Minimum satellites needed to maintain global radio coverage.
\r\n\tThis book aims to offer recent informations about devices and methods to design/validate the main automotive safety features, global trends, technology vision and market strategy.
\r\n\tAll readers, from specialist engineers to academic researchers, will have the opportunity to address the automotive safety problems in a detailed way that welcomes practical examples; our work aims to cover all aspects of safety contents, from new product concept/development to final validation and performance assessment.
\r\n\tEvery lifesaving technology is welcome as topic in this book project: active safety (preventive role in mitigating crashes/accidents by providing advance warning or additional vehicle steering/control assistance) and passive safety (system that monitors the injuries caused to driver, passengers and pedestrians in case of accident).
\r\n\t“Active and Passive Safety in Automotive Industry” aims to discuss one of the most popular and fascinating topic of modern vehicle engineering; touching several research areas: software development/testing, electrical/electronic components with body and chassis parts.
Laparoscopy is the gold-standard procedure for the diagnosis of tubo-peritoneal infertility. However, transabdominal access in laparoscopy is not without major risks, including gastrointestinal injuries [1] and major vascular injuries. [2] In 1998, to minimize the invasiveness of laparoscopy for diagnostic purposes, transvaginal hydrolaparoscopy (THL) was introduced as the first line procedure in the exploration of the adnexal structures in infertile women. [3,4] Demonstration of the advantages of THL, such as the ability to accurately inspect adnexal structures without manipulation, has made it clear that THL is a less traumatic and more suitable outpatient procedure than transabdominal laparoscopy. THL can be performed under local anesthesia of the posterior vaginal fornix. A rigid scope is inserted transavginally through the pouch of Douglas, saline is injected for distension, and a field of vision thereby becomes available. Unlike minimally invasive endoscopic procedures, the natural office surgery is recently called natural office transluminal endoscopic surgery (NOTES). [5]
\n\t\t\tThere are some reports that described the usefulness and prognostic value of diagnostic THL in infertile women. [6-8] Moreover, operative THL such as ovarian drilling for unovulatory women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) to induce ovulation has also appeared to be as effective as that by the conventional laparoscopy. [5,9-13] This procedure is named transvaginal hydrolaparoscopic ovarian drilling (THLOD). THL has also been expected to be useful for adhesiolysis in some limited lesions.
\n\t\t\tThe risk of bowel injury and sepsis by transvaginal access with culdoscopy was higher than that with laparoscopy in old reports. [14] However, the value of direct access to the posterior pelvis at culdoscopy for infertility investigation is well recognized. Although the new technique of THL differs in the use of the dorsal decubitus position for the patient, a small diameter endoscope, and saline solution for peritoneal distension, the principle of THL is similar to that of culdoscopy in that its access is through the posterior fornix.
\n\t\tWe have been performing THL for the following five indications: diagnostic THL [7,8] for
\n\t\t\ttubal obstruction and/or peritubal adhesion are suggested by hysterosalpingography (HSG),
serum antibody against C. trachomatis is positive,
diagnosis of early-stage endometriosis,
ovarian drilling using Nd:YAG or Holmium laser in infertile women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
However, to avoid the major risks of THL, any of the followings are contraindications:
\n\t\t\tretroflexed uterus,
the past history of pelvic surgery,
obstruction of the pouch of Douglas by the rectum or a prolapsed tumor, and
acute pelvic inflammatory disease.
THL and THLOD were performed in the lithotomy position as we described previously.[7,8,10,12,13,15-18] Briefly, after premedication, a Hys-cath (Sumitomo Bakelite Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) was inserted into the uterine cavity for use in chromotubation. The uterine cervix was lifted with a tenaculum placed on the posterior lip. Under local anesthesia or general anesthesia, a Veress needle was introduced 1.5 cm below the cervix and inserted into the pelvic cavity (Figure 1a). Approximately 100 ml of normal saline solution is instilled through the cannula in the pouch of Douglas (Figure 1b, 1c). For THL, a 3-mm blunt trocar was inserted by a stab incision in the posterior fornix and a 2.7-mm diameter semirigid endoscope was used at an optical angle of 30° with a flow channel attached to a 3-CCD digital videocamera (Figure 1d). For THLOD, a 5.5-mm blunt trocar is inserted by a stab incision in the posterior fornix. Then a 5.0-mm diameter semirigid endoscope was used with the same technique. The saline irrigation was continued throughout the procedure to keep the bowel and tubo-ovarian structures afloat. The posterior region of the uterus and the bilateral tubo-ovarian structures were carefully observed, and tubal passage was confirmed using indigocarmine. In a few cases, the structure could not be observed due to severe adhesion.[7]
\n\t\t\tProcedure for THL and THLODThe procedure for THL and THLOD are described. a) A Veress needle is inserted into the pelvic cavity. b, c) Normal saline solution is instilled through the cannula in the pouch of Douglas. d) A blunt trocar is inserted by a stab incision in the posterior fornix. Then a semirigid endoscope is used with an optical angle of 30° and a flow channel attached to a 3-CCD digital videocatmera. Tubal passage is confirmed using indigo carmine. e, f) THLOD is performed using a laser to ablate portions of the ovarian cortex.
For THLOD, after careful observation as for diagnostic THL (Figure 2a), ovarian drilling was performed using an Nd:YAG laser (STAGE MY-100, LASER PERIPHERALS LLC, MN, USA) or Holmium laser (VersaPulse, Boston Scientific, MA, USA) to ablate portions of the ovarian cortex (Figure 1e, 1f). A sterile quartz glass fiber measuring 1 mm in core diameter was passed through the operating channel of the laparoscope using a special laser fiber steering device with a deflectable tip (Figure 2b, 2c). The power used ranges up to 10 W. The focused laser beam is used at a distance of 1.5 mm to 3.0 mm to create approximately 40 holes on the surface of each ovary (Figure 2d, 2e, 2f).
\n\t\t\tPerformance of THLOD using a laser a)A polycystic ovary behind the uterus is visible through THL. b) Introduction of the laser probe through the auxiliary channel of the sheath. The focused laser beam was used from a distance of 1.5 mm to 3.0 mm. c-e) Approximately 40 holes were made on the ovarian cortex. f) Final phase of ovarian drilling.
Assessment of the Fallopian tube represents an integral part for the evaluation of the infertile couple. Because the findings obtained at hysterosalpingography, laparoscopy, or laparotomy are indirect, salpingoscopy has been introduced as an endoscopic examination that can directly evaluate the ampullary tubal mucosa. The standard procedure is transfimbrial salpingoscopy performed at the time of laparoscopy. [19] It is a microendoscopic approach for directly visualizing the tubal mucosa from the ampullary-isthmic junction to the fimbria. Clinical and morphological studies have shown a high correlation between the appearance of the tubal mucosa and the ultimate outcome in terms of pregnancies. [19] Recently, it was suggested that performing salpingoscopy with laparoscopy could significantly increase accuracy in predicting short-term fertility outcome. [20] However, such salpingoscopy under trans-abdominal laparoscopy requires hospitalization and general anesthesia.
\n\t\t\tIn some women, endoluminal examination by salpingoscopy can be simultaneously performed under THL. The transvaginal salpingoscopy under THL is less invasive to infertile women because it does not require hospitalization or general anesthesia. The procedure was first described by Gordts et al. [21] They reported that the fimbriae were visualized in all patients with no obvious pelvic pathology, and cannulation of the distal tubal segment was achieved without manipulation of the tube in 20% before ovulation and 55% in the early luteal phase. Afterward Watrelot et al. [22] reported that salpingoscopies were possible in 19% of women with post-PID lesions without the need to stabilize the tubes. However, salpingoscopies were possible in 41% of those women using a grasp forceps introduced in the operative channel.
\n\t\t\tVisualization of tubo-ovarian structures and salpingoscopya)The posterior of the uterus and the bilateral tubo-ovarian structures were carefully observed by THL. The ovary and fimbria are clearly visible. b) Tubal passage was confirmed using indigocarmine. A Hys-cath was inserted into the uterine cavity for the use of chromotubation. c) The endoscope was inserted into the ampulla by the guidance of chromotubation. d) The normal looking tubal mucosa under transvaginal salpingoscopy.e) Unsuccessful salpingoscopy in a case of extensive peritubal adhesion by past C. trachomatis infection. f) Endosalpingial edema caused by C. trachomatis infection.
We have also been performing salpingoscopy under THL. Consecutive series of 130 infertile women diagnosed tubo-ovarian structures and tubal passage using THL were retrospectively analyzed between May 1999 and November 2003. [17] Access to the pouch of Douglas was achieved in 123 (94.6%) of 130 patients. Twenty-six tubes could not be visualized because of extensive adhesion. Two patients with a history of unilateral salpingectomy and a patient with unicorn uterus were excluded. Therefore, 217 adnexa were clinically evaluated. The posterior of the uterus and the bilateral tubo-ovarian structures were carefully observed (Figure 3a), and tubal passage was confirmed using indigocarmine (Figure 3b).
\n\t\t\tIn 89 (41.0%) of 217 tubes, a salpingoscopy could be performed. The endoscope was inserted from the fimbria by the guidance of chromotubation (Figure 3c) and the distal part of the tubal mucosa could be observed (Figure 3d). To increase the success of salpingoscopy rates, it may be necessary to stabilize the tubes using grasp forceps to introduce an operative channel demonstrated by Watrelot et al. [22]
\n\t\t\tHowever, a past history of C. trachomatis infection did not seem to influence the success of a salpingoscopy because extensive peritubal adhesion by past C. trachomatis infection may disturb visualizing the tubes themselves (Figure 3e). Therefore, we speculate that the successful salpingoscopy rate was similar between women with and without past C. trachomatis infection. Typical tubal damages by C. trachomatis infection include verruca and atypical vessel formation, peritubal adhesion, and endosalpingial edema (Figure 3f).
\n\t\tPolycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a syndrome of ovarian dysfunction showing cardinal features of hyperandrogenism and polycystic ovarian morphology. [23] It is one of the most common reproductive endocrine disorders in young adult women, showing clinical signs of menstrual disorder, anovulation, hirsutism, acne, and obesity. Frequently, this group of patients present with infertility due to chronic oligoovulation or anovulation. Approximately 15 % of patients with PCOS remain anovulatory despite treatment with clomiphene citrate, and half of patients with PCOS who become ovulatory on this treatment fail to conceive. [24] The alternative of gonadotropin stimulation or surgical treatment is often the next step for the treatment of clomiphene citrate-resistant infertile women with PCOS.
\n\t\t\tSince Stein and Leventhal reported that all women menstruated regularly post ovarian wedge resection and some of them conceived, [25] ovarian surgery has been used to induce ovulation following unsuccessful medical induction of ovulation. Ovarian surgery has also been indicated in women who hyper-respond to gonadotropin therapy in order to avoid such complications as ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) or multiple gestations.
\n\t\t\tIn recent years, however, because of the rapidly expanding use of techniques involving laparoscopy, surgical treatment has received renewed interest. Laparoscopic ovarian drilling (LOD) by the trans-abdominal approach has been widely used to induce ovulation in women with PCOS after failure of treatment with clomiphene citrate. [26] So far, it has been shown that LOD is effective for inducing ovulation, and the pregnancy rate following LOD seems to be acceptable.
\n\t\t\tNear the end of the 20th century, THL was developed and it was offered for the operative laparoscopy, especially in women with PCOS for ovarian drilling. This novel technique, THLOD using a laser or bipolar electrosurgery, appears to be an effective minimally invasive procedure to induce ovulation in women with PCOS. [5,9-13] Fernandez et al. [9,11] have recently reported the feasibility of ovarian drilling by THL for PCOS. They reported the usefulness of THL for the treatment of PCOS by ovarian drilling. They performed ovarian drilling using bipolar electrosurgery by THL in 80 clomiphene citrate-resistant anovulatory women with PCOS. During a mean follow-up of 18.1 months, 73 (91 %) patients recovered regular ovulatory cycles. The cumulative pregnancy rate was 60 % for spontaneous and stimulated cycles, with 40% imputed to drilling alone. [11] It was suggested that THLOD has the same effectiveness as trans-abdominal LOD. It was also reported that there were no complications.
\n\t\t\tOur group has also been performing THLOD using a laser. [10,12,13] THLOD has 3 advantages when it was compared with gonadotropin treatments for ovulation induction. Ovulation and pregnancy rates are the same as those for gonadotropin treatments. OHSS and multiple pregnancies are reduced. Furthermore, if ovulation is achieved, the frequency of visiting the outpatient clinic for monitoring the follicular status can be reduced. However, THLOD might have some disadvantages, including the risks of anesthetic and operative complications or possible recurrence of oligoovulatory cycles.
\n\t\t\tSo far, 7 infertile women with PCOS, including 5 women with clomiphene citrate-resistant PCOS and 2 women with the risk of developing OHSS, have undergone THLOD. Except for one patient who dropped out of the study, 6 patients resumed having regular ovulatory cycles without developing OHSS. In 4 (67%) of 6 patients, pregnancies were established; one by timed intercourse during the spontaneous cycle, two by intra-uterine insemination following clomiphene-FSH-HCG treatment, and one by IVF-ET. The pregnancy courses in these patients have been uneventful to this point. There were no intra- or postoperative complications of THLOD. [12]
\n\t\tThe risk and outcome of bowel injury during THL were previously reported by Gordts et al. [27] They carried out a multinational retrospective survey based on confidential, self-reported cases from 39 gynecologists in 18 different countries. In their 3667 procedures, a total of 24 bowel injuries were experienced, giving an incidence of 0.65 %.
\n\t\t\tIn our experience, two cases of bowel injury were diagnosed during 168 diagnostic THL procedures. In both cases, the injuries were extraperitoneal and were treated conservatively with antibiotics without major consequences. No complication occurred during THLOD in 9 patients with PCOS. In total, 2 (1.1 %) of 177 cases were diagnosed with bowel injury. [28] In addition to the report by Gordts et al., [14] we reported our experiences with a review of another series of 549 patients from 9 reported studies published after the year of 2000. [28] Only our study reported bowel injury associated with diagnostic THL. Two (0.35 %) of 565 patients from the 9 studies published after the report of Gordts et al. [27] suffered bowel injury. There is no significant difference of the incidence (0.65 %) of bowel injuries reported by Gordts et al. [27] and that (0.35 %) in the other 9 reports (P = 0.39). They also reported that the site of injury involved the extraperitoneal rectum in 21 patients and the rectosigmoid in 3 cases. No leakage of bowel content was reported in their report. Twenty-two (92 %) of the cases were managed expectantly without consequences. These low incidences of major complications should be encouraging for clinicians who have already performed THL as well as those who are now considering introducing THL in their clinics.
\n\t\t\tAs for perforation of the retroflexed uterus, only one case report was obtained. [29] The incidence of perforation of the retroflexed uterus was 0.02 %. In this era of wide use of transvaginal ultrasonography, it is likely that such a complication will seldom occur if clinicians carefully perform transvaginal ultrasonography before judging whether THL is indicated.
\n\t\t\tTo avoid possible bowel injury during THL in patients with appropriate indication and without contraindication, prophylactic use of a laxative and/or enema before the procedure should be considered. Theoretically, it seems that it would be easier to access the pouch of Douglas with less risk if the rectum were not full of stools. Moreover, clinicians should take care when they introduce or re-introduce the Veress needle toward the left pelvic cavity for the anatomical reasons.
\n\t\tThe usefulness of THL for diagnostic and operative purposes is in no doubt. Moreover, endoluminal assessment by transvaginal salpingoscopy can be simultaneously performed in some infertile women, especially with patent tubes or with regular tubes undergoing THL.
\n\t\t\tOvarian surgery for the treatment of PCOS has been shown to be useful in anovulatory infertile women who do not respond to medical induction of ovulation. LOD by the trans-abdominal approach has been used to induce ovulation in women with PCOS after failure of treatment with clomiphene citrate. Following the introduction of THL as the first line procedure for the diagnostic laparoscopy, THLOD was developed as an alternative minimally invasive surgery for PCOS patients.
\n\t\t\tHowever, informed consent and careful procedure before and during THL/THLOD should be carried out although they can be done on an outpatient clinic basis.
\n\t\tRapid development and unification of the terrestrial part pertained to IMT-2020 (5G) as well as the limitations claimed for global coverage by terrestrial 5G networks, when using millimeter-wave band (MMWB), calls design engineers for special attention to this potential market segment of mobile satellite telecommunications.
In Summer 2017, within the framework of Paris air show in Le Bourget, European Space Agency (ESA) launched its new project “Satellite for 5G,” compiling 16 satellite businesses into consortium aimed at study to introduce 5G satellite-based access components [1].
The consortium is made up of such organizations and institutions as: EURESCOM, Fraunhofer Fokus, Fraunhofer IIS, NewTEC, SES, TU Berlin, and Universität der Bundeswehr. They all have conducted the work concerning the design of SATis5 intended to facilitate implementation, deployment, and evaluation of the integrated 5G satellite network, unveiling the advantages of satellite and terrestrial framework integration for advancing new technologies.
Additionally, the Working Group FM44 of ЕСС СЕРТ completed the preparation of ECC Report “Satellite Solutions for 5G” [2] that will determine the role of satellite component within 5G conception of in relation to the Regions, where services cannot be carried out in circumvention of satellites. In its turn, CEPT came forward with initiative to estimate the pros of satellites for 5G in terms of efficiency, capacity, and stability. Since CEPT Administrations are considering the issues related to 5G implementation in the nearest future, so the studies of satellite access in 5G are expected to facilitate the process of decision-making regarding the potential role of satellite subscriber’s links in the 5G ecosystem.
The implementation of 5G satellite component for 5G service access on principles “at any time with any user in any place” helps to meet many challenges. However, there are numerous other hindrances requiring comprehensive and global studies.
Generally, the regions that are subject to coverage by terrestrial mobile networks of radio access are of fragmentary nature and correspond with the places of population concentration, regarding the economic expediency of base stations building. In some cases, the sparsely populated territories not covered by modern telecommunications. Thus, at the outset of 3G (IMT-2000) development, the universal coverage by mobile services was the key prerequisite for network construction, contributing to the formation of global 3G segment. However, in the course of 4G network evolution, the idea of global coverage by these networks was not even contemplated, in the hope of finding the convergent solutions in the field of satellite and terrestrial mobile telecommunications.
The concept of 5G satellite component considered nowadays rests upon the following preconditions [3]:
5G satellite component is to be integrated into other mobile and fixed networks, but not as autonomy one for the provision of 5G services. The integration of satellite and terrestrial 5G segments forms the key aspect of this vision;
Satellite communication systems are fundamental components for reliable delivering of mobile services, not only in Europe, but also in other regions of the world as by continuum over time and at a reasonable price;
5G satellite component will facilitate universality of 5G networks as well as the solution for various issues dealt with maintenance of multimedia traffic growth, global coverage, M2M, and critical telecommunications (emergency and natural disasters) in optimizing costs for end-users;
Satellite component may become a part of configuration for 5G hybrid network, consisted of combination of broadcasting and broadband infrastructures, run in a manner to ensure uninterrupted and online convergence of 5G services for all end-users.
The requirements for 5G satellite component will be defined by, first of all, the aggregate of services carried out by 5G, consolidated in the families of usage scenarios of 5G terrestrial segment [4, 5]: enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC or mIoT), and Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communication (URLLC).
The potential of satellite networks to uphold the key scenarios for 5G applications is specified by already existing characteristics applicable to modern satellite networks as well as tendencies in satellite technology development in future:
eMBB scenario. According to this scenario, satellite networks are capable of maintaining data transfer at speed up to several gigabits per second, meeting the requirements for extended services of mobile broadband eMBB. Nowadays, satellite technologies can broadcast thousands of channels with the content of high bandwidth (HD and UHD). In its turn, this potential can be used to support the mobile network services of future generation. At present, satellites are being used as transport networks within 2G/3G in many regions of the world, whereas high-throughput satellites (HTS) of modern and future generations on geostationary and non-geostationary orbits can maintain transport infrastructure of mobile networks 4G/LTE and 5G in future.
mMTC scenario. Satellite communication systems are already keeping up the technology of SCADA and other global applications for cargo and object tracking in the context of IoT devices mass use. Their capabilities can be scaled up to support devices and services of IoT within the direct control channel or as a feedback line with IoT and M2M devices from remote locations, ships, and other carrying vessels.
uRLLC scenario. Satellite communication systems gained notoriety owing to its and their satellite communication systems gained notoriety by owing to its and their ability to meet the case concerning the requirements for network signal delays, aiming at procuring critical and highly reliable communications. The principal users of these networks are international broadcasters, mobile network operators, governmental bodies, and commercial users. The applications that turn out to be more sensitive to signal delays can be bolstered via new medium and low earth orbit satellite networks, which will to be deployed.
5G satellite networks are such networks, where radio access network NG-RAN is designed by means of satellite network utilization. Technical specifications of 3GPP [3] identified several cases for 5G satellite network use, presented below.
Case 1. Roaming between terrestrial and satellite networks. In this case, 5G satellite network operator provides data services delivery on globally coverage basis. An operator of terrestrial 5G network, in its turn, concludes roaming agreement with the operator of 5G satellite network operator as well as the other terrestrial network operators. User terminal exploits 5G satellite network only in the absence of radio coverage by terrestrial 5G networks.
Case 2. Broadcast and multicast with a satellite overlay. In this case, the operator of 5G satellite network provides video broadcasting or any other delivery of services within the global territory. The existing terrestrial mobile networks, supplying broadcasting services, can rely on 5G satellite network aiming at meeting its primary objectives related to the expansion of radio resource, broadcasting content, and ensuring global access to content.
Case 3. Internet of Things with a satellite network. In this case, 5G satellite network operator provides the delivery of IoT-services globally. Space segment of 5G satellite network uses low-orbiting satellites so as to ensure radio connections for IoT devices with low power consumption.
Case 4. Temporary use of a satellite component. In this case, a number of 5G network operators with access to the satellite component grant access to their network with a minimum set of service (such as voice, messaging, and mail) so as to provide to each user devices under the satellite coverage a guaranteed access.
Case 5. Optimal routing or steering over a satellite. The 5G networks will combine available terrestrial and satellite network components to optimize the connectivity of user devices in accordance with the requested QoS. Depending on the quality requirements to QoS-parameter 5QI as well as bandwidth, the optimal traffic routing is secured within the territories of joint radio coverage (of satellite and terrestrial networks). In a 5G network with satellite access, user devices with terrestrial access and supporting satellite networks access will be capable of dual connectivity with a satellite access network and a terrestrial access network. A 5G network with satellite access will be capable of establishing independently uplink and downlink connectivity through the 5G satellite and 5G terrestrial access networks.
Case 6. Satellite transboundary service continuity. This case provides for 5G global satellite network within the territory of a few countries. According to the prerequisites established by legislation of the relevant states, subscribers’ traffic is to be terminated in user location, within the licensed network. Consequently, in compliance with this statement, 5G satellite network is being designed as access network to respective terrestrial networks, covering the territories of various states. Therefore, it can also be used as autonomous 5G network on neutral territories.
Case 7. Global satellite overlay. In this case, global low-orbiting satellite network will be utilized as the overlaying network of terrestrial data network. The topology of communication links will be defined on basis of minimizing delivery time of protocol data unit. Thus, the main idea considers that delay of signal propagation equals the speed of light (299,792,458 m/s) in airspace, whereas in optical fiber, this parameter achieves up to 2/3 of speed of light. Based on the above, time duration equals 1 ms correlates with propagation distance of 300 km in airspace and 200 km in optical fiber (excluding curvature of circuit). With more large distance between the source and recipient of a message (reaching several thousand km), the difference in time delivery may be significant and actually for a series of applications in banking, burs exchange, and industry fields.
Case 8. Indirect connection through a 5G satellite access network. This case will be assumed that mass user devices will be deprived access to satellite interface. Interaction of these 5G user devices with satellite networks is carried out through relay user units (Relay UE), supporting satellite interface. This relay UEs can function separately or will be set into rescue vessels, air planes, and railway carriages. While implementing these indirect connections of 5G user devices through satellite access networks, it is vital to solve the issues dealing with security, tariffing, etc.
Case 9. 5G fixed Backhaul between NR and the 5G core. This option considers the use of satellite network by organizations of transport channels Midhaul, Backhaul between stationary base stations gNB and 5G core network. The interfaces between the 5G core and NR are transported directly over the satellite link.
Case 10. 5G Moving platform Backhaul. This case considers the utilization of satellite network for transport link organizations in 5G network (Moving Platform) such as Midhaul, Backhaul between moving gNBs and 5G core network. Moving 5G base stations can be placed on river and maritime vessels, trains, etc.
Case 11. 5G to premises. This case implies that 5G satellite network interoperates with non-3GPP technologies (for instance, IEEE 802.11, IEEE 802.16). It is using a home/office gateway unit to combine the available signals from 5G satellite network and to present modern Wi-Fi coverage within the premises.
Case 12. Satellite connection of remote service center to off-shore wind farm. In this use, case 5G satellite network based on Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite used for set up satellite link connection with local control center in the wind power plant communication network includes a 5G satellite user device. It will be provided low satellite communication latency and high uplink/down data transmission volume.
However, these cases do not finish and limit possibility of 5G satellite segment applications and will be proceeded in 3GPP study in Release 17 on 5G evolution.
The main flaw of satellite segment consists in increased delay of information transfer owning to distance between user units and gNB base station. The requirements submitted to the quality of service for data transfer within 5G satellite segment also depend on the relevant number of satellites in operation. The minimum quantity of satellites in operation needed to maintain radio coverage for orbits of different heights [6] is shown in Table 1.
Types of satellite orbits | Height, km | Number of satellites |
---|---|---|
Low earth orbit (LEO) | 800 | ≈ 80 |
1400 | ≈ 50 | |
Medium earth orbit (MEO) | 8000 | ≈ 10 |
Geostationary earth orbit (GEO) | 35,786 | ≈ 3 |
Minimum satellites needed to maintain global radio coverage.
The signal delays forming for different satellite orbits and satellite limits on satellite segment delays are presented in Table 2. Additionally, the indicated delays are summarized with 5 ms delay, added by satellite. Therefore, maximum delay limits reach 30, 90, and 280 ms.
Types of satellite orbits | Delays in link “User terminal-satellite”, ms | Maximum one-way delay, ms | |
---|---|---|---|
Minimum | Maximum | ||
LEO | 3 | 15 | 30 |
MEO | 27 | 43 | 90 |
GEO | 120 | 140 | 280 |
UE to satellite propagation delay.
Other QoS-requirements (Default Priority Level, Packet Delay Budget, Packet Error Rate) for 5G satellite segment have set in 3GPP technical specifications.
On the one hand, spectrum and wide bandwidth for 5G terrestrial networks will require utilization of millimeter-wave (mm-wave) bands to provide data transfer speed reaching up to 20 Gigabits per second in 5G radio interface connect with the process of delivery of the extended broadband mobile access (eMBB) service. On other hand such requirements to use frequency channels with bandwidth from 50 up to 400 MHz for eMBB-services can provide only in mm-wave bands which already utilized within satellite networks. That is why mm-wave bands in nearest future will turn out to be the most requested in 5G and satellite communications.
World Radiocommunication Conference 2019 (WRC-19) allocated of additional mm-wave frequency bands 24.25–27.5 GHz, 37–43.5 GHz, and 66–71 GHz for 5G terrestrial networks on a global basis. In a series of countries and regions, frequency bands of 45.5–47 GHz and 47.2-48.2 GHz received complimented allocation to terrestrial segment of IMT. This decision WRC-19 will be allowed to use some part of mm-wave bands on spectrum sharing basis for 5G satellite and 5G terrestrial network segments.
Table 3 shown the basic frequency bands allocated to fixed and mobile satellite services, sited within the band from 10.7 to 275 GHz, designed for satellite networks and satisfied the needs for 5G channel bandwidths [7].
Up-link | Down-link | Intersatellite link | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency range (GHz) | Bandwidth (GHz) | Frequency range (GHz) | Bandwidth (GHz) | Frequency range (GHz) | Bandwidth (GHz) |
12.5–13.25 | 0.75 | 10.7–11.7 | 1.0 | 22.55-23.55 | 1.0 |
13.75–14.8 | 1.0 | 17.7–21.2 | 3.5 | 25.25-27.5 | 2.25 |
27.5–31.0 | 3.5 | 37.0–42.5 | 5.5 | 59.0-66.0 | 7.0 |
42.5–47.0 | 4.5 | 66.0-76.0 | 10.0 | 66.0-71.0 | 5.0 |
48.2–50.2 | 2.0 | 123.0-130.0 | 7.0 | 116.0-123.0 | 7.0 |
50.4–51.4 | 1.0 | 158.5-164.0 | 5.5 | 130.0-134.0 | 4.0 |
81.0–86.0 | 5.0 | 167.0-174.5 | 7.5 | 174.5-182.0 | 7.5 |
209.0–226.0 | 17.0 | 191.8-200.0 | 8.2 | 185.0-190.0 | 5.0 |
252.0–275.0 | 23.0 | 232.0-240.0 | 8.0 | ||
Total of bandwidth | 57.75 | Total of bandwidth | 56.2 | Total of bandwidth | 38.75 |
Frequency bands allocated to fixed and mobile satellite services.
The analysis of spectrum bands within 12.5–86 GHz has revealed the availability of frequency bands with total bandwidth equals 17.75 GHz in up-link (UL) bands and within 10.7–76 GHz – the availability of frequency bands with total bandwidth equals 20 GHz in down-link (DL) bands for satellite networks.
In order to ensure the provision of services in the field of mass deployment of IoT devices in 5G satellite segment, it was suggested that part of S-band should utilize as a potential option with 30 MHz bandwidth [8]:
uplink (IoT device–satellite) in band: 1980–2010 MHz;
downlink (satellite–IoT device) in band: 2170–2200 MHz.
The connection between satellite 5G base station gNB and feeder link of satellite network can be performed in one of the fixed satellite service bands.
Furthermore, the study of most popular frequency bands, namely Ka-band (28 GHz) and Q/V-bands (37–53 GHz), has exposed the following features which are to be considered while elaborating the solutions for 5G.
While considering the use of Ka-band for 5G satellite segment, one should bear in mind that:
Ka-band is a traditional satellite band, enhancing access for satellite networks;
a part of this band has allocated for 5G terrestrial networks on a global basis by WRC-19;
a few national administrations are reviewing this band in terms of 5G terrestrial networks use.
While considering the use of Q/V-bands (37-53 GHz) for 5G satellite network, one should bear in mind that:
V-band has not been used yet for satellite applications, in particular, for feeder lines of satellite network;
a part of V-band has been added into bands which has allocated for 5G terrestrial networks on a global basis by WRC-19;
3GPP accelerates common efforts on joint researches as well as study of requirements attached to satellite as well as terrestrial segment of 5G in V-band in Release 17.
Thus, 5G satellite segment can be constructed as the multiband one, as well as 5G terrestrial segment, which was divided into frequency bands lower 6 GHz (FR1) and higher 6 GHz (FR2) also.
The main standardization body – 3GPP responsible for technical specifications on 5G equipment and 5G infrastructure conducted first studies regarding 5G satellite segment use, while elaborating Release 14 within Technical report 3GPP TR 38913 [4].
5G satellite options, presented by 3GPP related to the deployment of 5G satellite segment, are designed for 5G services delivery in areas, where their provision by 5G terrestrial segment is impeded as well as for the services supported by satellite systems.
According to Report [4], 5G satellite segment is to complement 5G services, which delivering especially on road, rail and waterways as well as in rural regions, where access to 5G terrestrial segment is unavailable. 5G services supported via 5G satellite segment go beyond data and voice communications, providing connection with IoT devices and М2М, access to broadcasting services and a number of other services, that is tolerant of signal delays.
Partnership project 3GPP has come up with three options in respect of deployment, shown in Table 4 [4].
Technical parameters | Option 1 | Option 2 | Option 3 |
---|---|---|---|
Carrier frequency | Around 1.5 or 2 GHz for both DL and UL | Around 20 GHz for DL Around 30 GHz for UL | Around 40 or 50 GHz |
Duplexing | FDD | FDD | FDD |
Satellite architecture | Bent-pipe | Bent-pipe, on-board processing | Bent-pipe, on-board processing |
Typical satellite system positioning in the 5G architecture | Access network | Backhaul network | Backhaul network |
System bandwidth (DL + UL) | Up to 2 × 10 MHz | Up to 2 × 250 MHz | Up to 2 × 1000 MHz |
Satellite orbit | GEO, LEO | LEO, MEO, GEO | LEO, MEO, GEO |
UE distribution | 100% out-of-doors | 100% out-of-doors | 100% out-of-doors |
UE mobility | Fixed, portable, mobile | Fixed, portable, mobile | Fixed, portable, mobile |
Satellites and frequency band options for 5G deployment.
The satellite orbits, shown in Table 4 and in Figure 1 enable using:
Geostationary satellites (GEO), located at an altitude of 35,786 km, providing full coverage of the Earth by a constellation ranging from one up to three satellites between 70°N and 70°S;
Medium Earth orbit (MEO), located at an altitude of 8000–20,000 km over the surface of the Earth, providing full coverage of the Earth by satellites ranging from 10 up to 12 satellites.
Low Earth Orbits (LEO) at an altitude of 500–2000 km above the Earth secures the continuity of coverage by satellite network with satellites ranging from 50 up to 100 satellites.
Typical earth orbit of communication satellite.
The frequency bands, specified in Table 4, are applicable solely to a part of satellite bands (Figure 1), whereas modern satellite networks are deployed in broad spectrum of frequency bands, including L-band (1–2 GHz), S-band (2–4 GHz), C-band (3.4–6.725 GHz), Ku-band (10.7–14.8 GHz), Ka-band (17.3–21.2 GHz, 27.0–31.0 GHz), Q/V-bands (37.5–43.5 GHz, 47.2–50.2 GHz and 50.4–51.4 GHz), and higher.
The system architecture of 5G satellite segment is being constructed based on the use cases, mentioned in Section 1 of this chapter and two satellite technologies:
The architecture based on the technology of bent-pipe (with invisible satellite transponders without On-Board Processing) – this option envisages signal reception from user devices, its amplification, its transfer on other frequency and relaying in the direction of satellite gateway.
The architecture based on the technology of On-Board Processing (with satellite transponders, complimented with data processing on board) – this option implies signal reception from user devices, its regenerations, including modulation and demodulation, encryption and decryption of these signals. The architecture on-board processing also provides for the partial allocation of base station equipment on the board of a satellite.
In December 2017, 3GPP in scope of work on Release 16 was published Report on using satellite access in 5G [3]. The Report submitted new business cases of 5G satellite segment utilization, including Internet of Things alongside with the requirements for performance of cross-border connections and the key characteristics for satellite segment of 5G: types of orbits, coverage area, and signal delays during propagation, network architecture for 5G satellite segment.
In accordance of proposed solutions, 5G satellite segment is inculcated into the integrated radio access network (5G RAN), which will be used satellite infrastructure and 5G core network (5G Core). 5G core can be linked up with the other generation RANs, in particular, 4G RAN, apart from satellite segment for 5G.
System architecture of 5G satellite segment, which is to be set up in accordance with the technology of bent-pipe (with transparent satellite transponders) when signal use solely to amplification and signal conditioning on retention of a modulation type has shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Signals relay architecture for 5G NR radio interface.
Relaying architecture based on 5G user device with UE relay.
As one can see in Figures 2 and 3, bent-pipe architecture refers to the architecture where the satellite transponders are transparent: only amplify and change frequency but preserve 5G waveform.
One of the important features of 5G radio access network design is that gNB base stations have a distributed architecture (Figure 4) and consist of a central module gNB-CU and one or more distributed modules gNB-DU(s) [9].
Architecture 5G base station gNB.
The gNB-CU and gNB-DU modules are connected by a logical interface F1. The distributed module gNB-DU supports one or more cells and can only be attached to one central module gNB-CU. This architecture of the gNB base station allows to implement the concept of building an integrated 5G radio access network by placing the gNB-CU and gNB-DU modules at earth stations and realization of F1-interface as a space link based on bent-pipe technology.
System architecture of 5G satellite segment when gNB-CU and gNB-DU modules connected each other through F1-interface by satellite links for on bent-pipe technology has shown in Figure 5.
Architecture 5G base station gNB with F1-satellite interface.
Next options of bent-pipe architecture of 5G satellite segment has used for retranslation NG1 and NG2 interfaces, which connecting 5G base stations gNBs to 5G core. This architecture of 5G satellite segment is shown in Figure 6.
Signals relay architecture for NG1 and NG2 interfaces.
In case where 5G user device (UE) has opportunity to use satellite modem with non-3GPP radio interface for bent-pipe architecture of 5G satellite segment, the architecture option of such segment could design as shown in Figure 7. 5G satellite segment architecture shall support different configurations where the radio access network is either a satellite NG-RAN or a non-3GPP satellite access network, or both.
Signals relay architecture for non-3GPP interface.
Figure 8 shows the 5G satellite segment system architecture implemented on the basis of on-board signal processing technology (with partial deployment of base station processing equipment in satellite). As on-board signal processing payload uses distributed module gNB-DU of 5G base station and as satellite link utilizes 5G NR radio interface.
5G satellite segment architecture based on the on-board processing technology [4].
In accordance design principle of base stations gNBs, some distributed modules gNB-DUs can connect to only one central module gNB-CU. That makes easier 5G coverage of big areas. The solution for 5G satellite segment architecture on regenerative payload enabled NR-RAN with intersatellite links (ISL) for regional or global coverage shown in Figure 9 [10]. Intersatellite links provide logical F1-interface between distributed modules gNB-DUs, which use Satellite Radio Interface (SRI) over F1 as a transport link between remote radio unit with gNB-CU and satellites.
5G satellite segment architecture on regenerative satellite payloads enabled NR-RAN, with ISL for regional or global coverage.
Second solution for 5G satellite segment architecture (Figure 10) has used 5G base station gNB on satellite (as regenerative payload) enabled NR-RAN with ISLs that provide SRI application over Xn-C and Xn-U interfaces. In this case between remote radio units and satellite gNBs will be used, and 5G standard NG-interfaces connect these gNBs with 5G core network.
5GS with regenerative satellite enabled NR-RAN, with ISL and multiple 5G Core connectivity.
Mobile devices of 5G satellite segment architecture (Figures 2–10) will be presented on the market by user terminals as well as the other wearable devices, installed in cars, ships, planes, etc. Nowadays the potential of wearable satellite user terminals is limited to L- and S-frequency bands. However, the studies regarding the potential functioning of 5G satellite user terminals within Ku and mm-wave bands are still ongoing.
Analysis of proposals and technological projects launched by leading manufacturers and related to usage of satellite networks for expanding the capabilities of 5G networks shows that Boeing [11] and Samsung [7] companies have already tried to make presentations of their projects applicable for 5G satellite segment deployment.
The Boeing company requested the US Federal Communications Commission for permission to launch and operate fixed satellite service (FSS) network on non-geostationary orbit (NGSO). The network would operate in a low-Earth orbit (LEO) in the frequency band 37.5–42.5 GHz (space-Earth) and in the frequency bands 47.2–50.2 and 50.4–52.4 GHz of V-band (Earth-space); it would be used as a NGSO system providing solution of 5G satellite segment operation issues.
The Boeing proposed NGSO system as depicted in Figure 11 and considered as a 5G satellite segment that is designed to provide a wide range of modern telecommunication services alongside with 5G internet services for a broad types of V-band earth stations and user terminals. V-band user terminals use modern antenna arrays for transmitting and receiving broadband signals in channels of different pass bands. It is to note that a high throughput is supported by multichannel and multiple polarization terminals.
Satellite solution of the Boeing company.
The Boeing presented NGSO system would consist of 2956 LEO satellites for the fixed satellite service network providing high throughput low latency access for user terminals connected through gateway (“hubs”) access to 5G network and to a terrestrial optic-fiber network as backhaul connecting to 5G.
The system gateways are expected to be located outside the densely populated areas in the regions with relatively low consumer demand for 5G services. Each NGSO satellite would form beams, corresponding to cell diameter from 8 up to 11 km on the Earth surface within the overall satellite coverage area.
The NGSO system gateways would operate in the same V-band as user terminals. These gateways would support both frequency and polarization selection of signals with two types of antennas polarization LHCP (Left Hand Circular Polarized) and RHCP (Right Hand Circular Polarized). In addition, the access gateways may contain more than one antenna thereby providing simultaneous access to multiple NGSO satellites visible from a relevant access gateway.
At the first stage of deployment, the Boeing NGSO system would comprise a constellation of 1396 LEO satellites in an altitude of 1200 km. The initial satellite constellation would consist of 35 circular orbital planes with an inclination of 45° and additional 6 circular planes inclined at 55°.
The NGSO system payload (Figure 12) would use the improved space-time processing in the course of antenna beam-forming as well as on board digital processing so as to generate thousands of narrow-band beams to provide 5G network services through satellite segment on the Earth surface.
Scheme of on-board processing payload.
Each satellite up-link or down-link may consist of up to five channels of 1 GHz pass band resulting in a total pass band of 5 GHz depending on instant capacity required for a cell supported by a relevant satellite antenna beam. Any satellite UL-channel may be connected to any satellite DL-channel in compliance with used connection algorithm.
Boeing company estimation results show that usage of a satellite network for fixed satellite channels and its spectrum sharing with a 5G terrestrial network in the frequency band 37.5–40.0 GHz would be feasible under the following conditions:
the frequency band 37.5–40.0 GHz is used only for signal reception in FSS network downlink;
spectrum sharing between 5G satellite segment and 5G terrestrial segment is feasible due to high satellite elevation angles;
applying of space-time selection beam-forming methods for terminal antennas of satellite networks and 5G equipment in the aim to achieve higher data rate.
The power flux density (PFD) limits approved by ITU [11, 12] would provide protection for 5G network terrestrial segment from interference caused by FSS satellite network downlinks subject to meeting the requirement of minimal reducing of 5G terrestrial network signal level to 0.2–0.6 dBW.
Boeing simulation results also show that in the assumed spectrum sharing scenario the increasing of 5G base station power would result in enlarging a number of satellite receivers affected by interference from 5G users. Hence, it is required to adopt a (>50 dBW) level of mitigating the interference from 5G networks between FSS earth station receivers and transmitting mobile and base stations of 5G terrestrial segment.
The results of Boeing statistical simulation and quantitative estimation of interference levels show that:
satellite earth stations may be in a higher degree directly affected by 5G base stations interferences;
EIRP values for 5G terrestrial segment should be limited to 62–65 dBW, so as to facilitate interference-free shared operation of 5G satellite and terrestrial segments of FSS system to provide for achieving the required data transfer rates in 5G networks.
Therefore, the joint deployment of satellite and terrestrial segments of 5G network is subject to particular conditions related to joint use of spectrum in V-band.
As confirmation, possibility of successfully utilization integrated satellite segment into 3GPP 5G testbed networks was the last demonstration of Surrey University achievements in 5G satellite network development [13].
Three use cases were demonstrated over a live satellite network via Avanti’s GEO HYLAS 4 satellite and using iDirect’s 5G-enabled Intelligent Gateway (IGW) satellite ground infrastructure that to 5G testbed core network of the University of Surrey to 5G UE terminals. All the 5G testbed use cases used this integrated 5G satellite system for the live satellite connectivity.
The use-case for 5G moving platform was demonstrated over SES’s O3b MEO satellite system, using real terminals and 5G core network.
The need to provide the coverage of large areas of developed countries with 5G networks and the creation of 5G satellite segment of integrate 5G system become relevant issues of development and standardization of 5G networks at the second stage of building these networks in the period 2020–2025, playing the pivotal role in forging Digital economy.
3GPP efforts allowed to obtain many different use cases of 5G satellite segment applications, architecture solutions on bent-pipe, and on-board processing technologies, which would implement in development of future satellite systems.
The leading international organizations in the field of telecommunications as ITU, 3GPP, 5G PPP joined their efforts with consortiums and satellite manufacturers in conducting the researches related to the elaboration of 5G within the radio frequency ranges that have been allotted to satellite radio service to 5G on WRC-19, especially in S-, Ka- and V-bands.
One of the most important issues of 5G satellite segment future development may refer to shared spectrum usage in the frequency bands allocated to 5G satellite and terrestrial segments on the primary basis. Also urgent is the issue of intersystem electromagnetic compatibility of aboard equipment and earth stations with base stations and user devices of 5G terrestrial segment.
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