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To improve the structural and functional properties of the alloy, other elements can be added. However, this strategy leads to the formation of several phases. Indeed, physical metallurgy and phase diagrams show that multifunctional alloys can develop dozens of structures with several phases. Structurally, they can be fragile, and scientifically their analysis will be difficult. On the other hand, high entropy alloys (HEAs) [1, 2] are characterized by high mixing entropy. Therefore, they have become primordial structures for developing potential applications tanks to their superior properties. HEAs materials are characterized by four effects: high entropy, severe lattice distortion, slow scattering and the cocktail effect. They are detailed in the reference [3]. Excellent properties of HEAs have been reported such as outstanding thermal stability [4], good wear resistance [5], good corrosion resistance [6] and best oxidation resistance [7].
On the other hand, the surface is seen as an important component of the material for developing industrial applications. It can be easily modified and adapted to improve the performance of the materials according to demanding conditions. Thus, the quality of the material surface has a significant impact on its lifetime. Thin films are found in many applications with improved surface properties for high-performance materials. For example, tools used in machining are often coated with protective and hard thin films to achieve high mechanical properties and better wear resistance [8, 9, 10]. Better physical properties such as a good oxidation resistance are also required for aerospace and automotive applications. Protective films can also be found in biomedical applications such as bio-implants [11, 12]. Review articles have been reported on the effect of process parameters on the phase structure of HEFs with also a discussion on the preparation process and the functional properties of the films [13]. Others have been focused on the development of HEAs/HEFs operating in extreme conditions and other characteristics [14, 15, 16].
Magnetron sputtering is a widely used technique to deposit thin films. It is used in several industrial applications. This technology has been continuously developed to improve the target utilization and increase the deposition rates by reducing operating costs. Preparing high entropy films (HEFs) by this technique is of considerable interest to provide coatings with superior properties. To this end, several research works report on the development of coatings with improved performances but with low-cost materials. Conventional hard coatings, such as traditional nitrides and carbides, have shown the potential to increase wear resistance. However, these traditional materials seem to not meet the current needs. For example, some traditional nitrides have a limited oxidation resistance. Recently, HEFs have shown much improved performances. A comparison of different alloys is presented in the reference [17] where the oxidation resistance of an HEF reaches 1300°C. (AlCrNbTaTi)N HEF shows an oxidation resistance at 850°C for 100 hours [18] which is better than various traditional nitrides. Many HEFs, prepared by magnetron sputtering technique, revealed other excellent performances [19, 20, 21, 22].
By using magnetron sputtering technique, various deposition parameters are exploited to control the properties of HEFs. Among these parameters, we find gas flow rate, substrate temperature, working pressure, and bias voltage. The chapter overviews magnetron sputtering process, the classes of different HEFs and it shed light on the effect of the different parameters on the properties of HEFs. Applications of some HEFs are also presented.
There are several ways to prepare thin films. The most common methods used in research laboratories and in industry are PVD and CVD techniques. Among the PVD procedures, magnetron sputtering shows several advantages. It offers the possibility to obtain a stoichiometry like that of the used target. The quenching rate is high (109 K/s) leading to the formation of sutured solid solutions. In the following paragraph, the process of the magnetron sputtering will be briefly introduced.
The synthesis of coatings by using magnetron sputtering technique can be done in three steps. In the first step, an atomic vapor is created by extracting the atoms from the target thanks to applied potential difference between the target and the reactor walls. Then this vapor is transferred to the substrate in a rarefied atmosphere of chemically neutral gas. In the last step, the atomic vapor condenses into the substrate surface allowing the germination process and consequently the growth of the film.
This basic process is limited by various effects like low deposition rate, low ionization coefficient in the plasma, and a substrate heat. To circumvent these limitations, a magnetron dispositive is integrated into the process. The magnets are placed behind the cathode. They generate a magnetic field parallel to the surface of the target, perpendicular to the electric field. The electrons emitted by the cathode and present in the gas and are trapped by the field lines (Figure 1). The probability that an electron meets argon is so high. The ion bombardment of the target results in a higher sputtering rate and the deposition rate increases.
Magnetron sputtering process.
The difference between the High Power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering (HiPIMS) and DCMS is the use of high power densities. HiPIMS is a recent advance in sputtering process using magnetron sputtering with a high voltage power source. High voltage with short duration is used to generate high-density plasma resulting in high degree of ionization of the coating material. HiPIMS, has various advantages. The highly energetic ions, produced by high voltage, result in denser film compared to that deposited by conventional techniques. HiPIMS bombards the sample with high-energy gas ions that can remove oxides and therefore clean the surface. This can improve the adhesion of the coating to the surface. A description of plasma process using HiPIMS can be found in Anders’s tutorial [23].
Few studies have been reported in the literature on using HiPIMS to prepare the HEFs. The papers revealed the formation of dense microstructures of the films compared to that obtained by DCMS process. The change of the microstructure strongly influences the mechanical and electrochemical performances of HEFS. For example, Bachani and co-workers [24] investigated (TiZrNbTaFe)N using HiPIMS process and found that the film containing 32 at.% of nitrogen exhibits a very dense microstructure compared to others. Its hardness is improved (36.2 GPa). The corrosion resistance is increased, according to the variation of the nitrogen content, due to the densification of the films. CuNiTiNbCr dual-phases were formed at different working pressures as reported by Li and co-workers [25]. AlCrTiVZr HEFs have been studied under the effect of nitrogen. Due to its densification, the nitride obtained at 12 sccm presents a hardness of 41.8 GPa which is the super-hard film compared to others. Figure 2 presents SEM images showing the difference in the morphology of (AlCrNbSiTiV)N films obtained by both processes DCMS (Figure 2a, b) and HiPIMS (Figure 2c, d) [26].
SEM images showing the surfaces and cross-sectional microstructure of (AlCrNbSiTiV)N deposition using DCMS (a,b) and HiPIMS (c,d). The figure is reproduced with permission of [
HEFs can be classified into three categories: metallics, ceramics and composites films as presented in Figure 3.
Classes of HEFs.
Metallic HEFs: they consist basically of Cantor-based elements. They are mostly composed of transition elements such as Al, Cr, Fe, Ti, Mo, etc. Refractory elements are also used to develop coatings for high-temperature applications. The refractory elements, such as Hf, Ta, Nb, V, W, etc have much higher melting point. These materials are classified into HfNbTaZr, CrMoNbTa [27].
Ceramic HEFs: consist of nitrides, carbides, oxides and borides. These materials can be deposited on substrates by using reactive mode (introduction of gas). Solid solutions are reported and strong nitride-, carbide-, oxide-forming elements like Zr, Cr, Si and Ti are used. These ceramics exhibit superior properties such as high oxidation resistance, good corrosion resistance and high tribological performances.
Composite HEFs: These materials can be prepared by reinforcing the film matrix with ceramics. Various ceramics like WC, TiC, NbC, and others have been used as reinforcements to improve the properties of HEFs. Metallic reinforcements have been also used. For example, Tian and co-workers [28] prepared a compact ACoCrniFeTi/Ni coating with Ni splats uniformly distributed in the matrix (ACoCrniFeTi). Due to this reinforcement, the results reveal an improvement in its tensile test compared to that of the matrix alone.
DCMS was largely used to prepare the HEFs under different conditions. The most-reported films have three different morphologies, columnar, dendrite-like and fibrous-like. The deposition parameters are reported to have a strong influence on the HEFs morphology. The mobility of particles into the surface of the substrate is the main reason of resulted morphology of the films. Studies have reported the effect of gas mixture on the films properties. Nitrogen, carbon and oxygen are used to form high entropy ceramics. For example, AlCrNbYZr exhibits dendrite-like morphology. By adding the nitrogen (AlCrNbYZr)N films reveal V-shaped columnar morphology. Zhang et al. [29] studied the effect of nitrogen on CrNbTiAlV films. Smooth surface and dense cross-sectional morphology are observed in the metallic film (CrNbTiAlV). With addition of the nitrogen, (CrNbTiAl)N gradually changes into columnar morphology. Some carbides show a different trend. Jhong et al. [21] studied CrNbSiTaZr as a function of CH4 flow rate. They show that all films exhibit smooth surface and featureless cross-sectional morphology. The mobility of the atoms on the surface can be the main reason for the formation of dense structures. Oxygen gas also influences the morphology of HEFs. In the case of AlCoCrCu0.5FeNi, the films exhibit agglomerated grains at a low oxygen flow rate. However, as the oxygen flow increases the grains become equiaxed with a size of 35 nm.
The morphology of HEFs can be also influenced by other parameters like the pressure and the bias voltage. AlCrTiWNbT shows a columnar morphology when the bias voltage changes from −50V to −100V but at −150V fine spaced striation lines are formed of the film [30]. Fine fibers morphology is formed for CrNbSiTiZr at −50V which is transformed to compact at −200V [31].
For the structure, the prepared HEFs by magnetron sputtering are reported to have amorphous or crystalline structure. The most crystalline structures exhibit fcc solid solution. The structure can change under the effect of various parameters such as the high entropy and the atomic mismatch. The high entropy promotes the formation of the solid solution instead of metallics compounds. However, if the difference in atomic mismatch is enough, the film remains amorphous. In the case of HEFs by magnetron sputtering, three different structures are reported: amorphous, fcc and bcc. AlCoCrNi [32], NbTiAlSiZr [33] and FeCoNiCuVZrAl [34] HEFs exhibit an amorphous structure which remains unchangeable even after adding the nitrogen. On the other hand, other studies revealed the phase transformation from amorphous to crystalline structure upon increasing the nitrogen contents in the films. Cheng et al. [22] examined the effect of nitrogen on AlCrMoTaTiZr by varying its flow rate from 0% to 50%. The percentage of the flow rate is calculated according to argon quantity by the followed formula RN=N2/(Ar+N2). The results show that the film exhibits an amorphous structure at RN=0%. However, when the nitrogen flow increases fcc-single phases structures are formed as is presented the Figure 4.
X-ray diffractogramme of (AlCrMoTaTiZr)N as function of nitrogen flow rate (N2). The figure is reproduced with permission of [
The nitrogen atoms are adsorbed in interstitial sites leading to the formation of nitrides. The interaction between the nitrogen and the elements varies along with the periodic table. Group 4–6 are strong nitride former while metals in group 7–11 are weakly nitride former. This interaction has a mix of ionic, metallic and covalent bonding. The reported HEFs nitrides have NaCl-type structure as mentioned above. Because of the similarities of the structure between different standard nitrides, extended homogeneity regions for solid solutions can be obtained.
Among other ceramics, carbides can be also prepared. Up to now, they have not been widely investigated like the nitrides. Most references focus on the use of strong carbide forming metals. Kuang et al. have investigated the tribological properties of CrNbTiMoZr carbide films [35]. Kao and co-workers studied the effect of carbon content on the mechanical and electrochemical properties of CrNbSiTaZr films [36]. There is also others few studied on the same subject [21, 37].Figure 5 shows XRD diffractograms of (CrNbSiTiZr)Cx films as a function of CH4 rate flow. In the case of carbides, textured solid solutions are also formed. (111), (200), (220) and (311) peaks of the prepared films reveal the formation of fcc NaCl-type structure (Figure 5).
X-ray diffractogramme of (CrNbSiTiZr)Cx as function of nitrogen flow rate (N2). The figure is reproduced with permission of [
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a powerful technique to provide information on the composition and the chemical binding between the elements. Up to date, few XPS analysis are reported on HEFs studies. More efforts are needed to provide more information on the binding nature and the compound of different elements constituting HEFs.
Khan et al. [38] examined AlCoCrCu0.5FeNi nitride films by XPS. They showed that the porosity of films grows with a higher nitrogen flow fraction facilitating than the atmospheric oxidation. XPS analysis confirmed the formation of protective oxides AlO3, CrO3 and nitrides AlN and CrN on the films surfaces [38].
Khan and co-workers [38] used XPS to determine the oxidation states of AlCoCrCu0.5FeNi HEFs. The films were deposited at various nitrogen flow rates. The results revealed the formation of both nitrides and oxides on the surface of the films. At higher nitrogen flow, binary oxides Al2O3 and Cr2O3 were formed together with nitrides AlN and CrN on the films surfaces. Feng and coworkers [39] studied (ZrNbTaTiW)N HEFs and reported by XPS the formation of a mixture of metallic (Nb, W, Ta), nitride (ZrN, TiN, TaN) and oxide ZO2.
Our group studied the nitridation effect on AlTiTaZrHf, prepared by the magnetron sputtering technique [40]. All the elements are nitride after adding the nitrogen. As the nitrogen flow rate increases, the nitride content changes according to the affinity of each element. The atomic percentage is estimated according to XPS analysis and is presented for each individual element in Figure 6. Both metal Ta and Hf show a quick increase of nitridation followed by quasi-stable evolution when RN2=N2/(N2+Ar) increases from 0 to 50%. Al and Zr elements show a weak increase at RN2=5% and stabilization when RN2 continues to grow. However, Ti reveals a quasi-stable formation of nitride even though RN2 increases (Figure 6). The results demonstrate that all the elements are nitride during the deposition leading to the formation of high entropy nitride films.
Atomic percentage of individual elements, Al, Ti, Ta, Zr, and Hf as a function of nitrogen flow rate RN2=N2/(N2+Ar) during the preparation of AlTiTaZrHf(-N) HEFs. The curves are presented according to XPS analysis.
The mechanical properties have been investigated for large amounts of HEFs and the results revealed an improvement in the materials\' performances. Indeed, good hardness and wear resistance make the HEFs as well as their nitrides promising candidates for cutting tools for example. HEFs prepared by the magnetron sputtering technique showed that the mechanical properties are influenced by various deposition parameters. For example, Yu and co-workers [31] studied CrNbSiTiZr by changing the substrate bias voltage. The results showed that the hardness increased at a maximum of 12.4 ± 0.3 GPa with −50 V bias followed by a decrease to 9.8 ± 0.2 GPa when the bias is −200 V. Young’s modulus shows the same trend by increasing at 187.7 ± 3.3 GPa for −100 V and a decreasing to 162.3 ± 3.7 GPa for −200 V. The working pressure is also another parameter influencing the mechanical properties of HFEs. Kim and co-workers [32] reported high mechanical properties of AlCoCrNi films obtained with a pressure of 1.33 × 10−1 Pa. Indeed, at low pressure (1.33 Pa), the hardness is measured at 8.9 ± 0.9 GPa and the modulus at 142 ± 11 GPa. However, when the pressure reaches 1.33 × 10−1 Pa, the hardness increase to 16.8 ± 0.5 GPa and the modulus to 243 ± 39 GPa.
The nitrides show an increasing of mechanical properties as the nitrogen flow rate increases followed by a decrease as the flow continues to increase. This trend is seen for various high entropy nitrides [29, 41, 42, 43, 44]. An example is presented in Figure 7a. (AlCrMoTaTiZr)N HEFs, obtained with 40% nitrogen flow ratio, is the hardest film compared to others with a hardness of 40 GPa with Young’s modulus higher than 370 GPa. Residual stresses have been also studied and their evolution is depending on the nitrogen content. Zhang and co-workers [29] investigated the residual stress of (CrNbTiAlV)N HEFs at different nitrogen flows. The result is presented in Figure 7b. The metallic film has the lowest value of −2.35 GPa while a maximum (−6.55 GPa) is obtained for the nitride at 38 sccm.
Hardness (a) and Residual stress (b) of (CrNbTiAlV)Nx films deposited under different nitrogen flows. Figure reproduced with permission from [
In the case of oxides, as the oxygen flow rate increases the microstructure became dense and consequently the mechanical properties are improved. At a high flow rate, these properties degrade. The hardness of AlCoCrCu0.5FeNi reaches the maximum (11.3 ± 0.9 GPa) at 25% of O2 and decreases as the flow continues to increase.
Other results show that this trend is not always true. Khan and co-workers [45] reported no change in the mechanical properties by studying AlCoCrCu0.5FeNi films. These laters are prepared as a function of the working pressure. Their hardness was measured at 13 GPa while Young\'s modulus was evaluated at 204 GPa and no change was revealed as the pressure increased.
The change in microstructure could be the result of several factors such as preferential orientation and variation in crystallite size. These phenomena improve the tribological performance of HEFs. The presence of defects can also prevent plastic flow during deformation in the material that can change its hardness. The change in the hardness will lead to a change in its tribological properties.
The tribological performance of (AlCrNbSiTiMo)N has been studied by Lo and co-workers [46] at ambient temperature and after annealing at 700°C. The results showed a decrease in the friction coefficient, especially after annealing. This reduction difference in the coefficient of friction was measured at 0.2. At room temperature, the coefficient was 0.68 ± 0.09 while after annealing at 700°C it became 0.48 ± 0.08 as shown in Figure 8. The result revealed an improved wear resistance due to the formation of MoO3 after annealing, which acts as a lubricating effect.
Friction Coefficient of the AlCrNbSiTiMoN coatings. Figure reproduced with permission from [
By changing the content of the elements, the tribological properties can be improved. For example, the effect of Al was studied by Cui and co-workers [47] on FeCoCrNiMnAlx alloy. As the Al content increases, the friction coefficient of these films decreases. On the other hand, the incorporation of carbon, producing a lubricating effect can also reduce the friction coefficient [35].
Corrosion is described as a physical-chemical interaction between a metal and its environment leading to changes in its properties and significant degradation of its function. Developing corrosion-resistant materials is a necessary need to resolve the issue and improve their performance. Due to the elevated entropy, HEFs form solid solutions rather than intermetallic compounds. This makes the materials with best functional properties. The corrosion of HEFs has been mostly studied in nitric acid, salt (NaCl) and in HCl. It has been reported that Cr, Ni, Co and Ti elements can improve the corrosion resistance in acid solution. Mo element could inhibit pitting corrosion in a solution containing Cl. Such phenomena have been carried out for HEFs prepared by magnetron sputtering. The results revealed that these properties are influenced by different deposition parameters. To carry out the electrochemical measurements of the films, potentiodynamic polarization tests are used. The parameters include corrosion potential (Ecorr), pitting potential (Epit) and corrosion-current density (Icorr). This later can be used to estimate the corrosion rate as described by the equation below [48]:
Where ρ is the density of the alloys (g/cm3), Icorr (μA/cm2) and EW present the equivalent weight given by:
ni, fi and Wi are the ith elements, the masse fraction and the atomic weight of ith element in the alloy respectively.
Anti-corrosion performance of (CrNbTaTiW)C has been studied by Malinovskis and co-workers [19] in HCl solution with a concentration of 1M. The results revealed that the carbides showed the best corrosion resistance compared to that Stainless Steel. Gao and co-workers [49] performed a deposition of (CoCrFeNiAl0.3) on silicon by using magnetron sputtering. The films show better corrosion resistance compared to austenitic 304L stainless steel. Wang and a coworker [50] studied corrosion behavior of AlCoFeNiTiZr HEFs in NaCl solution. Three coatings, (Fe-Co-Ni)25(Al-Ti-Zr)75, (Fe-Co-Ni)20(Al-Ti-Zr)80, (Fe-Co-Ni)15(Al-Ti-Zr)85 have been tested. According to the reported results, (Fe-Co-Ni)25(Al-Ti-Zr)75 exhibits the lowest Icorr and the highest Ecorr revealing its best corrosion resistance compared to other films. Wang and co-worker [37] investigated the electrochemical properties of (CrNbSiTiZr)C in a 3.5 wt% NaCl solution. Figure 9 presented the potentiodynamic polarization curves of the film. The result is compared to that of 304L stainless steel (SS). The study reported that (CrNbSiTiZr)C shows a Ecorr of −189 mV and Icorr of 0.0026 μA/cm2. Ecorr is higher and Icorr is smaller than that of 304L SS (Ecorr= −319 mV; Icorr= 0.13 μA/cm2). Th result then reveal that (CrNbSiTiZr)C exhibits a higher corrosion resistance compared to that of 304L SS.
Potentiodynamic curve of (CrNbSiTiZr)C in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution. Figure reproduced with permission from [
The change in composition (variation in the elements contents) influences the microstructure. Therefore, the change of the microstructure will improve the functional properties such as corrosion resistance. Wang and co-workers [50] reported an improved corrosion resistance of (Fe-Co-Ni)x(Al-Ti-Zr)100-x as a result of the increase in Fe-Co-Ni content. As a result, (FeCoNi)25(AlTiZr)75 showed a better corrosion performance. The addition of Al in the refractory HEF films VNbMoTaW was beneficial in terms of increasing the corrosion resistance. With 2.37 at.% of Al present in the alloy, excellent corrosion resistance was measured compared to 304 stainless steels in 0.5M of H2SO4 [51]. However, increasing the Al content can have a negative effect on the quality of the film. Indeed, at high Al content porous oxides can be formed and the pores can easily facilitate the diffusion of acid. As a result, the corrosion resistance decreases.
Other deposition parameters strongly influence the anticorrosion performance of HEFs. Kao and co-workers [36] reported an improved corrosion resistance of CrNbSiTaZr films. The films were prepared in a C2H2 containing environment. Varying the bias voltage can also change the properties of the films. Von Fieandt and co-workers [52] showed a better corrosion resistance of (AlCrNbYZr)Nx films compared to stainless steel. The electrochemical measurements were done in HCl by changing the polarization voltage and the temperature.
Various HEFs have been prepared to investigate their high-temperature oxidation behavior. (Al0.34Cr0.22Nb0.11Si0.11Ti0.22)50N50 HEFs have been annealed at 900°C for 50 hours [17]. Two different oxides were formed: α-Al2O3 and rutile-TiO2. The dense Al2O3 formed on the top layer of the films was a key reason to improve their oxidation resistance. Compared to traditional films TiN and TiAlN prepared under the same conditions, (Al0.34Cr0.22Nb0.11Si0.11Ti0.22)50N50 HEFs reveal the best oxidation resistance and can be potential candidates for developing high-temperature applications. The element content is one of the influencing parameters that can improve the oxidation resistance of the films. Indeed, Al and Si can lead to the formation of dense α-Al2O3 and α-SiO2 layers on HEFs at high temperature which improves their oxidation resistance. The oxidation behavior of (AlCrNbTaTi)N films, in air as a function of Si concentration, was reported by Kretschmer and co-workers [18]. The films were annealed at 850°C for 100 hours. Without Si, the oxide thickness of the film is important (2700 nm), however when Si was added the oxide thickness was measured at 280 nm. This means that Si forms a dense layer on the surface during the oxidation preventing then the diffusion of the oxygen in the film.
Tsai and co-workers [53] reported the same trend of Si effect. Figure 10 shows the variation of the oxide thickness formed according to Si content in the films. As Si content increases, the thickness of oxide layer decreases revealing a good oxidation resistance at high temperature.
Cross-sectional SEM micrographs of the (AlCrMoTaTi)N HEFs with (a) 0 at.%, (b) 2.77 at.%, and (c) 7.51 at.% of Si coatings after annealing at different temperature in air. Figure reproduced with permission from [
In the case of HfNbTaTiZr film HEFs, it was shown that oxygen reacted with all elements forming oxide nanoclusters. XPS was used to analyze the oxidation behavior and the results revealed 66 at.% of oxygen content where no oxide was determined by other techniques like SEM, TEM and X-ray diffraction [54]. The oxygen was found to preferentially bind to Ti, Zr and Hf rather than other elements.
HEFs deposited by magnetron sputtering techniques have been exploited to develop some applications. They can serve as surface protective materials. Among the different applications, materials for biomedical and for machining will be presented in this section.
Various scientific research has been focused on coatings to improve the performance of implants and prostheses. Compared to traditional coatings using this field, HEFs become the hot spot in surface engineering development. Two films, (HfNbTaTiZr)N and (HfNbTaTiZr)C, have been prepared by magnetron sputtering technique [55]. The corrosion property of these films was simulated in body fluid. The results have revealed a very small ratio of dead cells that were observed for both (HfNbTaTiZr)N and (HfNbTaTiZr)C HEFs. Si was used to improve the biocompatibility of the materials. Valdescu and co-workers [11] have replaced Ta with Si in the case of (TiZrNbTaHf)C. Considering the role of electrostatic interactions between the biomaterial surface and the cells, the authors examined the effects of surface charge (characterized by electrical potential and work function) on the biocompatibility property. A low electrical potential and high work function of (TiZrNbSiHf)C film was obtained revealing that this film exhibits best biocompatibility.
The dry machining process is seen as the best alternative to replace the oils in the industry. Because the oils have a negative impact on both operator health and the ecology. An environmental transition is, therefore, necessary to develop clean processes. HEFs are now interesting materials where scientific efforts are underway to improve the performance of cutting tools. thermal and machining properties of (Al0.34Cr0.22Nb0.11Si0.11Ti0.22)50N50 HEF, have been examined by Shen and co-workers [56]. The cutting performances of the films are better as the milling was operating at a high temperature. Due to its superior properties like high hardness, good thermal stability and outstanding oxidation resistance, the HEF shows great potential to be exploited in machining applications. The study reported that, after 900 m of cutting, the wear depth is 226, 202, 184, and 175 μm for uncoated, TiN, TiAlN and (Al0.34Cr0.22Nb0.11Si0.11Ti0.22)50N50 HEF respectively.
The chapter reports and discusses briefly various properties of HEFs fabricated by magnetron sputtering. Intensive scientific efforts have been paid to this area for improving the materials surfaces and developing innovant materials. The preparation of the films is performed according to various deposition parameters.
Two processes are reported, standard direct current magnetron sputtering (DCMS) and high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) that are used to prepare HEFs in different environments. HiPIMS process led to the formation of denser microstructure compared to that with DCMS. Substrate bias voltage, working pressure, gas flow rate as deposition parameters, all are discussed and revealed that they strongly influence the physico-chemical properties of HEFs. Amorphous to crystalline structure of the most prepared HEFs transition took place upon introduction of gas like N2 or CH4 or O2.
Two functional properties, electrochemical (corrosion) and physical (oxidation) are reported and discussed. Th both properties have been reported to be influenced by different deposition parameters. The preparation of dense films prevents acid attack and improve corrosion resistance. The formation of some oxide layers such as α-Al2O3 and α-SiO2 on the top film surface plays a great role in protecting the materials from oxidation at high temperature.
Some HEFs are exploited to develop application in the various materials field. Examples are reported on biomaterials and machining processes showing the best performances of the films compared to traditional coatings.
The prepared HEFs revealed enhanced surface protection ability. Even with the promising performances that possess the HEFs, more efforts are needed to develop a deep understanding of this class of materials. The complexity of the materials increases with the number of possible combinations of elements. Traditional metallurgy cannot meet the requirements of quick results, which requires a lot of time depending on the combinations. Advanced characterization techniques are needed which must be combined with theoretical simulation to solve this type of problem. Artificial intelligence can also be added to the knowledge of traditional metallurgy to define new approaches for studying innovative HEFs.
Authors ME, FS and FSC thank the Université de Technologie de Troyes (UTT) and Commissariat à l\'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA) Saclay.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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