Model Inputs
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5464",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Salmonella and Salmonellosis",title:"Current Topics in Salmonella and Salmonellosis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The genus Salmonella comprises an important number of bacterial species able to colonize and infect numerous animal species and humans. Although more than a hundred years passed since its discovery, Salmonella still represents a redoubtable and successful microorganism, difficult to deal with. Whether we discuss about typhoid fever or food poisoning, the public health and financial consequences are practically incalculable. The costs attributable to Salmonella contamination of meat, eggs, and vegetables are also very high worldwide. Antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella isolates is an emerging threat not only in humans, and special measures should be addressed to this global problem. The book Current Topics in Salmonella and Salmonellosis contains a series of reviews about all-important issues concerning these subjects. It comprises 14 chapters grouped in 4 sections emphasizing new insights into pathogenesis, bacterial detection and antibiotic resistance, infections in animals, risk factors, and control strategies. The new genomic data and the exhaustive presentation of molecular pathogenesis bring novelty to the book and can help to improve our knowledge about Salmonella-induced diseases.",isbn:"978-953-51-3066-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3065-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4883-8",doi:"10.5772/63008",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"current-topics-in-salmonella-and-salmonellosis",numberOfPages:284,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"932d68f1e681828a86223fc041723e5a",bookSignature:"Mihai Mares",publishedDate:"April 5th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5464.jpg",numberOfDownloads:24704,numberOfWosCitations:45,numberOfCrossrefCitations:43,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:77,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:165,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 19th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 14th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 12th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/88785/images/system/88785.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mihai Mareș received his Ph.D. degree in Microbiology at Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy from Iași-Romania (2005) and had postgraduate training at University VII Denis-Diderot, Pasteur Institute, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, École du Val-de-Grâce - Paris (France), Complutense University – Madrid (Spain), Instituto de Salud Global - Barcelona (Spain), Karolinska Institute – Stockholm (Sweden), and Danish Technical University - Lyngby (Denmark). His areas of interest are medical mycology, antimicrobial resistance, mycobacteria, food microbiology, biofilms, microbial induced infertility, and bio-medical applications of plasma discharges and cold plasma activated water. Currently, Dr. Mareș is a Professor of Microbiology and Head of the Antimicrobial Chemotherapy Laboratory at Ion Ionescu de la Brad University – Iași (Romania). Also, he is a member of the EUCAST Antifungal Susceptibility Testing Subcommittee and ESCMID Study Group for Veterinary Microbiology. He has served as a scientific consultant for several pharmaceutical companies during the past few years.",institutionString:"Ion Ionescu de la Brad University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iași",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Ion Ionescu de la Brad University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"53851",title:"Insights from Comparative Genomics of the Genus Salmonella",doi:"10.5772/67131",slug:"insights-from-comparative-genomics-of-the-genus-salmonella",totalDownloads:1694,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Comparative genomics have become a standard approach to gain insights into the interrelationships of microorganisms. Here, we have applied variable bioinformatic techniques to compare over 200 Salmonella genomes. First, we present a tree of all sequenced different members of the Enterobacteriaceae family, based on comparison of average amino acid identities. This technique was also applied to zoom in on the genomes of the genus Salmonella. The pan and core genomes of this genus were established and compared to experimental data available on the literature that identified essential genes. Difficulties and shortcomings of both approaches are discussed. Metabolic pathways unique for Salmonella were identified. Finally, we present an analysis of genes coding for small RNAs, an important part of the genetic repertoire of bacteria that is often ignored. The findings reported here are discussed and compared with available literature.",signatures:"Trudy M. Wassenaar, Se-Ran Jun, Visanu Wanchai, Preecha\nPatumcharoenpol, Intawat Nookaew, Katrina Schlum, Michael R.\nLeuze and David W. Ussery",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53851",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53851",authors:[{id:"136106",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Ussery",slug:"david-ussery",fullName:"David Ussery"},{id:"196510",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",surname:"Wassenaar",slug:"trudy-wassenaar",fullName:"Trudy Wassenaar"}],corrections:null},{id:"53363",title:"Computational Identification of Indispensable Virulence Proteins of Salmonella Typhi CT18",doi:"10.5772/66489",slug:"computational-identification-of-indispensable-virulence-proteins-of-salmonella-typhi-ct18",totalDownloads:1447,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Typhoid infections have become an alarming concern with the increase of multidrug resistant strains of Salmonella serovars. The new pathogenic Gram-negative strains are resistant to most antibiotics such as chloramphenicol, ampicillin, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin and even co-trimoxazole and their derivatives thereby causing numerous outbreaks in the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asian and African countries. Conventional and modern methods of typing had been adopted to differentiate outbreak strains. However, identifying the most indispensable proteins from the complete set of proteins of the whole genome of Salmonella sp., comprising the Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPI) responsible for virulence, has remained an ever challenging task. We have adopted a network-based method to figure out, albeit theoretically, the most significant proteins which might be involved in the resistance to antibiotics of the Salmonella sp. An understanding of the above will provide insight into conditions that are encountered by this pathogen during the course of infection, which will further contribute in identifying new targets for antimicrobial agents.",signatures:"Shrikant Pawar, Izhar Ashraf, Kondamudi Manobhai Mehata and\nChandrajit Lahiri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53363",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53363",authors:[{id:"193216",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandrajit",surname:"Lahiri",slug:"chandrajit-lahiri",fullName:"Chandrajit Lahiri"},{id:"195060",title:"Dr.",name:"Shrikant",surname:"Pawar",slug:"shrikant-pawar",fullName:"Shrikant Pawar"},{id:"195061",title:"Mr.",name:"Md. Izhar",surname:"Ashraf",slug:"md.-izhar-ashraf",fullName:"Md. Izhar Ashraf"},{id:"195063",title:"Dr.",name:"K. M.",surname:"Mehata",slug:"k.-m.-mehata",fullName:"K. M. Mehata"}],corrections:null},{id:"53794",title:"Salmonella enterica: Latency",doi:"10.5772/67173",slug:"salmonella-enterica-latency",totalDownloads:1644,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Infection caused by more than 1500 serotypes of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica is one of the most common food-borne diseases, prevalent worldwide. Concerning public health, Salmonella latent carrier animals represent an important source of transmission of the disease. They are responsible for silent introduction of the bacteria into the food chain and the environment. Most pathogenesis studies of salmonellosis are focused on events that lead to clinical disease. Researchers have been unable to clearly discern the interaction between intracellular microorganisms and their resistant hosts in latency. However, understanding this interaction is essential for the proper employment of the control and eradication strategies. Thus, the objective of this article is to present an overview of some important events that occur during the infection cycle of S. enterica in latent carriers.",signatures:"Bianca Mendes Maciel, Rachel Passos Rezende and Nammalwar\nSriranganathan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53794",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53794",authors:[{id:"136320",title:"Dr.",name:"Bianca",surname:"Maciel",slug:"bianca-maciel",fullName:"Bianca Maciel"},{id:"163597",title:"Prof.",name:"Rachel",surname:"Rezende",slug:"rachel-rezende",fullName:"Rachel Rezende"},{id:"194952",title:"Prof.",name:"Nammalwar",surname:"Sriranganathan",slug:"nammalwar-sriranganathan",fullName:"Nammalwar Sriranganathan"}],corrections:null},{id:"53911",title:"Salmonella Fimbriae: What is the Clue to Their Hairdo?",doi:"10.5772/67189",slug:"salmonella-fimbriae-what-is-the-clue-to-their-hairdo-",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fimbriae are important virulence factors for Salmonella pathogenesis. They mediate adhesion to host cells (including plants), food, stainless steel and much more. The fimbrial systems are organised in gene clusters of four to fifteen genes that code for structural, assembly and regulatory proteins. There are three kinds of fimbriae depending on their mode of assembly. The chaperone/usher (CU) fimbriae use a dedicated chaperone and usher protein to coordinate the subunit biogenesis on the cell surface. The curli fimbriae are assembled by nucleation/precipitation pathway. The type IV fimbria assembly requires a transmembrane apparatus and ATP to energise the reaction. Several fimbriae are conserved among Salmonella serovars, while some are present in a limited set or only specific serovars. Expression and regulation of fimbrial genes are not well understood, and most Salmonella fimbriae are poorly expressed during in vitro culture, which further complicates research concerning their regulation and role during infection. However, Salmonella fim gene cluster, coding for type-1 fimbriae, was widely studied and presents its own set of regulators. Investigating fimbrial distribution, expression and regulation will further elucidate their roles in bacterial pathogenesis and host specificity. Furthermore, fimbriae are important for developing efficient diagnostic tests and antimicrobial strategies against Salmonella.",signatures:"Karine Dufresne and France Daigle",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53911",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53911",authors:[{id:"79093",title:"Dr.",name:"France",surname:"Daigle",slug:"france-daigle",fullName:"France Daigle"},{id:"194959",title:"Ms.",name:"Karine",surname:"Dufresne",slug:"karine-dufresne",fullName:"Karine Dufresne"}],corrections:null},{id:"53977",title:"Current and Emerging Innovations for Detection of Food-Borne Salmonella",doi:"10.5772/67264",slug:"current-and-emerging-innovations-for-detection-of-food-borne-salmonella",totalDownloads:1840,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salmonella is one of the leading causes of food-borne illnesses worldwide, and one of the main contributors to salmonellosis is the consumption of contaminated egg, poultry, pork, beef, and milk products. Since deleterious effects of Salmonella on public health and the economy continue to occur, improving safety of food products by early detection of food-borne pathogens would be considered an important component for limiting exposure to Salmonella contamination. Therefore, there is an ongoing need to develop more advanced detection methods that can identify Salmonella accurately and rapidly in foods before they reach consumers. In the past three decades, there have been increasing efforts toward developing and improving rapid pathogen detection and characterization methodologies for application to food products. In this chapter, we discuss molecular methods for detection, identification, and genetic characterization of Salmonella in food. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of the established and emerging rapid detection methods are addressed here. The methods with potential application to the industry are highlighted in this chapter.",signatures:"Wei Wu and Lingwen Zeng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53977",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53977",authors:[{id:"190635",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Wu",slug:"wei-wu",fullName:"Wei Wu"},{id:"190889",title:"Prof.",name:"Lingwen",surname:"Zeng",slug:"lingwen-zeng",fullName:"Lingwen Zeng"}],corrections:null},{id:"54452",title:"Factors Contributing to the Emergence and Spread of Antibiotics Resistance in Salmonella Species",doi:"10.5772/67701",slug:"factors-contributing-to-the-emergence-and-spread-of-antibiotics-resistance-in-salmonella-species",totalDownloads:2077,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salmonella, a genus of the family Enterobacteriaceae with over 2450 species, has been responsible for diseases ranging from non-typhoidal salmonellosis to typhoidal salmonellosis. Several groups of antibiotics such as β-lactams, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, quinolones, cephalosporins and sulfonamides are used against Salmonella species. Many Salmonella species had developed resistance to several antibiotics over the years. Two major groups of mechanism of resistance demonstrated by this pathogen are (1) Biochemical Mechanisms; such as enzymatic inactivation, prevention of access to the target site by antibiotics and active efflux pumps. (2) Genetic mechanisms; such as mutation, horizontal gene transfer and vertical gene transfer. Some factors identified to contribute to the emergence and dissemination of antibiotic resistant-Salmonella include; miss-used of antibiotics, used of antibiotics in agriculture, unregulated sales of antibiotics, inappropriate prescription and dispensing practices, and poor hygiene practices (external or behavioural factors), the presence of mobile genetic elements in the organisms; plasmid DNA, transposons, integrons etc. The clinical and public health consequences, and the strategies to stem the growing tides associated with drugs resistance in Salmonella species are herein discussed. A more radical approach and commitment from the policy makers in health sector to solving problems emanating from increasing spread of resistant Salmonella is advocated.",signatures:"Kabiru Olusegun Akinyemi and Samuel Oluwasegun Ajoseh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54452",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54452",authors:[{id:"68868",title:"Dr.",name:"Kabiru Olusegun",surname:"Akinyemi",slug:"kabiru-olusegun-akinyemi",fullName:"Kabiru Olusegun Akinyemi"},{id:"194984",title:"MSc.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Ajoseh",slug:"samuel-ajoseh",fullName:"Samuel Ajoseh"}],corrections:null},{id:"53793",title:"Quinolone Resistance in Non-typhoidal Salmonella",doi:"10.5772/67154",slug:"quinolone-resistance-in-non-typhoidal-salmonella",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Non‐typhoidal Salmonella is the primary foodborne zoonotic agent of salmonellosis in many countries. Non‐typhoidal Salmonella infections are transmitted to humans primarily through consumption of contaminated foods from animal origin, whereas S. Typhi and Paratyphi infections are spread directly or indirectly by contact with an infected person. Quinolones exhibit potent antibacterial activity against Salmonella and are usually the first choice of treatment for life‐threatening salmonellosis due to multidrug‐resistant strains. However, by the early 1990s, quinolones have been approved for use in food‐producing animals. The increased use of this group of antimicrobials in animal has led to the concomitant emergence of quinolone‐resistant non‐typhoidal Salmonella strains. However, in some countries, there are no legal provisions, which apply to veterinary drugs. This situation provides favorable conditions for spread and persistence of quinolone‐resistant bacteria in food‐producing animals. The objective of this chapter is to review the current regulatory controls for the use of quinolones in food‐producing animals, its effect on development of quinolone resistance, and the potential impact on human and animal health. Moreover, this chapter reviews the current knowledge of quinolone resistance mechanisms and the future directions of research with particular attention to the strategies to control the emergence of quinolone‐resistant Salmonella.",signatures:"Siriporn Kongsoi, Chie Nakajima and Yasuhiko Suzuki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53793",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53793",authors:[{id:"124661",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuhiko",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"yasuhiko-suzuki",fullName:"Yasuhiko Suzuki"}],corrections:null},{id:"54428",title:"Salmonella in Wastewater: Identification, Antibiotic Resistance and the Impact on the Marine Environment",doi:"10.5772/67298",slug:"salmonella-in-wastewater-identification-antibiotic-resistance-and-the-impact-on-the-marine-environme",totalDownloads:1719,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many coastal cities around the world discharge their wastewaters into the marine environment. These wastewaters contain a high variety of pathogenic microorganisms that would have a role in the contamination of this ecosystem and may have potential risks for public health and environment. Using an environmental approach, we investigate the presence of Salmonella in wastewater treatment plants and its presence after the treatment in its receiving marine environment. In this environmental approach, we provide information about the inefficiency of wastewater treatment to remove Salmonella, especially that wastewater is considered as a good tank of high diversity of Salmonella serotypes. The identified Salmonella serotypes in the receiving marine environment almost coincide with those identified in wastewater. This characterization of Salmonella strains from wastewater and marine environment involves the direct impact of municipal wastewater discharges on this environment. Antibiotic susceptibility tests reveal generally the presence of multiresistant Salmonella strains in wastewater, which usually end up in the marine environment and may have a significant risk on the public health.",signatures:"Abdellah El Boulani, Rachida Mimouni, Hasna Mannas, Fatima\nHamadi and Nouredine Chaouqy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54428",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54428",authors:[{id:"191566",title:"Prof.",name:"Rachida",surname:"Mimouni",slug:"rachida-mimouni",fullName:"Rachida Mimouni"}],corrections:null},{id:"53878",title:"Dynamics of Salmonella Infection",doi:"10.5772/67284",slug:"dynamics-of-salmonella-infection",totalDownloads:1558,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we propose a mathematical epidemic model, with integer and fractional order to describe the dynamics of Salmonella infection in animal herds. We investigate the qualitative behaviors of such model and find the conditions that guarantee the asymptotic stability of disease‐free and endemic steady states. To assess the severity of the outbreak, as well as the strength of the medical and/or behavioral interventions necessary for control, we estimate basic reproduction number R0. This threshold parameter specifies the average number of secondary infections caused by one infected individual during his/her entire infectious period at the start of an outbreak. We also provide an unconditionally stable implicit scheme for the fractional‐order epidemic model. The theoretical and computational results give insight into the modelers and infectious disease specialists.",signatures:"Fathalla A. Rihan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53878",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53878",authors:[{id:"189722",title:"Prof.",name:"Fathalla",surname:"Rihan",slug:"fathalla-rihan",fullName:"Fathalla Rihan"}],corrections:null},{id:"53688",title:"Interaction between Salmonella and Plants: Potential Hosts and Vectors for Human Infection",doi:"10.5772/67061",slug:"interaction-between-salmonella-and-plants-potential-hosts-and-vectors-for-human-infection",totalDownloads:1784,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fruits and vegetables are important for a healthy diet. However, when eaten raw and contaminated with human pathogens (HPs) they may cause a disease outbreak. Contamination with HPs can occur along the entire farm-to-fork production chain and Salmonella enterica is one of the most common foodborne pathogens. A range of biotic and abiotic environmental factors can influence the complex interactions between Salmonella and plants. Moreover, the outcome of experiments largely depends on the experimental design and parameters or methods employed, and on top, on the accompanying plant microbiome and the genetic equipment of the plant and the Salmonella strain. Particularly mobile genetic elements contribute to the diversification and adaptation of Salmonella to the plant environment. So far, little is known about the key processes and factors influencing the attachment and potential internalization of Salmonella in plants and the plant specific responses. It is therefore important to better understand the ecology of Salmonella in the soil and plant environment, in order to propose practicable recommendations for prevention of foodborne diseases. This also requires improved sensitivity and specificity of detection methods. In this chapter, we present the current knowledge, research needs, and methodology regarding the complex interactions between Salmonella and plants.",signatures:"Eva Fornefeld, Jasper Schierstaedt, Sven Jechalke, Rita Grosch,\nKornelia Smalla and Adam Schikora",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53688",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53688",authors:[{id:"191815",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",surname:"Schikora",slug:"adam-schikora",fullName:"Adam Schikora"},{id:"191956",title:"MSc.",name:"Eva",surname:"Fornefeld",slug:"eva-fornefeld",fullName:"Eva Fornefeld"},{id:"191957",title:"MSc.",name:"Jasper",surname:"Schierstaedt",slug:"jasper-schierstaedt",fullName:"Jasper Schierstaedt"},{id:"191958",title:"Dr.",name:"Sven",surname:"Jechalke",slug:"sven-jechalke",fullName:"Sven Jechalke"},{id:"191959",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",surname:"Grosch",slug:"rita-grosch",fullName:"Rita Grosch"},{id:"191960",title:"Prof.",name:"Kornelia",surname:"Smalla",slug:"kornelia-smalla",fullName:"Kornelia Smalla"}],corrections:null},{id:"54142",title:"Preharvest Salmonella Risk Contamination and the Control Strategies",doi:"10.5772/67399",slug:"preharvest-salmonella-risk-contamination-and-the-control-strategies",totalDownloads:2083,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salmonella is present in most food production environments and can enter the food supply at any stage of food production from farm to fork. Control strategies for Salmonella include preharvest and postharvest aspects. Preharvest approach is very important because as a result of large-scale production, many animals could be infected with Salmonella serotypes during the primary production, causing human salmonellosis by consuming meat, milk, and eggs or foods containing ingredients of animal origin. The first step for prevention approaches is to determinate the source of infection; Salmonella serovars should be founded, and control strategies must be executed. Infection sources include vertical transmission, feed, pest (rodents and insects), wild birds, water, humans, manure, transportation coops, tractors or vehicles, and farm environment. Preventive and control strategies involve many factors, including hygiene, biosecurity procedures, animal feed surveillance, litter, manure and carcasses disposed, cleaning and disinfection programs, food interventions, diagnostic, and vaccination.",signatures:"Rebeca Zamora-Sanabria and Andrea Molina Alvarado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54142",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54142",authors:[{id:"190722",title:"Dr.",name:"Rebeca",surname:"Zamora",slug:"rebeca-zamora",fullName:"Rebeca Zamora"},{id:"191363",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Molina",slug:"andrea-molina",fullName:"Andrea Molina"}],corrections:null},{id:"54094",title:"Prevalence, Risks and Antibiotic Resistance of Salmonella in Poultry Production Chain",doi:"10.5772/67438",slug:"prevalence-risks-and-antibiotic-resistance-of-salmonella-in-poultry-production-chain",totalDownloads:2454,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:23,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salmonella spp. are bacteria that cause salmonellosis, a common form of foodborne illness with major impact on human health and huge financial losses in poultry industry. The incidence of notified cases of salmonellosis has declined from a peak of 24 per 100,000 in 2009 to 20.4 reported cases per 100,000 population in 2013, with S. enteritidis and S. typhimurium being the most commonly reported serovar in EU. Salmonella spp. has been detected in a range of foods, and outbreaks have predominantly been associated with animal products such as eggs, poultry and dairy products, but also with plant origin food such as salad dressing, fruit juice and sesame. At the time of slaughter, Salmonella-infected poultry may have high numbers of organisms in their intestines as well as on the outside of the bird and are therefore an important source of contamination. Nowadays, food safety has become an important concern for the European society and governments; therefore, more strict and harmonized regulations are being implemented throughout the poultry production chain with the aim to guarantee and increase the consumer confidence in foodstuffs of animal origin. Furthermore, increasing antimicrobial resistance in non-typhoid Salmonella species has been a serious problem for public health worldwide.",signatures:"Niki Mouttotou, Shakeel Ahmad, Zahid Kamran and Konstantinos\nC. 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In this chapter, we examined several socioeconomic and environmental factors that may increase the spread of Salmonella in the southern states of the USA.",signatures:"Hafiz Anwar Ahmad and Luma Akil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54265",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54265",authors:[{id:"190744",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"hafiz-ahmad",fullName:"Hafiz Ahmad"},{id:"191350",title:"Dr.",name:"Luma",surname:"Akil",slug:"luma-akil",fullName:"Luma Akil"}],corrections:null},{id:"54112",title:"Application of Ionizing Radiation for Control of Salmonella in Food",doi:"10.5772/67408",slug:"application-of-ionizing-radiation-for-control-of-salmonella-in-food",totalDownloads:1897,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ionizing radiation (gamma rays from the radionuclides cobalt-60 or cesium-137, e-beams) is an effective, nonthermal method to reduce or eliminate food-borne pathogens, including Salmonella spp. both in raw and in cooked meats, poultry, fish, and shellfish. Irradiation treatment, applied as the final processing step, seems to be particularly promising in the case of packed food products, including ready-to-eat food. Final packaged food products can be contaminated from post-lethality exposure, that is, after heat treatment and before packaging. The application of ionizing radiation after packaging can eliminate or considerably reduce both saprophytic and pathogenic microflora in final products. It is of particular importance in the case of ready-to-eat food which is not subjected to heat treatment before consumption. According to hurdle concept technology, the combination of existing and novel preservation methods can ensure safety of food by applying all treatments as mild as possible. Irradiation treatment can be combined with the use of natural antibacterial compounds, such as extracts of spices and herbs, or various packaging systems. 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One of the areas facing both practitioners and scholars that have been overlooked in the past is Engineering Change Management (ECM).
On the one hand, even though the demand has increased for more effective ECM as an important competitive advantage of product development companies, the existing ECM literature focuses mainly on the following topics: i) administrative evaluation that supports the formal EC approval, implementation, and documentation process, ii) ECM in product structure and material resource planning, and iii) change propagation and knowledge management. In addition, with a few exceptions [1, 2, 4, 12, 18, 19, 20, 26], almost all the previous research or empirical studies were qualitatively discussed in a descriptive nature.
On the other hand, despite of a rich body of concurrent engineering literature that emphasizes the iterative nature of New Product Development (NPD) process, “these models see iterations as
The vision behind this chapter is to ultimately bridge this gap between these two bodies of literature by recognizing the main characteristics of both New Product Development (NPD) and ECM processes, quantifying the interrelated connections among these process features in a Discrete Event Simulation (DES) model (Arena), experimenting with the model under different parameter settings and coordination policies, and finally, drawing decision-making suggestions considering EC impacts from an overall organizational viewpoint.
ECM refers to a collection of procedures, tools, and guidelines for handling modifications and changes to released product design specifications or locked product scope [4, 6, 22, 35]. ECs can be classified into two main categories [4, 5, 11, 13, 27]:
Under this classification scheme, design iterations within an NPD process and
ECM problems cannot be studied in isolation. But rather, they need to be addressed within a broader context, including the following three principle facets: i) complex systems, ii) current engineering and uncertainty, and iii) rework and change propagation.
A new product is designed and developed via an NPD process through the efforts from a group of specialists under dynamic internal and external environment. This DES model brings together the four main elements of complexity associated with design and product development [10], namely, product, process, team (/designer), and environment (/user), on the decision of how iterations and ECs emerge and thus impact NPD project performance, and how should they be effectively managed by applying different coordination policies.
Highly engineered
Similarly, a large complex Product Development (PD)
Also, multi–disciplinary
Last but not least, an NPD project interacts with its internal (e.g., simultaneous concurrent development of other products within the same organization) and external (e.g., customers/market, competitors, suppliers, and other socio–economic factors such as government regulations, etc.)
The concept of
Complexity drives
Evidences show clearly that excessive project budget and schedule overruns typically involve significant effort on rework [14, 15, 16, 26, 29, 30, 32]. Moreover, it is claimed by Reichelt and Lyneis [32] that “these phenomena are not caused by late scope growth or a sudden drop in productivity, but rather by the late discovery and correction of rework created earlier in the project.” In this study, primary characteristics of NPD projects will be transformed into a DES model to study their relative impacts on the stochastic arrivals of
Rework probability, if included in previous PD process models, is typically assigned a fixed number and remains statically along the process [4, 8, 9, 15, 26]. In reality, however, it is not always the case. Rework probability will be calculated in the proposed DES model by dynamic, evolving solution uncertainty influenced by important feedback effects from other interrelated system variables such as design solutions scope, resource availability, etc. And also, any type of rework is usually discussed on an aggregate level, instead of being categorized into iterations, EECs, and IECs as discussed in this study.
A change rarely occurs alone and multiple changes can have interacting effects on the complex change networks [13].
Before the actural construction of a computer simulation model that is quantitatively augmented by algebraic relationships among interrelated variables, causal loop diagrams are first constructed to study how external factors and internal system structure (the interacting variables comprising the system and the cause-and-effect relationships among them) contribute qualitatively to specific behavioral patterns.
Feedback Loops of EEC Occurrence
Four feedback loops of various lengths (i.e., the number of variables contained within the loop) that drive EEC occurrence are illustrated in Fig. 1 for purpose of demonstration. Five interdependent variables See Subsection 4.3.3 for detailed mathematical definition of variables ii) and iii).
The reasoning behind
While the explanation of Balancing Loop 2 is based upon the indirect positive impact of EEC occurrence on resource availability through the reduction of later EEC durations owing to learning curve effects,
Despite the indirect effects of EEC size reduction on an accelerating solution completeness rate that results in an increase in the resource availability, a decrease in EEC size also has a direct negative impact on solution completeness because of less contribution to close the information deficiency towards the final design solution, which is shown in
The above four closed feedback loops depict how the initial occurrence of EECs will lead to the subsequent modification of occurrence frequency by taking into account other interrelated variables and presenting simple cause–and–effect relationships between them. A combination of both positive and negative feedback loops indicates that the complex and dynamic interrelationships among variables make the prediction of occurring patterns of iterations/EECs not so straightforward. This phenomenon points out the necessity of constructing a simulation model that can help further quantitative analyses.
This model has two constituent sections:
The overall structure of NPD process can be systematically planned beforehand in an activity–based representation according to historical data from previously accomplished projects of similar products and teams’ expertise as well. All NPD phases and activities, their expected durations and units of resource required, and interdependencies relationships among them are obtainable and remain stable as the NPD project evolves. Therefore, optimization of process sequencing and scheduling is not pursued by this study.
There is no overlapping between activities within a same phase. An NPD activity only receives finalized information from its upstream activity within one phase, but downstream action can start with information in a preliminary form before all activities in upstream phase are completed. In addition, there is no information exchange in the middle of an activity.
Demand on resource for NPD activity is assumed to be deterministic fixed. However, the activity duration varies stochastically subject to activity uncertainty and LCE which vary depending on the number of attempts to that particular activity.
The dynamic progress of an NPD entity is reflected in the work flow within and among NPD phases. Workflow routing is probabilistically altered by either intra–phase iterations or inter–phase EECs according to the dynamically updated rework probabilities, which are calculated based on the current value of solution uncertainty.
Each IEC is initially associated with a directly affected NPD activity (and a directly affected product item when product structure is modeled), and may further propagate to any downstream activities based on randomly assigned probabilities. IECs are modeled within a parallel co–flow structure similar to its NPD counterpart. The IEC work flow is restricted by the precedence constraints.
Based upon these general assumptions made, notations of important model parameters and variables which will be later used in mathematical formulation are introduced.
An aggregate term consists of ongoing rework(s)/rework propagations each one corresponding to its current stochastic functional effort value
An aggregate term consists of ongoing probabilistically dependent IEC(s)/IEC propagations each one corresponding to its current stochastic functional effort value.
The estimated functional effort to complete the whole NPD project is obtained as follows:
Let’s assume that
Note that besides the first term
Based on
DSS of an NPD project reflects the amount of effort needed to meet the entire set of product goals, including both original pre–defined goals when the project is initiated and those additional ones determined as the project evolves.
Both iterations and EECs are mandatory error–correction oriented to achieve the same pre–defined goals, and thus there is no overall resultant increase in DSS. However, they will be taken into account when calculating the actual cumulative functional effort.
IECs are carried out to accomplish additional product goals in response to outside requirements such as altering market demands, growing customer needs, new legislations, or rapid advances in technology. IEC arrivals cause increase in DSS.
From an “
The completion of an NPD activity for the first time is called
–phase &
Low–level activity uncertainty is represented by random variation of activity duration around its estimate. For each NPD activity, its duration
According to the learning curve theory, the more often an activity is performed, the less time it requires to complete it and thus the lower will be the cost. This well recognized phenomenon is included as a process characteristic to improve the comprehensiveness of this DES model. Following the assumptions made in [9], LCE is modeled in the form of a linearly diminishing fraction (
Therefore, the processing time of a rework to an NPD activity depends on two variables: the stochastic basework duration
The concept of cross–functional integration among different functional areas during an NPD process is defined as
In the process modeling literature, NPD is often considered as a system of interrelated activities that aims to increase knowledge or reduce uncertainty of the final design solution [7, 24, 37]. This DES model assumes that any knowledge or experience accumulation through an NPD activity, no matter accepted to be transferred to the next activity/activities or rejected and requested for a rework, will contribute to the common knowledge base of the NPD project towards its final design solution. No development effort is ever wasted. In this context, knowledge/experience accumulation is simply measured by the cumulative effort that has been committed to the project in terms of person–days.
On the contrary,
After each activity, there is a rework review decision point that decides whether the activity output is acceptable and the NPD project entity gets through or it needs to flow back for a rework according to a weighted rework probability determined by the latest levels of functional solution uncertainty. A critical assumption we made is that the
As the project unfolds, more information will be available to justify further iteratively refinement of the design solution for each component [37].
Since a product architecture often consists of multiple conflicting targets that may be difficult to meet simultaneously and thus requires further trade–offs, “design oscillations” on a system level may occur due to the interdependencies among local components and subsystems even after the achievement of individual optimum [10, 28].
The functional iteration probability is formulated by a negative exponential function of uncertainty as appeared in Eq. (6), where
Since NPD activities are decentralized through cross–functional integration among participating departments, so is the decision making process of carrying out rework. The overall iteration probability of activity
Similarly,
Given the overall rework probability, the next step is to identify which upstream activity generates the design error disclosed by rework review and therefore becomes the starting point of rework loop. For simplicity, it is assumed that each upstream activity gets an equal chance of initiating an intra–phase iteration loop or an inter–phase EEC loop.
According to the rationale explained in previous subsections and causal loop diagrams created, the occurrences of both iterations and EECs are governed by a combination of balancing and reinforcing loops. Take
To avoid the dominance of such reinforcing loops which will eventually lead to a net effect of overall divergence with no termination condition,
Unger and Eppinger [36] define
Unlike iterations and EECs, IECs are studied through a different DES model section other than the NPD framework. The IEC framework explores how IECs emerging from outside sources after the NPD process begins are handled and how an initiating IEC to a specific activity of a product item will cause further change propagation in its downstream activities and other dependent product items.
IECs affecting activities in different NPD phases are assumed to arrive in randomly after the NPD project starts. A checkpoint is inserted before the processing of an IEC to verify whether the directly affected NPD activity has started yet. The incoming IEC will be hold until the beginning of processing of that particular activity.
During NPD rework reviews, the upcoming NPD activity will also be hold from getting processed if there are IECs currently being handled with respect to any of its upstream activities until new information from these IECs becomes available (i.e., the completion of IECs). Purpose of such an inspection is to avoid unnecessary rework as a result of expected new information and updates. However, the NPD activity will not pause in middle of its process due to the occurrence of IECs to any of its upstream activities.
Fig. 3 summaries the entire rework review process after the completion of each activity that includes three major steps as discussed before:
Check if there are currently any IECs being handled with regards to any of its upstream activities. If the condition is true, wait until new information from all of these IECs becomes available; if condition is false, go to the next step;
Compare the cumulative devoted functional effort so far to the pre–determined rework criteria. If the condition is true, the work flow conditionally pass the rework review and directly proceeds to next activity/activities; if the condition is false, go to the next step;
As a result of cross–functional negotiation and integration, calculate rework probability according to the current levels of functional solution uncertainty. NPD project entity either flows back to the identified activity that contains design errors for rework or proceeds to the activity/activities by probability.
Step NPD Rework Review Process
Compared with NPDs that are much more likely to adhere to a planned schedule, IECs can occur without any plans. Therefore, the Exponential distribution is used to represent IECs’ arrival interval. IEC’s processing time is assumed to follow the Triangular distribution, where there is a most–likely time with some variation on two sides, represented by the most likely (Mode), minimum (Min), and maximum (Max) values respectively. The Triangular distribution is widely used in project management tools to estimate activity duration (e.g., Project Evaluation and Review Technique, Critical Path Method, etc.). The amount of resources required for an IEC to be processed is
This phenomenon is simulated by two layers of
Secondly, the first–level activity IEC propagation loop is then nested within an outer loop determined by particular dependency properties of the product configuration. Once an IEC to one product item and its CPs to affected downstream activities are completed, it will further propagate to item(s) that is/are directly linked to it.
A numerical example is presented in this section to illustrate how this DES model can actually be applied to facilitate ECM policy analysis. A combination of different process, product, team, and environment characteristics are tested through design of experiments. NPD project lead time, cost (or engineering effort in some cases), and quality are generated by the model as the three key performance measurements of the project under study to evaluate overall product development efforts.
The NPD section is demonstrated by a simple application of three representational phases of an NPD process: i) concept design and development (
NPD Framework with Iterations and EECs
Through this 3–phase and 3–activity framework, various overlapping ratios of an NPD process: 0%, 33%, 66%, or mixed (e.g., 0% overlap between Concept and Design and 33% overlap between Design and Production), can be constructed by connecting intra–phase activities via different combinations of dashed arrows.
An NPD process with 0% overlapping is also called a
Besides its capability of representing a sequential process, this framework can also be assembled into
NPD Framework with Iterations and EECs
Obviously, as compared to its counterpart in a sequential process, the solution uncertainty of downstream activity increases due to the fact that it begins before the completion of all upstream activities using only preliminary output information, while the solution uncertainty of the upstream activity remains unchanged. That is, only the solution uncertainty of overlapped activities in succeeding phases will be affected under the current model assumptions.
When considering the activity duration estimates, it is further assumed that the mutually independent and exponentially distributed duration has a mean of
To match the three major phases of the illustrated NPD process, it is assumed that there exist three different functional areas:
Different rigidities of rework review, which are represented by various rework criteria ratios (i.e., relationships between rework criteria and the evolving functional design solution scope
Fig. 5 gives an overview of the IEC model section applying 33% overlapping strategy. It is assumed that an IEC will propagate to one of its downstream activities in the current or next phase with equal chances, and this propagation will continue in the same manner until the end of IEC propagation loop when no more change is identified. For the purpose of demonstration, a full list of potential downstream change propagations of each IEC is provided on the right side of the
Take the IEC to activity Concept1 as an example, change propagation will result in a maximum of six follow–up IECs (i.e., IECs to C2, C3/D1, D2, D3/P1, P2, and P3) and a minimum of two (i.e., IECs to C3/D1/D2 and D3/P1/P2/P3). For simplicity, it is also assumed that each IEC, no matter in which activity it is occurred, equally consumes 10 resource units from each of the three departments to get processed.
NPD Framework with Iterations and EECs
Table 1 summarizes the complete list of model input parameters/variables and their corresponding values. There are altogether 14 model inputs that represent key NPD and ECM decision parameters, among which 7 are chosen as These held-constant factors, such as number of phases and activities comprising the process, number of involving departments, duration estimates of NPD activities and IECs, etc., are peculiar to specific development project as . For purposes of the present experiment these factors are not of interest.
It is important to know that all these values are set in a way to facilitate relative comparison of project performance among various scenarios using “what–if” analysis instead of aiming to reproduce the real behavior patterns of an NPD project of any kind. To successfully implementation of the proposed simulation model for a specific use or situation, these inputs should be appropriately calibrated depending on different circumstances.
At the end of each simulation run, Arena automatically generates a variety of both default and user specified model output statistics, which include time, cost, Work in Process (WIP), count, etc. Information is displayed under different categories (e.g., Entity, Process, Queue, Resource, and User Specified). Some of the key model
List of phases and activities comprising process | |
List of involving departments | |
Overlapping Strategy | |
NPD Activity Duration | |
Learning Curve Effects | |
NPD Activity Functional Resource Consumption | |
Functional Resources Constraints | |
Cost of Resource | |
Rework Likelihood | |
Rework Criteria | |
IEC Arrival Frequency (Inter–arrival Times) | |
IEC Duration Estimates | |
IEC Functional Resource Consumption |
Model Inputs
NPD Project Lead Time | The total time of an NPD entity accumulated in process activities and delays (time elapsed between start of Concept phase and end of Production phase). |
Project Cost | The total of busy costs (i.e., costs while seize) for all staffing and resources for both NPD and IEC entities. |
Total Cost | The total expenditure on both busy and idle (i.e., costs while scheduled, but not busy) resources for NPD and IEC entities. |
Cumulative Functional Effort | The accumulated departmental workload (in units of person–days) accounted for both NPD and IEC entities. |
Cumulative Total Effort | The accumulated total effort accounted for both NPD and IEC entities (i.e., the sum of all the cumulative functional efforts). |
Quality | Ratio of the final design solution scope over the original design solution scope. |
Model Outputs
Impacts of the following managerial strategies and coordination policies on the responses of interest are investigated, and the root causes behind the performance of measurement system are explored:
Impact of NPD process characteristics such as LCE, Rework Likelihood (RL) and
Impact of rework review rigidity –
Impact of IEC arrival frequency;
Combined impact of IEC arrival frequency and size –
Impact of functional resource constraints –
Impact of change propagation due to interconnected product configuration.
Due to space limit, only partial results of policy analysis a are presented to demonstrate how the proposed DES model can be used as a valuable tool for evaluating ECM decisions. 200
Mean values of the experiment outcomes are displayed in Table 3. Columns
It is important to note that managerial suggestions are not made merely based on the final output performance measures obtained for each scenario. Rather, attention is focused on the comparison of these numbers to their corresponding baseline results
When rework is not involved, the project performance stays consistent: the higher the activity overlapping ratio, the less the lead time. It can be obtained by summing up the durations of activities along the critical path. At the same time, since total person–days effort required for completing the project remains unchanged no matter which OS is applied, final project cost for all levels of Model is continuously verified by the reading through and examining the outputs for reasonableness and justification under a variety of scenarios and settings of parameters.
Effects of LCE: by comparing the mean values of lead time and project cost of scenarios
Effects of RL: by comparing
Effects of OS w/o LCE: by comparing lead time and project cost of scenarios
Effects of OS w/ LCE: Situation is not that predictable when LCE is taken into account and formulated as
By comparing columns
After investigating project cost performance that reflects the overall effort devoted to the NPD project, how the amount of functional effort contributed by each participating department is affected by different LCE, RL, and OS levels is further examined.Three major conclusions can be drawn by breaking down the overall committed effort into functional effort contributed by each department:
From
Moreover, from a relative perspective (Fig. 7-b), the percentage increase of Mfg Effort versus baseline is higher than those of Mkt and Eng Efforts in all sequential processes but (A)–(2)–(a), in which Mfg Effort %Change = 72.5% and is slightly lower than Mkt Effort %Change = 75.6%. However, in concurrent processes, an inverse relationship but of a much greater magnitude (especially at high RL level) is observed. That is, by starting downstream activities early with only preliminary information, concurrent engineering tends to alleviate the impacts of rework on activities in Production phase while intensifying those on activities in the two upstream phases. Although the concept of cross–functional integration has already been applied to the sequential process that allows engineers from Mfg Dept to be engaged early in both Concept and Design phases, which differentiates it from a traditional waterfall process, the impact of rework mostly occur in Mfg Dept. A concurrent process tends to shift rework risks and even out committed efforts among various functional areas owing to another critical characterization of concurrent engineering: parallelization of activities.
Mkt Effort undergoes the highest percentage of increase from when RL changes from low to high regardless of LCE or OS levels. Then is the Eng Effort. Mft Effort has the least amount of fluctuation across different scenarios.
(I) Time %Change c/w BL1 | (II) PC %Change c/w BL1 | |||||
(BL1) Baseline | No Rework | 119 | 7,168 | |||
101 | 7,168 | |||||
81 | 7,169 | |||||
(A) | (1) | 158 | 32.0% | 48.2% | ||
160 | 58.9% | 11,778 | 61.9% | |||
62.6% | 12,107 | 66.6% | ||||
176 | 47.2% | 64.2% | ||||
192 | 90.4% | 14,542 | 99.8% | |||
100.1% | 14,927 | 105.4% | ||||
(B) | (1) | 141 | 17.6% | 9,542 | 33.1% | |
129 | 28.1% | 9,436 | 31.6% | |||
31.0% | 28.1% | |||||
152 | 27.2% | 44.7% | ||||
158 | 56.6% | 12,044 | 68.0% | |||
49.2% | 11,037 | 54.0% |
Project Performance under the Impact of OS, RL and LCE
To better visualize the correlations between lead time and effort, scatter plots of 200 model replicates’ lead time and total effort outcomes under different levels of OS and RL are demonstrated in Fig. 8. Red lines in the plots indicate the lead time and total effort required for BL1 baseline cases (an “ideally executed” project without accounting for rework).
a/b). Overall/ Percentage Change of Functional Effort Devoted
a/b). Scatter Plots of the RL Impact on Different OS
We can clearly observe that a majority of replications exceed the lead time and effort of BL1 by a considerable amount because of rework. Furthermore, as overlapping ratio and rework probability constants (
This research proposes a comprehensive discrete event simulation model that captures different aspects of PD project–related (i.e., product, process, team, and environment) complexity to investigate their resultant impacts on the occurrence and magnitude of iterations and ECs that stochastically arise during the course of an NPD project, and how the multiple dimensions of project performance, including lead time, cost, and quality, are consequently affected. In addition to the integration of several critical characteristics of PD projects that have been previously developed and tested, (e.g., concurrent and collaborative development process, learning curve effects, resources constraints), this research introduces the following new features and dynamic structures that are explicitly modeled, verified, and validated for the first time:
This DES model explicitly distinguishes between two different types of rework by the time of occurrence: intra–phase iterations and inter–phase EECs. Moreover, engineering changes are further categorized into two groups by their causes of occurrence, emergent ECs “that are necessary to reach an initially defined standard in the product” [13], and initiated ECs in response to new customer requirements or technology advances.
Uncertainty is differentiated and conceptualized into three categories. Activity uncertainty is reflected in the stochastic activity duration using probability distributions, and environmental uncertainty is primarily modeled by the arrival frequency and magnitude of IECs. In particular, solution uncertainty is an important model variable that dynamically determines the rework probability which will be discussed next.
This study provides presumably the first attempt to integrate cause–and–effect relationships among project variables into a DES model of PD projects. Traditional DES model deals with only static project features in “open–loop, single–link” causal relationship format [14] that remain constant as the model evolves. Rework probability is no longer pre–determined and remains fixed over the entire time frame of the NPD process as appeared in most of previous studies. Instead, it is calculated in real time by the model itself. That is to say, rework probability is now included in a feedback structure that changes over time in response to the project’s evolving uncertainty levels.
The specific three–step rework review process structure, together with the rigidity of rework reviews, allows more explicit and detailed modeling of this critical aspect of ECM, which is not attempted by previous studies. Decision points are used with rules to conditionally process ECs. They also give the users flexibility to define one or more rules in priority evaluation order.
The traditional restrictive assumption of a stable development process with no environmental disturbance is also relaxed by introducing the random occurrence of IECs, which will lead to an enlarged design solution scope of the final product and thus affecting the project solution uncertainty.
Results show under different conditions of uncertainty, how we should apply various kinds of strategies and policies, including process overlapping, rework review, IEC batching, resource allocation, to not only achieve benefits but also recognize potential tradeoffs among lead time, cost and quality. The study concludes with the following observations or understandings that either have been identified previously in the existing literature or disclosed for the first time with the help of newly added and verified model features:
Significant increase of both time and cost due to rework is alleviated by the evaluation of LCE.
The percentage increase of project cost is always higher than that of lead time at the occurrence of rework and IECs. That is, compared with lead time, project cost is more sensitive to rework/IECs.
By starting downstream activities early with only preliminary information, concurrent engineering tends to alleviate the impacts of rework on activities in downstream phases while intensifying those on activities in the upstream phases. It also tends to shift rework risks and even out committed efforts among various functional areas. In addition, departments that are majorly involved in upstream phases undergo higher fluctuation in effort.
A high overlap ratio of upstream and downstream activities, combined with a high likelihood of unanticipated activity rework that requires additional resources will result in a strong tendency for NPD projects to behave in an unstable and unpredictable manner and lead to unforeseen departures from the predetermined baseline plan.
Adopting a more restrictive RRS (Convex–Up) leads to a longer NPD lead time and higher project cost. There is no obvious distinction between Stepped Linear and Linear RRSs. Also, the evaluation of LCE reduces the impacts of RRS.
When only the IEC process propagation among development activities is examined, high correlations between lead time, cost, and quality are observed. However, when the effects of IEC product propagation among dependent product components/systems, the correlation between lead time and project cost, and the one between lead time and quality drop significantly.
Batching of IECs possesses a competitive advantage in lead time over handling IECs individually. This superiority is the greatest when a sequential PD process is adopted, and reduces as overlapping ratio increases. However, there is neither IEC policy shows “dominant” advantage in project cost or quality.
Potential tradeoffs among NPD lead time and total cost are clearly identified when resource assignment decision is to be made. A higher level of OS leads to a shorter NPD lead time and less total cost given the same amount of functional resource allocation. However, the benefits of lead time reduction by assigning more resources are the most obvious in a sequential process, and activity overlap reduces the degree of obviousness the benefits have. The higher the OS, the less the benefits.
Linearity between lead time and quality is observed in all three OS levels: the higher the functional resource availability, the shorter the lead time, and the lower the quality. The linearity slope increases as the OS increases. The percentage of decrease in quality versus baseline case is the largest in a sequential process and decreases as OS increases.
The evaluation of IEC product propagation leads to a general increase of the multiple dimensions of NPD project performance from baseline case, except a counterintuitive decrease in NPD project lead time for a less coupled product configuration under a high environmental uncertainty and a high RL.
Three possible main directions of future studies beyond the work presented here are summarized as follows:
Model features including: i) different relationships between solution uncertainty and rework probability, ii) more detailed modeling of dynamic rework review criteria (in replace of the current static one), and iii) parallel rework policy need to be tested to assess their impacts on project performance measures.
The review of literature has indicated a lack of development process models that are capable to be extended and implemented into a multi–project environment while still keeping detailed aspects of project complexity. Building blocks of the model framework can be reconfigured and applied at various detail levels. From a single project level to the entire organizational level, it opens possibilities for further analyses of multi–project management, such as work force planning strategies, coordination policies of interdependent parallel projects, etc.
This DES model can also be further extended across organizations. By relaxing the single organization restriction of the current model and including inter–organizational influences, how engineering changes propagate along supply chain and affect NPD project performance can be explored.
The management of individuals with orofacial clefts extends from infancy till adulthood. Taking impressions of the dental arches is a frequently needed procedure, that can be utilized for recording, measuring and planning. However, conventional impression is considered a technique-sensitive procedure and prone to some complications and limitations, such as dimensional changes and patients’ intolerability, especially in patients with orofacial clefts. Moreover, storage and maintenance of the poured models is a continuous challenge to clinicians. The last decade has witnessed a digital revolution that led to the introduction of digital intraoral scanners for dentistry. Since then, the number of IOS devices as well as their technology are tremendously growing to offer accurate and comfortable replacement for the traditional impression techniques. This chapter summarizes the different IOS technologies, advantages, clinical considerations, and applications in the craniofacial field.
The very first intraoral scanner was introduced in the 1980 [1] and incorporated into the CEREC® by Sirona Dental Systems LLC (Charlotte, NC) system for restorative dentistry. Later after that, many manufacturers introduced multipurpose IOS to the market including the orthodontic purposes. IOS adopt non-optical technologies to provide an intraoral three-dimensional map where data points are captured by either a scanning unit or handheld wand and fed back to a workstation and can be viewed on a monitor. These technologies include confocal imaging, triangulation, and 3D in motion video [2].
Acquisition is briefly based on capturing of in-focus (confocal) images and deflecting any defocused images which increases the scan accuracy [3]. Trios IOS AND iTero Element are examples of the majority of the IOS that adopt the confocal imaging. Both offer systems where the teeth are not necessarily powder coated before scanning, thus shorten the scanning time and enhance the color capture [4]. They have a wide use in implant and restorative dentistry, and the orthodontic field.
This technology allows for capturing high-speed data in recording undesirable or inaccessible areas. It uses either a lens or a light source, and a sensor that is sensitive to light for image formation. The is based upon Pythagoras theorem, where by knowing the position and angle of two points of a triangle, we can easily calculate the position of the third point (object). Single detector “prism shaped” or two detectors are used to detect the two different points in the exact time. Cerec (Dentsply Sirona, USA) adopts this technology. Bluecam Cerec requires a reflective powder coating for scanning while Omnicam Cerec can provide a powderless scan [2].
his technology generates a true replica of the oral anatomy using a high-resolution video camera. It captures 3D data in a video sequence and models the data in real time. IOS that adopt this technology require a powder coating. However, it is lighter than that used with IOS with triangulation technology [2]. 3 M ESPE IOS adopt this technology.
The capability of directly recording the patient’s dental arch and creating a digital 3D model alleviates the need for conventional impression techniques which may cause patient discomfort or inconvenience by either the material itself or the impression tray [5, 6, 7]. Neonates, Children, and patients with gag reflex cannot tolerate the conventional procedure, that’s why the intraoral scanning process is much appreciated [8, 9, 10]. It is reported by the literature that patients prefer intraoral scanning process over the traditional impression techniques [11].
Intraoral scanners are proven to save working time in comparison with the conventional techniques [12, 13]. Although IOS do not appear to significantly save time in full arch scans (take less than 3 minutes) when compared to the conventional techniques that take from 3 to 5 minutes. However, they save time afterwards where the following steps of cast pouring, direct communication can be done with the laboratory by emailing the 3D digital model rather than courier delivery or using regular mail [12, 14, 15, 16]. Consequently, IOS can save throughout the working year a considerable amount of money and time [11, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20].
Communication between dentist and dental technician can be simplified, strengthened, and improved by being offered a real time assessment of the optical impression quality [15, 20, 21]. In addition to that, IOS can serve as an effective tool for patient education as well as communication which amplifies the psychological involvement that positively affect the overall treatment journey. Also, IOS can be considered as a powerful marketing tool as patients are becoming more interested in technology and digitally equipped dental offices and mention that to their circle of communication [22]. Intraoral scanning leads to digital models which can be saved as an STL file, the clinical and logistic merits of digital models include easy data archival, smart and effective storage, durability with maintaining model integrity and diagnostic versatility [23].
Orofacial cleft is considered as one of the most common congenital disorders. Cleft lip and/or cleft palate (CL/P) is the most common craniofacial condition. Orofacial clefts have a significant influence on the development and quality of life not only on of the affected patients but on their families as well. A systematic review and meta-analysis conducted by Kadir et al. reported that 1 child in every 730 births will be born with CL/P (whether associated with syndrome/condition or not) [24].
Palatoplasty for patients with cleft palate is delayed till approximately from 9 to 10 months to avoid any maxillary growth limitation [25, 26]. At this age, the preoperative evaluation of the palate is very challenging because of its small size, not to mention that even in adults it is a very difficult structure to record [27]. Different attempts were conducted for the preoperative evaluation of the anatomy of the palate, yet it was very difficult because of limited accessibility and dynamic movements. Some surgeons depended on clinical examination by eyeballing (looking directly into patients’ mouth while open) [27]. This method of assessment is very subjective and provide insufficient diagnostic information. That’s why, alternative methods as diagnostic plaster models, CBCT scanning of the patient to provide a 3-dimensional anatomy of the palate, and Magnetic resonance scanning have been used to overcome the limitations of the physical examination method [28, 29, 30].
Plaster models have been considered as the gold standard in recording the dental arches [31]. Although plaster casts may record accurately the anatomy of the hard palate, yet it is fails to provide a detailed recording of the soft palate [32]. Despite the presence of alternative radiographic methods as CBCT, high radiation exposure particularly in pediatric patients can be a limitation, in addition to possible images overlap and inaccurate recording of borders of soft tissue structures [33]. Also, studies reported that MRI may provide a gap between the radiographic and clinical case severity, so it cannot be used solely to evaluate patients with cleft palate and should be combined with clinical examination to provide an appropriate treatment plan [34].
The evolution of digital intraoral scanning is considered by most of the orthodontists especially the craniofacial ones as an absolute innovation, literature has reported many studies that validate their use in terms of accuracy in the orthodontic field [35, 36]. Also, recent studies began to validate the use of IOS in recording the palatal tissue and reported intraoral scanning as a reliable method [37, 38]. Among the reported challenges of using IOS to record the soft palate or the palatal area in general is the accessibility as well as recording the posterior part of the soft palate as a smooth surface without any corrugations [32]. There are now intraoral scanners with smaller and thinner scanning tips - thanks to the developing scanning technologies – which significantly improved the accessibility and reduced any discomfort particularly in infant and neonate patients.
Three-dimensional analysis of the records captured by IOS (Figure 1) can offer a diagnostic opportunity that allows for accurate measurements between marked points on the palate. This facilitates the treatment planning part for the care providers where they can accurately record the various occlusal indices required to evaluate the inter-arch relationships [39].
Digital models of a patient with unilateral cleft lip and palate on the right side, which can be used for detailed diagnosis and tailored treatment planning.
Presurgical infant orthopedics, known as (PSIO) started its popularity in the 1950s and was validated later by Matuso in 1988 who noticed that the newborn’s cartilage is soft and non-elastic thus, can be molded [40]. The PSIO is advisable to start as early as from birth up to 4 months due to the high estrogen and hyaluronic acid levels which inhibit the crosslinking of the cartilage matrix and allow for proper cartilage molding [40, 41]. In 1950, Grayson initiated the technique that is widely used till now and named it “presurgical naso-alveolar molding (NAM), this technique allows passive molding that aims mainly for repositioning the deformed alveolar process, nasal cartilage and lengthening of the columella. The Grayson technique itself then went through further modifications aiming for preferable outcomes and more comfort to the patients and their caregivers [42, 43, 44].
The concept of clear orthodontic appliances was first introduced in 1946 by Kesling to align the teeth in better positions [45]. Later after that, the clear aligner treatment (CAT) was introduced by Align Technology (Santa Clara, California). CAT was very acceptable for adult patients [46]. However, it was not that popular for pediatric patients in craniofacial orthopedics and orthodontics, this was related to the possible discomfort, allergy, and respiratory obstruction from impression material in newborns with cleft palate [47]. The introduction of a digital workflow that includes IOS instead of conventional impression techniques then designing and 3D printing of clear aligner for nasoalveolar molding has paved the way to a more friendly yet accurate method of reducing the cleft defect before surgery [48].
The scanning process is usually done using a small-sized scanning tip, the newborn/infant’s head is advised to be stabilized gently with the parent’s hand while keeping the infant seated in the parent’s lap. The overall intraoral scanning process should take less than 3 minutes, an exact reported average of 1 minute 30 seconds up to 2 minutes has been reported in literature [48].
It is worth mentioning that the IOS software is accustomed to record continuous dental arches and interpret any discontinuous surface as a redundant or spurious surface that should be removed [47]. Hence, the most challenging part to be scanned was the cleft gap. However, the orthodontists’ experience in the scanning process plays a significant role (Figure 2). On another hand, the scanning speed is recommended to support up to 3000 images per second with the rationale of reducing any errors that may result from any movement between the scanning tip and the surrounding oral structures [47].
Intraoral scan of an infant with unilateral cleft lip and palate. The digital impression can be used to assess the maxillary arch/segment dimensions and to fabricate a nasoalveolar molding (NAM) aligners.
Fully digital workflow can be implemented to successfully design and manufacture palatal plates for patients with cleft palate or any functional disorder. Applying this workflow in orthodontics requires the synchronization between different technologies to be able to finally create appliances, it is now possible to create palatal plates based on digital intraoral scanning [49].
Xepapadeas AB et al. [50], reported a detailed technique for scanning the patients with Trisomy 21 syndrome for the aim of manufacturing palatal plates. They advised that the orthodontist should make sure to record all the intraoral structures that can crucially affect the fit of the plate as the maxillary tuberosity, labial frenulum, and vestibule. Also, another important tip is to always define a reference point to mark the start of the scan - usually it is the incisive papilla - so that if the scanning position is lost, the papilla or the last scanned area can be taken as a starting point. The scanned data represents the digital working model. At first, adjusting the scan orientation is done then defining the outer borders of the scan to determine the final dimensions of the orthodontic model. The final step includes removing any undercuts or irregularities resulting from registration errors, this is usually done using the free form tool. In patients with cleft palate, it is advised to virtually block the cleft to ensure that all the anatomic structures are recorded rather than being removed and considered as redundant images. Thereby, the digital model is ready to be exported as Standard Tessellation Language (STL) file for the design of the palatal plate.
In the craniofacial field, accurate diagnostic information, precise understanding of the anatomy, and practice are the key for any successful surgery. Palatoplasty simulation on a 3D printed cleft palate model based on data from intraoral scanner is now a growing viable option. This simulation offers a training opportunity to the medical students and residents to increase their expertise [27].
The 3D filed is rapidly and favorably developing. This includes 3D imaging, scanning and printing. Following the promising development of the 3D filed, it was about time for software creators to incorporate three-dimensional surgical modules into various software programs. Utilizing different 3D technologies together paved the road for virtual surgical planning (VSP) to accessible and widely spread.
Two fundamental elements are needed for VSP; 3D radiographic imaging (CT or CBCT) and intraoral digital impression. The intraoral scan of a patient’s mouth is done in order to obtain a STL file, that will be accurately placed overlaying the dentition on the patient’s CT or CBCT volume. This merging will provide an accurate representation of the patient’s skeleton, dentition and facial soft tissues; i.e. creating a “virtual patient” [51]. Utilizing specific software programs, VSP can be performed with a step-by-step guidance. First, the boundaries of the maxilla, mandible and dentition are identified through landmark identification. Then, the surgical movements of one jaw or both are decided in all dimensions (anteroposterior, lateral, vertical, yaw, pitch and roll) depending on the surgical plan (Figure 3). 3D surgical guide(s) and Inter-mediate or/and final splint(s) can be created virtually and then 3D printed (Figures 4 and 5).
Virtual surgical planning (VSP) showing double-jaw surgery with final splint is in place.
The surgical guides are virtually designed. Screw holes are accurately distributed to avoid any injury to the adjacent structures (such as teeth and nerves). Note that in figure (B), numbers represent the predetermined length of the screws, while screw (*) indicates the need to used angular screw.
The surgical guides for the maxilla and mandible are virtually designed then 3D printed. A, right side of the maxilla; B, left side of the maxilla; C, right side of the mandible; D, left side of the mandible.
The VSP allows for accurate osteotomy cuts, better predictability of the outcomes and significant reduction in the amount of time spent in the operating room [52, 53, 54]. With the current and upcoming advanced in the 3D filed, it is only logical to consider VSP not only as a viable option, but as an upgraded alternative to traditional surgeries.
Digital intraoral scanners can be considered as an accurate novel diagnostic tool in the craniofacial field as well as a safe alternative to the traditional impression techniques especially for infants with craniofacial conditions. They allow for 3D evaluation of the scanned data; this can be very beneficial for infants/newborns with cleft palate by facilitating the treatment plan formulation based on accurate 3D measurements and analysis. Furthermore, IOS can enable the manufacture of craniofacial appliances when combined with a proper digital workflow. Finally, the with the marriage of IOS and 3D printing technology, surgical models can be easily fabricated for surgical training purposes.
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest.
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These energy sources are solar (photovoltaic), movements (kinetic), radio-frequencies and thermal energy (thermoelectricity). The thermoelectric energy harvesting technology exploits the Seebeck effect. This effect describes the conversion of temperature gradient into electric power at the junctions of the thermoelectric elements of a thermoelectric generator (TEG) device. This device is a robust and highly reliable energy converter, which aims to generate electricity in applications in which the heat would be otherwise dissipated. The significant request for thermoelectric energy harvesting is justified by developing new thermoelectric materials and the design of new TEG devices. Moreover, the thermoelectric energy harvesting devices are used for waste heat harvesting in microscale applications. Potential TEG applications as energy harvesting modules are used in medical devices, sensors, buildings and consumer electronics. 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These energy sources are solar (photovoltaic), movements (kinetic), radio-frequencies and thermal energy (thermoelectricity). The thermoelectric energy harvesting technology exploits the Seebeck effect. This effect describes the conversion of temperature gradient into electric power at the junctions of the thermoelectric elements of a thermoelectric generator (TEG) device. This device is a robust and highly reliable energy converter, which aims to generate electricity in applications in which the heat would be otherwise dissipated. The significant request for thermoelectric energy harvesting is justified by developing new thermoelectric materials and the design of new TEG devices. Moreover, the thermoelectric energy harvesting devices are used for waste heat harvesting in microscale applications. Potential TEG applications as energy harvesting modules are used in medical devices, sensors, buildings and consumer electronics. This chapter presents an overview of the fundamental principles of thermoelectric energy harvesting and their low-power applications.",book:{id:"7695",slug:"green-energy-advances",title:"Green Energy Advances",fullTitle:"Green Energy Advances"},signatures:"Diana Enescu",authors:[{id:"226207",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Enescu",slug:"diana-enescu",fullName:"Diana Enescu"}]},{id:"16248",title:"Wind Turbine Gearbox Technologies",slug:"wind-turbine-gearbox-technologies",totalDownloads:26952,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:null,book:{id:"205",slug:"fundamental-and-advanced-topics-in-wind-power",title:"Fundamental and Advanced Topics in Wind Power",fullTitle:"Fundamental and Advanced Topics in Wind Power"},signatures:"Adam M. Ragheb and Magdi Ragheb",authors:[{id:"32344",title:"Mr",name:"Adam",middleName:null,surname:"Ragheb",slug:"adam-ragheb",fullName:"Adam Ragheb"},{id:"33227",title:"Prof.",name:"Magdi",middleName:null,surname:"Ragheb",slug:"magdi-ragheb",fullName:"Magdi Ragheb"}]},{id:"16242",title:"Wind Turbines Theory - The Betz Equation and Optimal Rotor Tip Speed Ratio",slug:"wind-turbines-theory-the-betz-equation-and-optimal-rotor-tip-speed-ratio",totalDownloads:63452,totalCrossrefCites:69,totalDimensionsCites:136,abstract:null,book:{id:"205",slug:"fundamental-and-advanced-topics-in-wind-power",title:"Fundamental and Advanced Topics in Wind Power",fullTitle:"Fundamental and Advanced Topics in Wind Power"},signatures:"Magdi Ragheb and Adam M. Ragheb",authors:[{id:"32344",title:"Mr",name:"Adam",middleName:null,surname:"Ragheb",slug:"adam-ragheb",fullName:"Adam Ragheb"},{id:"33227",title:"Prof.",name:"Magdi",middleName:null,surname:"Ragheb",slug:"magdi-ragheb",fullName:"Magdi Ragheb"}]},{id:"52594",title:"Thermoplastic Starch (TPS)‐Cellulosic Fibers Composites: Mechanical Properties and Water Vapor Barrier: A Review",slug:"thermoplastic-starch-tps-cellulosic-fibers-composites-mechanical-properties-and-water-vapor-barrier-",totalDownloads:2597,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Current research studies have been focusing on the procurement of environmentally friendly materials, with the aim of resolving the problems created by materials derived from petroleum. Starch is a promising biopolymer for producing biocomposite materials because it is renewable, completely biodegradable, and easily available at a low cost. Thermoplastic starch (TPS), by itself, exhibits poor mechanical properties such as low tensile strength and severe deformations, which limits its application in packaging or films. In addition, TPS presents high hygroscopicity. The use of reinforcing agents in the starch matrix is an effective means to overcome these drawbacks and several types of biodegradable reinforcements, such as cellulosic fibers, whiskers, and nanofibers, have been utilized to develop new and inexpensive starch biocomposites. This chapter provides the latest advances in green composite materials based on TPS and cellulose fibers and includes information on compositions, preparations, and the properties of “green” composite materials elaborated from TPS and cellulose fibers, with the focus on using undervalued natural resources.",book:{id:"5440",slug:"composites-from-renewable-and-sustainable-materials",title:"Composites from Renewable and Sustainable Materials",fullTitle:"Composites from Renewable and Sustainable Materials"},signatures:"Emilio Pérez‐Pacheco, Jorge Carlos Canto‐Pinto, Víctor Manuel\nMoo‐Huchin, Iván Alfredo Estrada‐Mota, Raciel Javier Estrada‐León\nand Luis Chel‐Guerrero",authors:[{id:"106588",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Chel-Guerrero",slug:"luis-chel-guerrero",fullName:"Luis Chel-Guerrero"},{id:"189289",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"Pérez-Pacheco",slug:"emilio-perez-pacheco",fullName:"Emilio Pérez-Pacheco"},{id:"189295",title:"MSc.",name:"Jorge Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Canto Pinto",slug:"jorge-carlos-canto-pinto",fullName:"Jorge Carlos Canto Pinto"},{id:"189296",title:"Dr.",name:"Víctor Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Moo Huchin",slug:"victor-manuel-moo-huchin",fullName:"Víctor Manuel Moo Huchin"},{id:"189297",title:"Dr.",name:"Iván Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Estrada Mota",slug:"ivan-alfredo-estrada-mota",fullName:"Iván Alfredo Estrada Mota"},{id:"189298",title:"Dr.",name:"Raciel Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Estrada León",slug:"raciel-javier-estrada-leon",fullName:"Raciel Javier Estrada León"}]},{id:"55228",title:"Energy-Efficient Air-Conditioning Systems for Nonhuman Applications",slug:"energy-efficient-air-conditioning-systems-for-nonhuman-applications",totalDownloads:1851,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"In addition to humans’ thermal comfort, air-conditioning (AC) could be required for various nonhuman applications, for example, animals’ AC, greenhouse AC, food storage and transportation, industrial processes, and so on. In this regard, optimum conditions of air temperature and humidity are explored and compared on psychrometric charts. Thermodynamic limitations of existing AC systems are discussed from the subject point of view. Consequently, four kinds of low-cost energy-efficient AC systems, namely: (i) direct evaporative cooling (DEC), (ii) indirect evaporative cooling (IEC), (iii) Maisotsenko cycle (M-Cycle) evaporative cooling (MEC), and (iv) desiccant AC (DAC), are investigated for climatic conditions of two cities, that is, Multan (Pakistan) and Fukuoka (Japan). In addition, systems’ fundamentals and principles are explained by means of schematic diagrams and basic heat/mass transfer relationships. According to the results, performance of all systems is influenced by ambient air conditions; therefore, a particular AC system cannot provide optimum AC for all nonhuman applications. However, one or other AC system can successfully provide desired conditions of temperature and relative humidity. It has been concluded that evaporative cooling systems provide low-cost AC for dry climates, whereas DAC system is found energy efficient and viable for humid climates.",book:{id:"5909",slug:"refrigeration",title:"Refrigeration",fullTitle:"Refrigeration"},signatures:"Muhammad Sultan and Takahiko Miyazaki",authors:[{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan"},{id:"199802",title:"Prof.",name:"Takahiko",middleName:null,surname:"Miyazaki",slug:"takahiko-miyazaki",fullName:"Takahiko Miyazaki"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"771",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. 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