single system can capture all parameters of the pandemic, multiple, complementary surveillance systems should be implemented [78].
Testing - for diagnosis and clinical management or for surveillance and outbreak control - is critical but countries such as Ethiopia are facing a daunting task because of limited facilities, testing kits, reagents etc. The case reports are likely to be an underestimate as, by mid-March, Ethiopia has carried out only about 11,000 tests/10 for every 100,000 people compared to, for example, about 280 for South Africa, 2,000 for Australia and 1,560 for the United States [42]. Ethiopia has, thus, a long way to go to reach testing levels recommended by WHO. There are indications that global solidarity has faltered as market restrictions are being imposed by a number of countries [32]. Ethiopia, as for other African countries, should plan for its own quality assurance of diagnostic tests, drugs, and vaccines production, including antibody and nano-technology based testing [79, 80]. These could be along the lines of the Africa CDC initiative of Partnership to Accelerate COVID-19 Testing (PACT) and the Ethiopian Food and Drug Authority (EFDA) Digital Health Activity (DHA) system. It should also explore the potentials of pooled testing in the Ethiopian context [42, 81].
For contact tracing, Ethiopia should bolster its relatively strong community level services by mobilizing health extension workers (HEW), health development army (HDA), model families etc. [65, 82] using tested epidemic models and experiences in other settings [77, 83]. It could enhance this by using digital technology, ‘coronavirus apps’ – with due attention to privacy and other pitfalls [84, 85] not only for contact tracing but also for testing, isolation and physical/social distancing [86]. Overall, control of the pandemic will require action at the individual, community, and population levels as recent data show that asymptomatic cases could play a major role in transmission.
Evidence shows that strict implementation of physical distancing, optimum use of face masks, respirators, and eye protection in public and health-care settings provide, in spite of some contextual challenges, high levels of protection against transmission [26, 87]. A systematic review and meta-analysis [88]. Mobility/lockdown restrictions could have variable results depending on areas – high for retail and recreational areas and transit stations but could be challenged by lockdown fatigue or the practicalities of daily living [89].
The development of safe and effective vaccine, including the potential use of vaccines for other diseases such as BCG and polio, is a priority [12, 14]. In terms of personal protection equipment (PPE) for care providers in particular, treatments – which seem to be a long shot, country specific guideline should be developed as well as strengthen inter-African collaboration policies for opening up etc. [87]. Access pool and to categorize Covid-19 vaccines as ‘global good’ and GAVI’s Covax Advance Market Commitment and other initiatives, the temptation to prioritize producer countries will be high. As often seen, the potential of selfish gain trumping over collective good is high [39].
Vaccine hesitancy has, to date, been low in Ethiopia [90], but measures should be taken to ward off the global trend of vaccine hesitancy and politicization [73, 91]. Measures should also be taken to strengthen the vaccine delivery system as whether new or already in use, is only as effective as the system that provides it.
Ethiopia’s health care system, already highly limited, will be extremely strained by the response to the pandemic [65]. As in other LIC, there are already signs that essential services such as immunizations, reproductive health etc. could be sidelined for various reasons with dire consequences [15, 22, 92, 93].
There are also indications that the pandemic could affect pregnancy outcomes and, in general, exacerbate social inequalities in health [94]. Therefore, ensuring access to basic support water, sanitation, and hygiene to most vulnerable ones is important [15, 56, 95, 96, 97, 98]. The system should also improve quality of care including improved supply chain, adopt improved technology for delivery of health care for new therapies and roll out vaccines as soon as they become available including mitigating potential hesitancies based on already mounting misinformation [99, 100].
COVID-19 is menacing the whole of humanity and so the whole of humanity must fight back. Individual country responses are not going to be enough [9]. As Bill Gates put it some 3 years ago, ‘What the world needs – and what our safety, if not survival, demands – is a coordinated global approach. Specifically, we need better tools, an early detection system, and a global response system’ [101]. UN agencies at all levels (local, national, continental and international) and across all disciplines and sectors, WHO in particular, should lead in forging partnerships. All stakeholders in Africa, the AU and CDC Africa in particular, should contribute towards a unified continent-wide anti-COVID-19 Strategy [10].
The post-pandemic demands on the health care, because of increases in chronic mental or physical health conditions, are bound to exacerbate the burden on the system – the solution of which may benefit future such challenges [36, 102]. The resources mobilized to control the current pandemic and others could contribute to strengthen the health system in general and in preparation of future pandemics in particular [9, 49]. We should always have in mind the adage that when it comes to fighting infectious diseases, the best offense is a strong defense [103]. Strengthening implies helping the country ‘prepare for pandemics the way the military prepares for war’. This includes simulations and other preparedness exercises so we can better understand how diseases will spread and how to deal with things like quarantine and communications to minimize panic [101]. Various forms of health system for outbreaks preparedness are critical for considerations.
Strong monitoring and surveillance system implies adequate number of contact tracers, adoption of the one health approach and improved laboratory and technical capacities including digital technology [9, 104]. The country’s laboratory and technical capacities are highly limited even for routine health care provision calling for major effort will be required to ensure universal access [65].
As mentioned above Ethiopia’s health system is, as for Africa in general, under-resourced and unprepared to withstand the onslaught of pandemics [105]. Investing in strong health systems is our best bet to protect ourselves and stop local outbreaks before they turn into global pandemics [103]. This would mean improving availability, access and quality of services i.e. progress towards UHC which could face challenges in the post pandemic period [106]. Experiences from similar events, developing Community Care Centers (CCC) within Health Posts could be attempted [107]. Besides, remote shared care delivery’ such as shared medical appointments (SMAs) could be adapted to the Ethiopian context [108].
A strong and capable health workforce, including sufficient numbers of adequately trained critical-care physicians is required for appropriate response [87]. As compared to most African countries, Ethiopia has major health workforce crisis and, even though dented by recent ‘flooding strategy’, the workforce remains inadequate and of dubious quality.
‘The challenge for humans is to learn as much about influenza viruses as these viruses have already learned about us’. Higher education and research institutions should play a major role in this learning process and in helping to shape the post-COVID-19 world [110]. In conjunction with health research institutions, it should make meaningful contribution to this as all countries need to develop strong and sustainable core capacities at the intersection of health systems and research i.e., proactive, empowered and coordinated research committed to fair and equitable access [30]. Hence, there is good reason to support priority research agenda that leads to the development of sustainable global research platforms pre-prepared for the next disease X epidemic. This will allow for accelerated research, innovative solutions and Research and Development of diagnostics, therapeutics and vaccines, as well as the timely and equitable access to these life-saving tools for those at highest risk [38]. Even before the pandemic, universities, ‘sinking ships’?, were facing several challenges. These could be exacerbated by the post-pandemic situation. Thus, as indicated for US public universities, universities must not just adapt but lead with new models to resolve/mitigate current and future challenges and optimally use opportunities [68, 111, 112]. But, to date, in spite of the national commitment to evidence based development, the Ethiopian higher education and research institutions have contributed little and the prospects could be grim if, as projected and in line with historical trends during economic downturns universities come out of the pandemic weakened [90, 113, 114, 115, 116]. One way to avert this could be to leverage the national and international/global solidarity that will be galvanized in response to the pandemic to strengthen university labs, develop research universities, forge partnerships and garner sustainable funding. In line with this, it is important to strengthen the labs in the universities and create strong coordination with other labs in the country to enhance tests and participate in sero-epidemiological studies [116, 117].
‘Research universities’1 would serve as resource centers for prioritizing and effective translation of science into both operational and policy action with the objective is to make a difference [38, 118, 119]. In short, paraphrasing what has been indicated in a different context, universities with ‘civic values, openness, and societal relevance’, where financing is [no longer] the leading factor, but one where contributing to the world beyond forms a leitmotif for actions [111]. They would guide policy decision including mathematical projections; developing surveillance, diagnostics, primary health care, and effective health security measures; assessing and promoting the potential role of traditional medicine/control measures and other essential topics [2, 59, 120].
Educators, policy-makers, employers and investors must urgently give thought to what a post-COVID world should look like and what role higher education institutions must play to make that world a reality. In short, they should serve as resource centers to inform policy in general and on how to maintain a cohesive and good-quality learning environment if and when the next pandemic, recession or natural disaster occurs [121].
They will also contribute to strengthening, in particular, the staff of the growing number of (new) higher education institutions thus promoting beneficial interactions with senior peers and mitigating the impact on the quality of an already highly challenged education system [45]. Projections in other settings indicate that the post pandemic period will generally need greater access to higher education and vocational training programs, probably including a more online experience with blended learning [121, 122]. All these will require thought-through solutions ensuring meaningful research impact and ‘reconciling the needs of scientists and society at large.
As is the case for health services, ‘research universities’ in particular, should forge partnerships at all levels (local, national, continental and international), and across all disciplines and sectors. There are indications that the pandemic may foster good, even though limited in Africa, relation between the higher education community and governments [68]. In the short term, this could mean tapping into the relatively high reactive research funding [112]. Partnerships could include the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), the African Research Universities Alliance (ARUA), the African CDC, the Guild of European Research-Intensive Universities (the Guild), Diaspora scientists etc. This implies applying ‘the all-of-government and all-of-society approaches’ recommended by WHO [7, 123, 124]. The potential of S-N-S/South–North–South triangulation should be explored [125]. The establishment of a scientific coordinating committee incorporating health/medicine, social sciences, mathematics/technology, One Health/human-animal-environment interface [38] etc. with focus on the multi-inter and trans-disciplinary, applied and context/country specific health policy and systems research (HPSR) for which Ethiopia is among leaders in LIC should also be explored [126].
‘Innovation does not happen by chance. It has to be nurtured and funded’ [127]. Efforts to raise research grants from various sources are left to individual staff members instead of the institutions as a whole. Sustainable success will only be achieved if these efforts are supplemented and scaled up by the state and industry and are duly documented and synergized.
The unique feature of the current pandemic is its unprecedented global coverage as compared to several other flu-like outbreaks. Although case fatality is still incomparable to the Spanish flu of 1918, this pandemic could yet to cost human life and jeopardize global economies as well as impact the social and political landscape of individual countries. Although the pandemic has posed so much challenge, it could also offer opportunities to reassess the health system and improve on how it could readily respond to such pandemics, improve research and education in health sciences to develop competencies and evidences to respond to outbreaks of different size. While countries are to align their effort to contain the pandemic, commensurate measure should be taken to prevent and manage potential similar pandemics in the future. Globally, COVID-19 offered an opportunity for human beings across the world to recognize such outbreaks do not discriminate by geography, economy, political system and socio-cultural backgrounds. As such, human beings across the world are expected to see for mechanisms to strengthen global solidarity, align efforts to contain post COVID-19 implications as well as to prevent and manage similar pandemics in the future. Such lessons are particularly outstanding for Africa and Ethiopia where the health system is not as strong and prepared to such unexpected pandemic. African leaders may have drawn as much lesson to better articulate plans on how to respond to emerging pandemics, review its health system to preposition for such pandemic and improved mechanisms put in place to generate evidence use for planning to respond.
There was no conflict of interest.
Funding was not available for this undertaking.
There was no ethical implication of this activity and no informed consent was sought.
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Mokhtari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8979.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9983",title:"Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ce1f62165377d01892a7c7f1b17e43c9",slug:"flood-impact-mitigation-and-resilience-enhancement",bookSignature:"Guangwei Huang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9983.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"262657",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangwei",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"guangwei-huang",fullName:"Guangwei Huang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6018",title:"Flood Risk Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e1c40b989aeffdd119ee3876621fa35d",slug:"flood-risk-management",bookSignature:"Theodore Hromadka and Prasada Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181008",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore V.",middleName:"V.",surname:"Hromadka II",slug:"theodore-v.-hromadka-ii",fullName:"Theodore V. Hromadka II"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3507",title:"Natural Disasters",subtitle:"Multifaceted Aspects in Management and Impact Assessment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3608e266119f43880a9067fc25deaa4c",slug:"natural-disasters-multifaceted-aspects-in-management-and-impact-assessment",bookSignature:"Olga Petrucci",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3507.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76678",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Petrucci",slug:"olga-petrucci",fullName:"Olga Petrucci"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"55645",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68677",title:"Strategies for Testing the Impact of Natural Flood Risk Management Measures",slug:"strategies-for-testing-the-impact-of-natural-flood-risk-management-measures",totalDownloads:1881,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Natural Flood Management (NFM) is an approach that seeks to work with natural processes to enhance the flood regulating capacity of a catchment, whilst delivering a wide range of ecosystem services, from pollution assimilation to habitat creation and carbon storage. This chapter describes a tiered approach to NFM, commencing with strategic modelling to identify a range of NFM opportunities (tree-planting, distributed runoff attenuation features, and soil structure improvements), and their potential benefits, before engagement with catchment partners, and prioritisation of areas for more detailed hydrological modelling and uncertainty analysis. NFM measures pose some fundamental challenges in modelling their contribution to flood risk management because they are often highly distributed, can influence multiple catchment processes, and evidence for their effectiveness at the large scale is uncertain. This demands we model the ‘upstream’ in more detail so that we can assess the effectiveness of many small-scale changes at the large-scale. We demonstrate an approach to address these challenges employing the fast, high resolution, fully-distributed inundation model JFLOW, and visualisation of potential benefits in map form. These are used to engage catchment managers who can prioritise areas for potential deployment of NFM measures, where more detailed modelling may be targeted. We then demonstrate a framework applying the semi-distributed Dynamic TOPMODEL in which uncertainty plays an integral role in the decision-making process.",book:{id:"6018",slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Barry Hankin, Peter Metcalfe, David Johnson, Nick A. Chappell,\nTrevor Page, Iain Craigen, Rob Lamb and Keith Beven",authors:[{id:"203276",title:"Dr.",name:"Barry",middleName:null,surname:"Hankin",slug:"barry-hankin",fullName:"Barry Hankin"}]},{id:"55369",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68924",title:"One- and Two-Dimensional Hydrological Modelling and Their Uncertainties",slug:"one-and-two-dimensional-hydrological-modelling-and-their-uncertainties",totalDownloads:2764,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Earth processes, which occur in land, air and ocean in different environment and at different scales, are very complex. Flooding is also a part of the complex processes, which need to be assessed accurately to know the accurate spatial and temporal changes of flooding and their causes. Hydrological modelling has been used by several researchers in river and floodplain modelling for flood analysis. In this chapter, factors affecting flash flood, possible options of basic input parameters in one- and two-dimensional hydrological models in data sparse environment, some case studies and uncertainty in hydrological modelling were discussed. This discussion will help the readers to understand the flooding factors, selection of input parameters in data sparse environment, a brief insight of one- and two-dimensional hydrological models and uncertainties in their input and model parameters and model structures.",book:{id:"6018",slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Mohd Talha Anees, Khiruddin Abdullah, Mohd Nawawi Mohd\nNordin, Nik Norulaini Nik Ab Rahman, Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir\nand Mohd. Omar Abdul Kadir",authors:[{id:"11196",title:"Dr.",name:"Khiruddin",middleName:null,surname:"Abdullah",slug:"khiruddin-abdullah",fullName:"Khiruddin Abdullah"},{id:"151303",title:"Prof.",name:"Nik Norulaini",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Rahman",slug:"nik-norulaini-ab-rahman",fullName:"Nik Norulaini Ab Rahman"},{id:"151344",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Kadir",slug:"mohd-omar-ab-kadir",fullName:"Mohd Omar Ab Kadir"},{id:"201647",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohd Talha",middleName:null,surname:"Anees",slug:"mohd-talha-anees",fullName:"Mohd Talha Anees"},{id:"203217",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Nawawi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Nordin",slug:"mohd-nawawi-mohd-nordin",fullName:"Mohd Nawawi Mohd Nordin"},{id:"203218",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Izzuddin",middleName:null,surname:"Syakir Ishak",slug:"muhammad-izzuddin-syakir-ishak",fullName:"Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir Ishak"}]},{id:"55735",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69139",title:"Understanding Flood Risk Management in Asia: Concepts and Challenges",slug:"understanding-flood-risk-management-in-asia-concepts-and-challenges",totalDownloads:1982,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"In this chapter, an attempt is made to review the behavior of flood in Asian region and mechanism of flood risk management adopted among Asian nations. Flood is the most frequent natural disaster at present and vulnerability is widespread across the globe. Though, Asian region is on a knife-edge. Distribution of natural disasters in Asia followed by economic damage and human killing is illustrated in this chapter. In addition, discourse of China, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nepal, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka on flood risk management is examined. Flood risk management policies framed by these nations over the period of time are synthesized. Research and investment on forecasting, planning, preparedness, assessment, evaluation, and mitigation of flood risk are explained. This synthesis can present a pathway for better response and flood management for debated Asian countries through filling the identified policy gaps. This chapter also urges a need of holistic and inter-countries research and cross country analysis followed by increased funding for sustainable management of risk.",book:{id:"6018",slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Saleem Ashraf, Muhammad Luqman, Muhammad Iftikhar, Ijaz\nAshraf and Zakaria Yousaf Hassan",authors:[{id:"202027",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saleem",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-saleem-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Saleem Ashraf"}]},{id:"72571",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93069",title:"Challenges and Technical Advances in Flood Early Warning Systems (FEWSs)",slug:"challenges-and-technical-advances-in-flood-early-warning-systems-fewss-",totalDownloads:721,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Flood early warning systems (FEWSs)—one of the most common flood-impact mitigation measures—are currently in operation globally. The UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) strongly advocates for an increase in their availability to reach the targets of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Comprehensive FEWS consists of four components, which includes (1) risk knowledge, (2) monitoring and forecasting, (3) warning, dissemination, and communication, and (4) response capabilities. Operational FEWSs have varying levels of complexity, depending on available data, adopted technology, and know-how. There are apparent differences in sophistication between FEWSs in developed countries that have the financial capabilities, technological infrastructure, and human resources and developing countries where FEWSs tend to be less advanced. Fortunately, recent advances in remote sensing, artificial intelligence (AI), information technologies, and social media are leading to significant changes in the mechanisms of FEWSs and provide the opportunity for all FEWSs to gain additional capability. These technologies are an opportunity for developing countries to overcome the technical limitations that FEWSs have faced so far. This chapter aims to discuss the challenges in FEWSs in brief and exposes technological advances and their benefits in flood forecasting and disaster mitigation.",book:{id:"9983",slug:"flood-impact-mitigation-and-resilience-enhancement",title:"Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement",fullTitle:"Flood Impact Mitigation and Resilience Enhancement"},signatures:"Duminda Perera, Ousmane Seidou, Jetal Agnihotri, Hamid Mehmood and Mohamed Rasmy",authors:null},{id:"45003",doi:"10.5772/55472",title:"Impact of Hurricane Katrina on the Louisiana HIV/AIDS Epidemic: A Socio-Ecological Perspective",slug:"impact-of-hurricane-katrina-on-the-louisiana-hiv-aids-epidemic-a-socio-ecological-perspective",totalDownloads:1933,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"3507",slug:"natural-disasters-multifaceted-aspects-in-management-and-impact-assessment",title:"Natural Disasters",fullTitle:"Natural Disasters - Multifaceted Aspects in Management and Impact Assessment"},signatures:"William T. Robinson",authors:[{id:"161386",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Robinson",slug:"william-robinson",fullName:"William Robinson"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56370",title:"Flood Risk Management in Mexico",slug:"flood-risk-management-in-mexico",totalDownloads:1635,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Mexico receives an average annual rainfall of 740 mm, which are distributed in the hydrological cycle as follows: 72% evapotranspiration, 21% becomes runoff and 6% as aquifer recharge. Within the Mexican territory, exist a great diversity of climates and high spatial and temporal variability in water resources availability. In the period 2000–2015, damages from hydrometeorological phenomena in Mexico represented between 60 and 99% of total damages and losses at national level due to natural and socioorganizational events. Considering global climate change impact on the selection, design and implementation of flood control measures, represents a major challenge, since the level of certainty regarding its influence on the variables involved, remains insufficient. This chapter provides a description of the main elements directly linked to flooding in México, such as a high spatial and temporal variability in water resources availability and presence of tropical cyclones in both coasts and climate change. A brief summary of the main disasters caused by hydrometeorological phenomena, the annual cost of the damages, the main non‐structural measures for flood control and the intervention from the Mexican Institute of Water Technology in the use, development and spread of technology focused on flood risk management are also included.",book:{id:"6018",slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Felipe I. Arreguín-Cortés and Claudia Elizabeth Cervantes-Jaimes",authors:[{id:"203037",title:"Dr.",name:"Felipe I.",middleName:null,surname:"Arreguin-Cortés",slug:"felipe-i.-arreguin-cortes",fullName:"Felipe I. Arreguin-Cortés"},{id:"204319",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Claudia Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Cervantes-Jaimes",slug:"claudia-elizabeth-cervantes-jaimes",fullName:"Claudia Elizabeth Cervantes-Jaimes"}]},{id:"55369",title:"One- and Two-Dimensional Hydrological Modelling and Their Uncertainties",slug:"one-and-two-dimensional-hydrological-modelling-and-their-uncertainties",totalDownloads:2763,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Earth processes, which occur in land, air and ocean in different environment and at different scales, are very complex. Flooding is also a part of the complex processes, which need to be assessed accurately to know the accurate spatial and temporal changes of flooding and their causes. Hydrological modelling has been used by several researchers in river and floodplain modelling for flood analysis. In this chapter, factors affecting flash flood, possible options of basic input parameters in one- and two-dimensional hydrological models in data sparse environment, some case studies and uncertainty in hydrological modelling were discussed. This discussion will help the readers to understand the flooding factors, selection of input parameters in data sparse environment, a brief insight of one- and two-dimensional hydrological models and uncertainties in their input and model parameters and model structures.",book:{id:"6018",slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Mohd Talha Anees, Khiruddin Abdullah, Mohd Nawawi Mohd\nNordin, Nik Norulaini Nik Ab Rahman, Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir\nand Mohd. Omar Abdul Kadir",authors:[{id:"11196",title:"Dr.",name:"Khiruddin",middleName:null,surname:"Abdullah",slug:"khiruddin-abdullah",fullName:"Khiruddin Abdullah"},{id:"151303",title:"Prof.",name:"Nik Norulaini",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Rahman",slug:"nik-norulaini-ab-rahman",fullName:"Nik Norulaini Ab Rahman"},{id:"151344",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Kadir",slug:"mohd-omar-ab-kadir",fullName:"Mohd Omar Ab Kadir"},{id:"201647",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohd Talha",middleName:null,surname:"Anees",slug:"mohd-talha-anees",fullName:"Mohd Talha Anees"},{id:"203217",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Nawawi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Nordin",slug:"mohd-nawawi-mohd-nordin",fullName:"Mohd Nawawi Mohd Nordin"},{id:"203218",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Izzuddin",middleName:null,surname:"Syakir Ishak",slug:"muhammad-izzuddin-syakir-ishak",fullName:"Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir Ishak"}]},{id:"55139",title:"Estimating Flood Quantiles on the Basis of Multi-Event Rainfall Simulation",slug:"estimating-flood-quantiles-on-the-basis-of-multi-event-rainfall-simulation",totalDownloads:1436,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter provides an insight into a new approach to estimating the flood quantiles based on rainfall-runoff modelling using multiple rainfall events. The approach is based on the prior knowledge about the probability distribution of annual maximum daily totals of rainfall in catchments, random disaggregation of the totals into hourly values and rainfall-runoff modelling. The new presented method called MESEF (Multi-Event Simulation of Extreme Flood) combines design event method based on single-rainfall event modelling and continuous simulation method used for estimating the maximum discharges of a given exceedance probability using rainfall-runoff models. The MESEF method considers varied moisture conditions in model catchment before the occurrence of rainfalls. To verify the efficiency of the proposed method, a comparison was carried out between the values of flood quantiles estimated by the MESEF method and the flood quantiles estimated by direct method. The proposed approach was tested in two catchments in the Upper Vistula River basin. The results of the MESEF method in both catchments were satisfactory; however, in order to verify its effectiveness, more research is needed within catchments of diverse features and landscape. Special attention should be paid to the proportion of moisture conditions that is a crucial factor in future use of the MESEF method in uncontrolled catchments.",book:{id:"6018",slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Elżbieta Jarosińska and Katarzyna Pierzga",authors:[{id:"202772",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Elżbieta",middleName:null,surname:"Jarosińska",slug:"elzbieta-jarosinska",fullName:"Elżbieta Jarosińska"},{id:"202833",title:"MSc.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Pierzga",slug:"katarzyna-pierzga",fullName:"Katarzyna Pierzga"}]},{id:"55735",title:"Understanding Flood Risk Management in Asia: Concepts and Challenges",slug:"understanding-flood-risk-management-in-asia-concepts-and-challenges",totalDownloads:1982,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"In this chapter, an attempt is made to review the behavior of flood in Asian region and mechanism of flood risk management adopted among Asian nations. Flood is the most frequent natural disaster at present and vulnerability is widespread across the globe. Though, Asian region is on a knife-edge. Distribution of natural disasters in Asia followed by economic damage and human killing is illustrated in this chapter. In addition, discourse of China, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nepal, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka on flood risk management is examined. Flood risk management policies framed by these nations over the period of time are synthesized. Research and investment on forecasting, planning, preparedness, assessment, evaluation, and mitigation of flood risk are explained. This synthesis can present a pathway for better response and flood management for debated Asian countries through filling the identified policy gaps. This chapter also urges a need of holistic and inter-countries research and cross country analysis followed by increased funding for sustainable management of risk.",book:{id:"6018",slug:"flood-risk-management",title:"Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Saleem Ashraf, Muhammad Luqman, Muhammad Iftikhar, Ijaz\nAshraf and Zakaria Yousaf Hassan",authors:[{id:"202027",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saleem",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-saleem-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Saleem Ashraf"}]},{id:"71247",title:"Dealing with Local Tsunami on Pakistan Coast",slug:"dealing-with-local-tsunami-on-pakistan-coast",totalDownloads:623,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Tsunami originating from a local source can arrive at Pakistan coastline within minutes. In the absence of a comprehensive and well-coordinated management plan, the fast-approaching tsunami might wreak havoc on the coast. To combat such a threat, a wide range of short- and long-term mitigation measures are needed to be taken by several government and private sector organizations as well as security agencies. Around 1000-km coastline is divided administratively into two provinces of Baluchistan and Sindh and further into seven districts. Most of the coastal communities were severely affected by an earthquake of magnitude 8+ on 28 November 1945 followed by a devastating tsunami. In contrast to the level of posed hazard and multiple-fold increase in vulnerabilities since then, the risk mitigation efforts are trivial and least coordinated. It is important to provide stakeholders with a set of prerequisite information and guidelines on standardized format to develop their organizational strategies and course of action for earthquake and tsunami risk mitigation in a well-coordinated manner, from local to the national level.",book:{id:"8979",slug:"tsunami-damage-assessment-and-medical-triage",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - Damage Assessment and Medical Triage"},signatures:"Ghazala Naeem",authors:[{id:"193736",title:"Ms.",name:"Ghazala",middleName:null,surname:"Naeem",slug:"ghazala-naeem",fullName:"Ghazala Naeem"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"665",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81241",title:"Physiological and Molecular Adaptation of Sugarcane under Drought vis-a-vis Root System Traits",slug:"physiological-and-molecular-adaptation-of-sugarcane-under-drought-vis-a-vis-root-system-traits",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103795",abstract:"Among various abiotic stresses, water is reported as a rare entity in many parts of the world. Decreased frequency of precipitation and global temperature rise will further aggravate the situation in future. Being C4 plant, sugarcane requires generous water for the proper growth. Plant root system primarily supports above-ground growth by anchoring in the soil and facilitates water and nutrients uptake from the soil. The plasticity and dynamic nature of roots endow plants for the uptake of vital nutrients from the soil even under soil moisture conditions. In sugarcane, the major part of root system are generally observed in the upper soil layers, while limited water availability shifts the root growth towards the lower soil layer to sustained water uptake. In addition, root traits are directly related to physiological traits of the shoot to cope up with water limited situations via reduction in stomatal conductance and an upsurge in density and deep root traits, adaptations at biochemical and molecular level which includes osmotic adjustment and ROS detoxification. Under stressed conditions, these complex interactive systems adjust homeo-statically to minimize the adverse impacts of stress and sustain balanced metabolism. Therefore, the present chapter deals with physiological and biochemical traits along with root traits that helps for better productivity of sugarcane under water-limited conditions.",book:{id:"11131",title:"Drought - Impacts and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11131.jpg"},signatures:"Pooja Dhansu, Arun Kumar Raja, Krishnapriya Vengavasi, Ravinder Kumar, Adhini S. Pazhany, Ashwani Kumar, Naresh Kumar, Anita Mann and Shashi Kant Pandey"},{id:"79973",title:"Impacts of Drought on Homestead Plant Diversity in Barind Tract of Bangladesh",slug:"impacts-of-drought-on-homestead-plant-diversity-in-barind-tract-of-bangladesh",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101885",abstract:"Homestead is a great place for household food access, diet, and nutrition. Drought affects homestead plant diversity and reduces production, availability, and diversity that lead toward less supply and consumption. Drought detains moisture and degrades the soil that supports plant growth. Homestead provides regular bread and income in the rural areas with an effective means for both economic and environmental well-being. People are getting a good amount of subsidiary income without any extra care and effort. In managing homestead land and drought, the household needs necessary technical and managerial training. In reducing drought effects to the homestead, action research needs to be carried out on available knowledge, effective practices, water management, and the adoption of local varieties and knowledge to develop effective homestead integration. Government initiatives, community engagement and not harming the environment, and efficient uses of water could be great solutions for the adverse effects of drought on the homestead plant diversity.",book:{id:"11131",title:"Drought - Impacts and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11131.jpg"},signatures:"Md. Shafiqul Islam and Md. Nazrul Islam Mukul"},{id:"82110",title:"Hydrological Drought Index Based on Discharge",slug:"hydrological-drought-index-based-on-discharge",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104625",abstract:"Drought is a natural phenomenon causing disasters and its period of occurrence can be predicted in recent times based on several methods using the same or different variables. The prediction is usually associated with the climate interactions in the form of rainfall or discharge patterns which can be analyzed using the return period. Therefore, this research was conducted in four different stages of data acquisition and validation, drought analysis method based on the data, drought prediction method based on hydrology, and sample applications to determine the debit availability in other watersheds. Historical rainfall data converted to dependable rainfall at 80% probability were used as input for the rainfall-discharge analysis while the hydrological drought analysis was conducted using the drought threshold value. Moreover, the drought was predicted using an artificial neural network model while historical data were used to verify the hydrological character of the prediction model. The results of the analysis conducted were further used to predict the water balance in different river areas due to the fact that each area has a different hydrological character. Meanwhile, the watersheds used as case research showed that the model has reliability of up to 80%.",book:{id:"11131",title:"Drought - Impacts and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11131.jpg"},signatures:"R. Rintis Hadiani, Bambang Suharto, Agus Suharyanto and Suhardjono"},{id:"81203",title:"Climate Change: A Real Danger to Human and Animal Survival",slug:"climate-change-a-real-danger-to-human-and-animal-survival",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103022",abstract:"Some countries in Southern Africa where hit by either a storm or cyclone or both in 2019 alone manifesting a changing climate. Infrastructure and cropping land was destroyed, both animal and human lives were lost due to the flooding events. Drought is a common phenomenon in this region, often occurring once in three years. This has affected food, feed and nutritional security of both humans and livestock. Saline soils unsuitable for agriculture, other animal and plant life are expanding fast due to insufficient precipitation. Soil degradation is on the rise, leaving soils with poor water holding capacity to support sustainable agriculture. Climate change is changing the environment and new pests and diseases for both crops and livestock are emerging. World governments, industries and general populace should find better ways of reducing air pollution by greenhouse gases which have a net effect of damaging the ozone layer and increasing atmospheric temperatures. At the same time, plant and animal breeding should aim at improving crop cultivars and animal breeds that resist to the constraints such as drought and heat stress brought by climate change. The human population is increasing at an alarming rate and need both food and nutritional security.",book:{id:"11131",title:"Drought - Impacts and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11131.jpg"},signatures:"Godwill Makunde, Nation Chikumba, Walter Svinurai and Xavier Mhike"},{id:"81810",title:"Water Shortages: Cause of Water Safety in Sub-Saharan Africa",slug:"water-shortages-cause-of-water-safety-in-sub-saharan-africa",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103927",abstract:"This chapter highlights a high rate of water crisis across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) despite its huge hydro-potential. Factors contributing to water stress include rainfall deficit and drought, increased water requirements, population growth, urbanization, and poverty. Coupled with the uneven distribution of water resources and mismanagement of water facilities, the gap between the demand for water and available supply has deepened. This has led almost half of the SSA population to drink water from unprotected sources. Moreover, many millions travel far distances and spend several hours daily to collect water. Children and women are mainly involved in water collection. The growing scarcity of water in Africa has a negative impact on economic growth. Besides, water shortages are at the heart of many social crises in SSA and have become directly or indirectly the first cause of death in Africa linked to waterborne diseases. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. 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He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"