\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"506",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Biomedical Engineering",title:"Advanced Biomedical Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book presents a collection of recent and extended academic works in selected topics of biomedical signal processing, bio-imaging and biomedical ethics and legislation. 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Mite complex is worldwide in its distribution in all regions of globe and more prominent in tropical a well as subtropical climates. Mites can be either inflicting damage to humans and animals [1, 2], or pestilent that feed on plants [3] and stored commodities [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23], otherwise predacious which are the carnivorous of leaf-feeding mites and other pests [24]. All harmful types of mites are able to devastate agricultural crops, fruits and vegetables [25, 26]. During the previous few decades, owing to increasing concerns over health, environment and pest resistance risks accompanying with chemical control, and the use of alternate pest management strategies has received considerable attention [27, 28]. In this context, the uses of generalist predators that can perform as a broad spectrum fighters against pests have been greatly encouraged [29, 30, 31].
Currently, mites belonging to the family Phytoseiidae (Arachnida: Mesostigmata) are economically important predators of some phytophagous mites and insects in greenhouses or field crops. Amongst others predators, mass reared phytoseiid mites are commercially available and used, against spider mites, thrips and whiteflies infestations on plants. Phytoseiid mites use odors (kairomones) associated with mite-infested plants to locate their prey or when predators contact spider mite webbing, these intensify their search for prey and may identify prey eggs and distinguish these from non-prey objects. The existence of a water-soluble feeding stimulant on prey eggs as well is postulated [32].
Predator mites which fit to the family Phytoseiidae, are categorized by long legs, with the front pair pointing frontward and comparatively have few hairs (<20 pairs) on their back. The color of mites can differ from deep red to pale yellow liable to the prey items eaten. Mites that feed on whiteflies and thrips are commonly pale yellow to pale tan. Phytoseiid mites have five life stages in life cycle like egg, larva, protonymph, deutonymph and adult. Most mites of this family are free-living predators in the deutonymphal and adult stages on a variety of arthropods in plants or crops. This chapter presents broad-spectrum ideas of the findings in research focusing on rhetorical aspects of biology and ecology of some predacious as well as harmful mites with particular reference to their possible role in biological control [33, 34].
Beneficial mites are excellent biological control agents and have been used in controlling of tiny mite pests and insect pests that cause a serious damage to many economically important crops.
Cucumeris predatory mite
Cucumeris populations have somewhat more females than males (64% females). Mite develops through one larval stage and two nymphal stages (protonymph and deutonymph) before becoming adults. The non-feeding larvae emerge from eggs in about 3 days and molt into protonymphs 2 days later. The two nymphal stages last for 7–10 days before developing into adults. Adults live for up to 30 days and eat an average of 1 thrips/day. Cucumeris has a life cycle of 10–12 days at 20°C, while development time at 75°F is 6–9 days and development takes from 8 to 11 days (at 20–25°C). Cucumeris prefers environment with >65% relative humidity (R. H.), but eggs can survive at as low as 40% R. H. Greenhouse
For studying food habits of predatory mite
Cucumeris is an aggressive predator of several soft-bodied pests and generally microclimates inside the greenhouse crop seem to be significant for their existence. Cucumeris feeds on little (first and second instar) thrips on foliage and flowers, and does not nourish on big larvae or adult thrips. The prime targets of Cucumeris are thrips species including western flower thrips (
Cucumeris is an appropriate enemy for many tiny pests of greenhouse crops, and both outdoor and indoor strawberry crop. This is able to live on pollen in the absence of pest and as a result might be used precautionary in crops such as strawberries or capsicums that produce pollen. Cucumeris has been efficaciously used for thrips control in capsicums, cucumbers, berry fruits and eggplants as well as in ornamental crops such as rose and gerbera, and other potted plants. In circumstances having very huge thrips pressure, Cucumeris ought to be always used in combination with the predatory pirate bug
In recent years, various delivery systems (formulations) of
Mite
Adults of
Growth from egg to adult takes place in 7–9 days at 70°F, 3 days at 85°F and at 78°F a fourfold rise in numbers can occur within 4 days. Under optimum conditions in the field, densities may increase from 10 predators per 100 leaves to 200–500 predators per 100 leaves in just 2 weeks. Adult mated females enter diapause in response to the short days in the fall (<14 hours of daylight) in plant crevices or other protected areas. As a result, these stop reproducing and move into sheltered areas, such as under bark or ground cover. But, these do not enter diapause in greenhouses or interior plantscapes if the temperature is 64°F (18°C) or above. These emerge as early as bloom, but in reduced numbers due to heavy winter mortality. Fallacis increases in number rapidly and adults become numerous by July or August, and on an average 40–60 eggs are laid. Warmer or cooler conditions accelerate or slow down reproduction/feeding, respectively, and these live about 20 days [46, 47].
Mite predator
Predator mite
Larvae do not attempt to feed and remain inactive near the old egg shell. Although the larval stage does not feed, yet the subsequent nymphs and adults feed on all stages of prey. Both males and females remained in the larval stage for an average of 1.0 ± 0.1 days. Immatures are normally pale salmon in color. The male and female protonymphal stages lasted 1.7 and 1.6 days, respectively. During this time both males and females ate an average of 4–4 eggs of
Due to its tropical origin,
Predaceous mite
Mite
Predator
Californicus works in the superlative form while used preventatively, or else when spider mites are initially observed in the crop. It establishes the best early in the crop and when is permitted to build up prior to spider mites found. Predator
Californicus are primarily sent in a loose, vermiculite-based medium and the predator should be distributed evenly through the crop on foliage, with additional material at ends of rows and in hotter areas prone to spider mites. Rates will vary depending on the crop and infestation level, however, the subsequent rates have been determined as preventative @ 25/m2 (2.5 L/ha) releasing 2 weeks apart for 2–3 releases, and after spider mite detection 100–200/m2 (10 L/ha) weekly for at least three applications.
The species
Adults are pear-shaped, 0.5 mm in length with an unsegmented body and four pairs of long legs, and males may be slightly smaller than females (Figure 5). The eggs are round and transparent white and measure approximately 0.15 mm in diameter. These mites lay their eggs on leaf hairs (trichomes) and along the veins on the inner surface of leaves mainly at the intersection of main and lateral ribs. Females prefer to lay eggs on leaf hairs on the underside of plant leaves near plant domatia (small hairy tufts or pockets found on the lower surface of some leaves), which may be an adaptation to avoid egg from predators. The eggs hatch in about 3 days later. Larvae are pale white to nearly transparent in color and only have three pairs of legs. Mobile stages are beige-pink, droplet shaped and ‘pushed down’ position on short legs. The protonymph (second stage) and deutonymph (third stage) have four pairs of legs and are darker than the larvae. All stages can be found in the corner of main vein and lateral veins, and in the flowers [65, 66].
In addition to arthropod prey,
Species
The predatory mite
The eggs are oval, transparent white and around 0.15 mm in diameter. All stages can be mainly found in the corner of main vein and lateral veins, and in the flowers. When fed on
The predacious mite
It is used against various thrips species and broad mite as well as other tarsonemid mites in greenhouses and indoor plantscapes. It works well on
Mite species
Predatory mite
This predator works well on both inside protected crops and outside in ornamental crops, fruit trees, horticulture, nurseries and seedbeds. The invasion of the predator is realized under the low mass and the average density of 0.25–1 individual per 1 m2of pest population in amounts. Based on the focuses of pest populations, the rate of predator application is increased. This predatory mite is suitable for biologically controlling of some mites. For scouting, if some agile-looking mites are seen running quickly across the leaf’s undersurface, these are probably predators. One predatory mite per every 6 feet of crop row or 2–3 mites per 10–11 square feet are used. For best results, apply the
Mite
Research on the biology of predator
The effectiveness of hunter
A fenvalerate-resistant strain of
Among the effects of different developmental stages of two spider mite species, for instance,
Predatory mite
The average adult’s body length of
Eggs are laid in clusters and the eggs have a gluey surface, even though these are not very definitely fixed down, but are lightly bound together with silky strands. Development and fecundity are affected by prey type and environmental situations. Per female, the total number of eggs laid ranges from about 19 to 317. The time taken for an egg to develop to an adult within the temperature range of 12–30°C, decreased with an increasing in temperature. It took 33.8 days at 18.5°C, and at 25°C acquired 15.4 days. At 76% relative humidity and with
It is widespread and abundant in grain stores especially those that have significant storage mite problems. Maximum accounts of
The maximum frequently faced ectoparasite in captive snakes is the hematophagous snake mite (
It can be reared in large numbers and this makes it useful in the biocontrol of pest mites that infest harvested cereal and cereal products. For bulk rearing of the predator
Although mites are tiny creatures, these could be extremely harmful to cause great trouble for peoples or in other ways inflicting a variety of problems associated to plants.
Spider mites (Acari: Tetranychidae), belong to the superfamily Tetranychoidea that comprises five families, of which Tetranychidae is the largest. The common name ‘spider mites’ is so-called because of their ability to produce silken strands as do spiders, which is used to spin webs under that to reproduce and feed. Conversely, the silk glands in mites are situated close to mouth and allied with the mouthparts. From an applied opinion, the silk-producing habit has two vital uses for mites, firstly, falling from foliage and being adjourned from the host on a silk strand permits easy spread by wind and convection currents. Secondly, mats or tents of webbing around the mite colonies provide some degree of protection from natural enemies and treatments with pesticides.
Spider mites appear as tiny moving dots on their hosts by the naked eye. Spider mites are established on a wide variety of vascular plants, comprising shrubs, trees and herbaceous plants, from entirely all over the biosphere. Several horticultural and agricultural crops are affected by these pests, together with greenhouses and field crops, extending from low-growing bushes to fruit trees. Generally, spider mites forage on the lower side of foliage, however will cover the whole leaf surface while their densities are extraordinary. These puncture the plant cells and extract the cell contents. Their nourishing results in tiny clumps of dead cells and a spotted look of infested foliage. Wilting, leaf distortion, dryness and abscission take place with extended and high population invasions. Disturbance of photosynthesis results in plant growth checking and decrease in produce [100, 101]. Two widely distributed spider mites found on a broad range of plants are mention in the ensuing section.
Two-spotted spider mite
If a female has mated, the fertilized eggs develop into both male and female mites, if not mated, the unfertilized eggs develop into males. Eggs are shiny spheres, clear to pale green in color, pearl-like and about 0.14 mm in diameter. Eggs are laid singularly, with females depositing 5–6 eggs per day, with a total of 60–100 eggs per female. Eggs hatch in 3–6 days depending on temperature. Eggs hatch into six-legged larvae, then progress through protonymph and deutonymph stages before becoming to adults. Larvae are about the same size as eggs and the only life stage with six legs (protonymphs, deutonymphs and adults are all eight-legged). The octopods deutonymph is generally larger than the protonymph, although similar in color pattern. Larvae and nymphs complete development in 4–9 days depending on temperature and the females have a pre-oviposition period of 1–2 days. Since generations overlap, all life stages can usually be found simultaneously. There can be nine or more generations per year and adults live about 30 days [104, 105, 106].
Generally, the earlier a foliage is injured by mites, the more detrimental the damage will be to tree health. Midseason injury is less significant, but can combine with other stresses to cause fruit drop, poor fruit color, or reduced effectiveness of growth regulating chemicals. Some steps for spider mites controlling are scouting for the presence of pest, and noting damage and other signs of growing populations, looking for direct damage and other signs of pest, deciding if and when to take control action, choosing the best tool or tools to treat spider mites in growing situation, making spider mite treatments, and applications of biocontrol agents following the label and producer’s instructions [107, 108].
One of the studies investigated the development, fecundity and population density of
The carmine spider mite
The carmine spider mite is closely related to two-spotted spider mite
Development times of the carmine spider mite
The major natural predator of the carmine spider mite is a ladybird beetle
In a study, the populations of
Mould mite or cheese mite
This mite is 0.2–0.5 mm in length and has a minute translucent body with nearly colorless legs and mouthparts. These besides have a scale on the last terminating segment of the legs. To a certain degree, their slim bodies endure a sequence of hairs, which are more frequent and lengthier than those on
Under optimum conditions, a generation can be completed in 8–21 days. As the temperature falls, the length of the life cycle increases greatly. This mite will tolerate high temperatures, and the larval stage is particularly susceptible to low and high temperatures with 93.6 and 54% mortality at 10 and 34°C, respectively. Unlike
Laboratory investigations on the biology of
An IPM strategy has been developed to manage infestations of mould mite in stored animal feed, due to the increasing importance as pest of storage facilities and feed processing. This approach includes some features such as adopting striking hygiene practice in and around the processing and storage facility, controlling the moistness content of the processed feed to 12%, rejection of infested grain at the receiving point, and admixing vegetable oil to some feed (2% w/w). Moreover, seven contact insecticides and phosphine fumigant for their effectiveness against the mould mite have been evaluated to measure their potential integration into the IPM tactic. Amongst these, pyrethrin synergized with a newly developed bacterium-based material spinosad, piperonyl butoxide and insect growth regulator s-methoprene controlled the mites. Moreover, the fumigant phosphine at 1 mg/L over a 6 days exposure period also controlled these mites. Until now, the IPM tactic, has resulted in a complete eradication of the mite population in this particular case of stored animal feed [127].
Even though, the predatory mites aggressively feed on many pest species, their reproduction and dispersion to cover the affected area and time spent in prey searching can slow the mites management. Because of this limitation,
In the case of multiple pests inhabiting different plant parts, a higher rate or multiple predator releases may be required to achieve the desired level of control. In some natural pest control programs, various predator species are released to manage a single prey species. Whereas, in some circumstances, release of multiple species may offer a well control, while in other cases species may interact with each other for a possible negative outcome on biological control package. In a study, intraguild predation has been evaluated between three phytoseiid species,
Predator mites are most effective when applied at the first sign of a mites or insect pests infestations. These will typically turn out to be established in the crop afterward one introduction, wherever there persist either mites or pollen for diet. When prey become infrequent, for example,
Ongoing studies include the biology and ecology of some mite predators along with pest mites and how biotic and abiotic factors affect pests and their natural enemies. To cut a long story into short, from lookout of biological control of pest mites or insect pests, the knowledge on biology and ecology of some predacious as well as harmful mites is undoubtedly important. A successful management plan requires information about a species biology including its diet, lifecycle and mass releases of predator, how it interacts with the environment and with other species as well as species behavior and how the behavior of both pests and beneficial enemies can be manipulated to reduce or prevent yield losses. Information of the biology and ecology of mite pests and their natural enemies contained in the chapter is a prerequisite to keep a minimum economic impact of pests, eliminate pest menaces by organic pest controlling and implement efficient plantation protection practices with modern thinking on environmental problems.
The fossil fuel depletion and inevitable global warming have become worldwide problems; thus, significant efforts have been made to generate and utilize renewable energy to alleviate these crises. Methods for obtaining energy compounds from biomass, such as ethanol, methane, and hydrogen, have been developed using environment-friendly technology, and some of these technologies have been put to practical use. It is important to establish the technologies that are able to obtain energy in various forms according to the environments and circumstances of each region. Apart from the above technologies, biofuel cells utilizing microorganisms and enzymes, which can generate renewable electrical energy from organic matters contained in biomass, begin to attract attention as a means to obtain sustainable energy. It has not been put into practical use yet, but without the problem of by-products, electricity can be directly obtained from the devices, whereby multiple operations, such as product distillation (e.g., ethanol), are not necessary. Moreover, if biomass waste is used as the fuel, no food competition will occur. Therefore, using this method, energy can be obtained sustainably (Figure 1).
\nEnvironmentally friendly energy.
There are various types of biomass, e.g., sustainably harvested wood, waste paper, food waste, sewage sludge, and various wastewaters. Taking wood-based biomass as a fuel example, when everything is burnt using available technology for thermal power generation, there will be nothing left, and we will lose some other useful compounds contained in it. On the other hand, in biofuel cells, although electricity is generated from the sugar obtained from the biomass, other components in the wood, such as lignin, can be used for purposes other than power generation. Generally, the energy density of the biomass used as a fuel for MFCs is high. For example, glucose and xylose, found in various plant biomass, can produce up to 20 or 24 electrons per molecule, provided that they are completely oxidized to carbon dioxide. It is possible to generate 4430 Wh power per kg of glucose according to the calculation described later. For reference, a typical lithium-ion battery has a weight energy density of about 200 Wh per kg. This comparison means that glucose and xylose are two biofuel sources of interest, especially as electron donors. Therefore, MFCs using glucose and/or xylose as their fuel have great potential as a means of obtaining high energy.
\nIn biofuel cells, biological reactions are used for the oxidation reaction of biomass, and they are divided into two based on the type of catalyst used: (1) enzymes and (2) microorganisms. When enzymes are used, the most widely studied mechanism is the two-electron oxidation system by glucose oxidase (GOx) or glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) [1]. Since purified enzymes are generally used, the reaction rate is faster than using microorganisms. However, the number of electrons obtained by one enzymatic reaction is smaller than that of a microorganism. For example, when GDH is used as the catalyst, glucose is oxidized to gluconic acid, and at most, only two electrons are obtained from one glucose molecule. Therefore, if only one enzyme is used, high-energy production per glucose consumed cannot be much expected. Further, the addition of cofactors, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ), is necessary for the enzymatic reaction to enhance the energy production. Furthermore, the cost of enzyme purification is also high; hence, enzymes are better utilized in sensor applications than energy production. By contrast, as mentioned above, one completely oxidized glucose molecule gives 24 electrons when using microorganisms as the catalyst. It shows a possibility of obtaining more electrons per glucose consumed. Moreover, the addition of cofactors is not necessary, unlike when enzymes are used. These are some substantial advantages of MFCs. However, the production of low power in MFCs is still a problem because of typical processes in living organisms, such as the uptake of glucose into cells, metabolism repression, and extraction of electrons from the inside of cells (Figure 2). Many researchers are working to solve such problems, and those results are summarized in recent review articles [2, 3].
\nElectron generation and extraction in the microbial fuel cell system. Med: mediator.
Looking back at the historical background, research on the MFCs has been conducted for a long time, whereby the first idea of using microorganisms to produce electricity was conceived and reported by Potter in 1911 [4].
The performance of MFCs is evaluated based on some indicators. The electrical energy (Wh) used to express the capacity of dry batteries is also an important indicator, but only a few papers have reported it so far. In most cases, the performance is expressed as the maximum power per anode electrode area (power density per area) or the maximum power per cell volume (power density per volume). The latter is a straightforward index and important for practical use. For example, a relatively high-performance small-scale fuel cell (2.5 mL) using a complex (mixed) microorganism system was reported in 2007 with a power density of 1550 W/m3 [16]. Other fuel cells performing beyond 500 W/m3 were also reported [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22], but many of them are still at a microliter or milliliter scale. Owing to the low proton diffusion speed and high internal resistance, the maximum power per volume tends to be small for a large-scale fuel cell. MFCs with a volume more than 1 L were also being studied in the laboratory, but the maximum power per volume was still low at the level of several W/m3 to tens of W/m3 [23, 24]. Scaling-up is also another issue of MFCs, and further improvements are still being conducted.
\nPractical applications of MFCs are still problematic because of the high cost and low-power generation. Despite this situation, research on the implementation of MFCs has been carried out. For example, an artificial stomach called Gastrobot (aka Chew-Chew train) using
Here, we will explain the mechanism of electron generation in microorganisms, introduce the principle of MFCs, describe the microbial catalysts used for various MFCs mentioned above, and discuss the recent topics on microbial catalysts.
\nMFCs utilize the decomposition energy of organic matters by the organisms to produce ATP, known as the energy currency, based on the energy obtained from this process. Taking glucose decomposition in
Glucose metabolism (
In the case of using glucose as the fuel source, the reaction occurring in the anode tank is represented by Eq. (1), and the reduction reaction occurring in the cathode tank is represented by Eq. (2).
\nThe oxidation-reduction potential of Eq. (1) is −0.42 V, whereas the oxidation-reduction potential of Eq. (2) is 0.82 V. Therefore, the total potential difference of the MFC reaction (Eq. (1) + Eq. (2)) as represented by Eq. (3) is 1.24 V. Theoretically, the voltage exceeds 1 V, but in most cases, it has never reached that value.
\nAssuming that 24 electrons are obtained from 1 glucose molecule and that they can be recovered in 1 h, the quantity of electricity (Ah) obtained from the glucose (1 kg) can be calculated using the Faraday constant (96,485 C/mol) as shown in Eq. 4. As a result, the electrical energy of 4430 Wh can be achieved if the potential is 1.24 V; accordingly, this value is the same as the value mentioned in the Introduction section.
\nA dual-chambered fuel cell consisting of an anode tank and a cathode tank is the simplest and has been used for a long time for MFCs. In many cases, they are separated by a cation exchange membrane (CEM) to create a potential difference between the two tanks (Figure 4). CEM prevents mixing of each content and allows the protons generated in the anode to migrate to the cathode. In addition, CEM selection, especially based on its proton transfer efficiency, is important because it significantly regulates the movement of the protons responsible for the pH reduction at the anode affecting the activity of microorganisms and the delivery of electrons to the oxygen at the cathode. Also, some factors to consider, such as durability and cost, are important for selecting CEM. At present, Nafion is popular for many MFCs [30, 31].
\nGeneral dual-type MFC. Med: mediator, CEM: cation exchange membrane.
Numerous research studies are being conducted to evaluate the influence of the electrode materials on the performance and cost of the MFCs. Carbon materials, which are noncorrosive, have been widely used because of their high electrical conductivity and chemical stability, e.g., carbon rod, carbon fiber, carbon felt, and carbon cloth [3]. Biocompatibility, specific surface area, electrical conductivity, and cost are important factors for its selection. Since its discovery in 2004, graphene has been attracting much attention for its use as an electrode because of its high specific surface area, electrical conductivity, and biocompatibility [32]. In fact, graphene has been already used in lithium-ion batteries, and the development of graphene-modified materials to increase the power density has progressed actively [33, 34]. Moreover, since biofilm formation by microorganisms on the electrodes affects the performance of MFCs, the preference of electrode materials tends to shift from two-dimensional to three-dimensional surfaces, where a larger surface area is obtained; thus, the contact with microorganisms increases. Furthermore, metals are also used as the electrodes. The conductivities are higher than those of carbon materials, but they are prone to corrosion in the anode solution. Therefore, metals are problematic to use, except for stainless and titanium. To improve such problem, materials in which metal is incorporated into graphite have been made [3].
\nA phosphate buffer or bicarbonate buffer solution is often used for the anode electrode solution to achieve high performance [16, 35]. The pH of the solution affects not only the activity of microorganisms but also the transfer of hydrogen ions used from the anode to the cathode when the electrons are transferred to oxygen at the cathode. The solutions contain microorganisms as the catalyst, organic matter as the fuel, and mediator as the electron carrier. In addition, there are reports that the performance of MFCs was improved by adding NaCl to increase the ionic strength [36].
\nRegarding the fuel, many substrates have already been studied [37]. For example, acetic acid, lactic acid, glycerol, glucose, xylose, sucrose, starch, yeast extract, malt extract, various real wastewaters, and synthetic wastewater were used depending on the purpose of each research. Generally, the fermentable substrate of microorganisms is used to generate electricity more efficiently. There is a trend where glucose is used when using
Regarding the mediator, although some microorganisms can carry electrons directly to the electrode as described later, in many cases, the electrons cannot be carried, or the performance is low even if carried, so an artificial mediator that can pass through the cell membrane is added to the anode solution. The typical compounds for artificial mediators are methylene blue, neutral red, 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (HNQ), thionine, benzyl viologen, 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol, and various phenazines [38]. It was reported that the hydrogenase donates electrons to the neutral red [39], but the process was not yet clearly proven as to how these mediators deprive electrons of the cell. It is thought that, depending on the type of mediator, the electrons may be taken directly from NADH or obtained from the electron transfer system of the cell membrane. On the other hand, there is also a difficult aspect of using a mediator. In order to increase the electron transfer efficiency by the mediator, it requires a high concentration, but because of its high toxicity, it has a strong influence on the cells; therefore, the level of use is necessary to be controlled.
\nFinally, the cathode solution is explained as follows. The electrons generated at the anode are carried to the cathode, where the reduction reaction takes place. When oxygen, the most common electron acceptor, is used as an oxidizing agent, aeration is necessary because oxygen has low solubility (about 8 mg/L DO). There are cases where oxygen generation by the photosynthesis of algae is used for oxygen supply [40, 41]. In the reaction at the cathode, H2O is produced by oxygen, whereby the electrons were carried from the anode via an external circuit and protons were carried from the anode solution via CEM. There is also a report that the addition of hydrogen peroxide leads to an improvement in power generation [42]. Besides oxygen, there are various electron acceptors [43]; for example, an oxidizing agent such as iron ferricyanide is also used for the cathode. In many cases, the ferricyanide has a high mass transfer efficiency and a high cathode potential so that a high output can be obtained. The combination of carbon electrodes and ferricyanides to achieve power 50–80% higher than the combination of Pt/carbon electrodes and oxygen was reported [44]. In the case of using ferricyanide, once the trivalent iron ion receives the electrons, it becomes divalent, and when it delivers the electrons to oxygen, it reverts to the trivalent state. However, the latter reaction is less likely to occur owing to the low solubility of oxygen. Ferricyanide is an excellent electron acceptor, but owing to its toxicity, its use is generally limited to the laboratory. Other than oxygen and ferricyanide, there are also many candidates, for example, nitrate, persulfate, permanganate, and manganese dioxide. It is also possible to use the nitrate contained in the wastewater because its redox potential is close to that of oxygen, and then, the nitrate is reduced to nitrogen gas at the cathode [43].
\nMFCs are typically divided into a dual-chambered cell described above and a single-chambered cell (Figure 5). In the latter, a membrane-type positive electrode with oxygen permeability called an air cathode is used [45]. The electrode is coated with the platinum catalyst, and H2O is produced from the oxygen permeated from the atmosphere, the proton in solution, and the electron from the anode. However, if the permeated excess oxygen diffuses and is delivered to the microorganisms at the anode, the electrons generated in the microorganisms are then transferred to the oxygen, and the energy recovery rate decreases. Therefore, a CEM is used between the anode solution and the cathode in order to prevent a decrease in energy recovery. This single-chambered type has already been widely used currently.
\nOther types of MFCs. Med: mediator, CEM: cation exchange membrane.
Moreover, there is a mediator-free type that does not require an artificial electron compound [46]. The microbial strains used here can synthesize mediators themselves and/or have an electron transfer function on the cell surface. In the former, the self-synthesized mediators are flavin compounds, hydroquinone, and phenazine that are able to transfer the electrons to the electrode. In the latter, membrane-bound proteins such as pili, c-type cytochromes, and filaments are known as cell surface structures that can directly transmit electrons. The biofilm formation on the electrodes, namely, biocompatibility of the electrodes, is also important for power generation via such direct electron transfer. Therefore, research on electrodes promoting the formation of the biofilm is actively being conducted.
\nIn addition, with the use of MFCs in wastewater treatment, contamination on the CEM results in reduced power generation; hence, membrane-free MFCs have also been studied [46].
\nVarious microorganisms have been studied for a long time since the first experiments on
In such a research situation, there are relatively many examples of research on
The utilization of chemical and biotechnological techniques is important to modify the microbial cells as biocatalysts in the MFC system. Molecular biology approaches are effective tools to improve the performance of the biocatalysts for the desired system. In this section, recent topics about the approaches for microbial catalyst development are discussed.
\nMediators and macromolecular catabolic enzymes, which are used for electron transfer and other metabolic activities, are abundant in the cytoplasm of the microbial cells used in the MFCs. However, it is not easy to transport the mediator molecules to the bacterial outer membrane so as to reach the electrode. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) layer on the Gram-negative outer membrane is compact and nonconductive; thus, most microbial cells are nonconductive [55]. It was found that chemically perforated pores and channels on the cell membranes accelerated electron transfer, leading to an improved power output for an MFC using
To increase the cell permeability of biocatalysts in the MFCs, Zheng et al. proposed a new approach by inducing the biosurfactant production based on a genetic modification [59]. It is true that the efficiency of membrane permeability can be improved with a biosurfactant, which ultimately increases the transport across the membrane. In addition, overexpression of the
The sparse availability of genetic tools in manipulating electricity-generating bacteria and the multiple overlapping pathways for extracellular electron transfer make it challenging to modulate electron transfer and/or introduce other functions of interest. In response to this challenge, several studies have taken the complementary approach of engineering portions of the extracellular electron transfer pathways into the well-studied industrial microbe
An extremophilic microorganism thrives in physically or geochemically extreme conditions that are detrimental to most life on Earth. They thrive in extreme hot niches, ice, and salt solutions, as well as acid and alkaline conditions; some may grow in toxic waste, organic solvents, heavy metals, or several other habitats that were previously considered inhospitable for life. Extremophiles can be used to oxidize sulfur compounds in acidic pH to remediate wastewaters and generate electrical energy from marine sediment microbial fuel cells at low temperatures. The MFC performance of these extremophilic microorganisms has been well summarized in several review papers [49, 64]. In this section, the recent advances of MFCs using extremophilic microorganisms as catalysts are briefly introduced and discussed.
\nAn increase of cell voltage is seen at increasing anode pH because of the additional pH gradient representing a source of energy. The practical implication of an elevated cell voltage is that more energy can be gained from MFC systems at higher pH values. By contrast, operating the anode of MFCs at an acidic condition has an advantage that the protons will not cause diffusion limitations in the cathode compartment for the reduction of oxygen, and therefore, it will not limit the current production [65]. However, under a low-pH condition, the microbial cells have to maintain a near-neutral cytoplasm [66] which consumes a portion of the energy derived from the electron transport for other processes, such as proton export, that increases the anode overpotential, leading to decreasing power generation. At pH 2.5,
Meanwhile, at high pH, the lower anode potential results in an increased cell voltage. In general, the anode becomes acidified during the MFC operation, and the cathode becomes more alkaline, followed by a reduced cell voltage and power output.
Temperature also has a major impact on the output of MFCs. It influences the activity of microorganisms, the electrochemical reactions, and the Gibbs free energy change of the reactions. There exists an optimum temperature for enzymes in the MFCs, and the electrochemical reaction rate increases with increased temperatures. A lower operating temperature adversely influences the output, start-up time, and substrate oxidation rate in the MFC system. This negatively impacts the MFCs for processes such as wastewater treatment because the streams are generally at low temperatures. However, the advantage of low temperature for the MFCs is that they typically produce higher Coulombic efficiencies [72, 73]. The microbial community was enriched from the anaerobic sludge at the anode of an acetate-fed MFC operated at 15°C with psychrophiles
On the other hand, the advantages of operating at high temperatures are higher microbial activity, better substrate solubility, high mass transfer rate, and lower contamination risk. An example of an improved current generation at a high temperature (60°C) is a marine sediment MFC that generated 209–254 mA/m2 compared with 10–22 mA/m2 at 22°C [76]. Recently, an MFC with a higher operating temperature (70°C) has generated 6800 mA/m2 [77]. Furthermore, the hyperthermophilic MFCs were operated at above 80°C [78]. However, a negative point of thermophilic MFCs is higher rates of evaporation than the MFC system itself. Therefore, a continuous mode of MFCs was proposed to allow a replacement of the anolyte and catholyte [79].
\nIn this section, recent topics of microbial catalysts for MFCs were introduced. There are two approaches in developing the microbial catalysts. One is the modification of existing microorganisms using chemical treatments or biotechnological techniques, including gene editing. The other is exploring new microorganisms from the environment, including extreme conditions. Although new findings and knowledge were obtained from both approaches, a drastic improvement on the MFC performance to achieve a paradigm shift has not appeared yet. In parallel with the improvement of microbial catalysts, the development of the fuel cell system, including the electrodes, was intensively studied to increase the output of MFCs. In particular, the application of graphene-modified electrodes [33] and the investigation of electron acceptors [43] have shown remarkable progress in the past decade. In order to actualize the practical use of MFCs, a synergistic impact from the combination of microbial catalyst and fuel cell system is essential.
\nThis chapter focuses on the significance of MFC development, the historical background and fundamental principles of MFCs, and their recent developments, especially on microbial catalysts. MFCs have not reached the desirable level of power generation that supports daily life because of the problems such as scaling-up. On the other hand, developments of technology combining wastewater treatment and power generation, and application for environmental sensors are progressing to a stage close to practical use. If these popularizations continue, it will further develop its application in broader fields. Owing to their limitations, it may be difficult to force MFCs to become the main power supply in our daily life in the future, but it seems possible to use them as an auxiliary power supply. In addition, MFCs may become useful as a power supply in areas where the infrastructure is not well developed, for example, a portable power supply generating electricity if water is added. Regarding microbial catalysts, it is also known that various microorganisms can generate electricity, and if this superior power-generating function of these microorganisms can be integrated into a microbial cell using the synthetic biological method developed recently, the ability of the microbial catalyst will dramatically increase. Soon, its power generation ability could be greatly improved in combination with the progress of other constituents.
\nThis work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP17K06932.
\nThe authors declare no conflicts of interest associated with this text.
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\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\\n\\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\\n\\nFeel free to contact us at oapf@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\\n\\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\n\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\n\nFeel free to contact us at oapf@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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