\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10388",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Heavy Metals - Their Environmental Impacts and Mitigation",title:"Heavy Metals",subtitle:"Their Environmental Impacts and Mitigation",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In recent years, urbanization and industrialization have produced large amounts of heavy metals, which are highly toxic to both humans and the environment. This book presents a comprehensive overview of heavy metals including their physiochemical properties, toxicity, transfer in the environment, legislation, environmental impacts, and mitigation measures. Written by experts in the field, chapters include scientific research as well as case studies.",isbn:"978-1-83968-122-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-121-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-402-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91574",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"heavy-metals-their-environmental-impacts-and-mitigation",numberOfPages:280,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ac4f5b254442e9f19a8c609453a83915",bookSignature:"Mazen Khaled Nazal and Hongbo Zhao",publishedDate:"November 3rd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10388.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6758,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:38,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 15th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 21st 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"214815",title:"Dr.",name:"Mazen",middleName:null,surname:"Nazal",slug:"mazen-nazal",fullName:"Mazen Nazal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/214815/images/system/214815.png",biography:"Dr. Mazen Khaled Nazal received an MS and BS in Chemistry from the University of Jordan in 2003 and 2006, respectively. He obtained a Ph.D. in Chemistry specializing in Analytical and Environmental Chemistry from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Saudi Arabia, in 2016. Later, he joined the Center for Environment and Marine Studies (CEMS) Research Institute at KFUPM as a research scientist leading the organic contaminants analysis section. Dr. Nazal has participated in many funded research projects and published numerous research papers in refereed journals. He also has several patents to his name. Dr. Nazal’s research interests include developing efficient and selective materials and methods for removing emerging pollutants from different matrices and employing these materials for extraction and enrichment of analytes of interest in environmental, food, and biological samples prior to their instrumental analysis.",institutionString:"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"260935",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongbo",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"hongbo-zhao",fullName:"Hongbo Zhao",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260935/images/system/260935.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Hongbo Zhao obtained a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Central South University, Changsha, China. He commenced his Ph.D. studies, instructed by Professor Guanzhou Qiu, in 2012, and obtained his doctoral degree in Minerals Processing Engineering in 2016. Since then, he has been working at Central South University as an associate professor. His research focuses on mineral processing and extractive metallurgy (resource recovery), biohydrometallurgy, solid waste treatment and resource recycling, bioremediation, and the mining environment.",institutionString:"Central South University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Central South University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"942",title:"Environmental Engineering",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-environmental-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"76739",title:"Environmental Pollution with Heavy Metals: A Public Health Concern",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96805",slug:"environmental-pollution-with-heavy-metals-a-public-health-concern",totalDownloads:620,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Heavy metals (HMs) are natural environmental constituents, but their geochemical processes and biochemical equilibrium have been altered by indiscriminate use for human purposes. Due to their toxicity, persistence in the environment and bioaccumulative nature; HMs are well-known environmental contaminants. As result, there is excess release into natural resources such as soil and marine habitats of heavy metals such as cadmium, chromium, arsenic, mercury, lead, nickel, copper, zinc, etc. Their natural sources include the weathering of metal-bearing rocks and volcanic eruptions, while mining and other industrial and agricultural practices include anthropogenic sources. Prolonged exposure and increased accumulation of such heavy metals may have detrimental effects on human life and aquatic biota in terms of health. Finally, the environmental issue of public health concern is the pollution of marine and terrestrial environments with toxic heavy metals. Therefore, because of the rising degree of waste disposal from factories day by day, it is a great concern. Pollution of HMs is therefore a problem and the danger of this environment needs to be recognized.",signatures:"Mir Mohammad Ali, Delower Hossain, Al-Imran, Md. Suzan Khan, Maksuda Begum and Mahadi Hasan Osman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76739",authors:[{id:"324797",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mir Mohammad",surname:"Ali",slug:"mir-mohammad-ali",fullName:"Mir Mohammad Ali"},{id:"328955",title:"Dr.",name:"Delower",surname:"Hossain",slug:"delower-hossain",fullName:"Delower Hossain"},{id:"346045",title:"MSc.",name:"Al-",surname:"Imran",slug:"al-imran",fullName:"Al- Imran"},{id:"346047",title:"MSc.",name:"Md. Suzan",surname:"Khan",slug:"md.-suzan-khan",fullName:"Md. Suzan Khan"},{id:"346048",title:"Dr.",name:"Maksuda",surname:"Begum",slug:"maksuda-begum",fullName:"Maksuda Begum"},{id:"346049",title:"MSc.",name:"Mahadi Hasan",surname:"Osman",slug:"mahadi-hasan-osman",fullName:"Mahadi Hasan Osman"}],corrections:null},{id:"74650",title:"Heavy Metal Sources and Their Effects on Human Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95370",slug:"heavy-metal-sources-and-their-effects-on-human-health",totalDownloads:1121,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Heavy metals are defined in many ways, based on various factors such as density and atomic weight. Some of the heavy metals are essential as nutrients for humans such as iron, cobalt and, zinc in small quantities but are toxic in higher quantities. But few metals, such as lead, cadmium and, mercury are poisonous even in small quantities. The toxicity of heavy metals is depending on concentration,period of exposure and route of exposure. Heavy metal exposure takes place on human beings through inhalation from the atmosphere, intake through drinking water and, ingestion through the skin by dermal contact. The present chapter describes the definition of heavy metals, sources of these heavy metals, toxicity and, their impact on various environmental segments, such as air, water and, soil.",signatures:"Narjala Rama Jyothi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74650",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74650",authors:[{id:"303346",title:"Mrs.",name:"Narjala",surname:"Rama Jyothi",slug:"narjala-rama-jyothi",fullName:"Narjala Rama Jyothi"}],corrections:null},{id:"74474",title:"Concentrations of Heavy Metals as Proxies of Marine Pollution along Nellore Coast of South District, Andhra Pradesh",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95275",slug:"concentrations-of-heavy-metals-as-proxies-of-marine-pollution-along-nellore-coast-of-south-district-",totalDownloads:327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bottom sediment samples from six stations were sampled in pre monsoon 2016, from the Govindampalli – Durgarajupatnam (GP-DP) coast. Heavy metals viz., Fe, Mn, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Cd analysis was carried out by using ICP-OES, and the average concentrations are as follows Fe > Mn > Zn > Cr > Pb > Ni > Cu > Cd. Various environmental indices like Factor Analysis (FA), Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo), Enrichment Factor (EF) and Pollution Load Index (PLI) were applied to the chemical data in order to know the levels of contamination and factors contributing to the pollution. Correlation coefficient results exhibits significant positive and negative relationships among Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn, Cd. All the environmental indices suggest that heavy metals were present at higher concentrations and the impacts of anthropogenic activities are crucial that serves as source of heavy metals in the zone. Relatively, maximum number of heavy metals viz., Fe, Ni and Pb were accumulated at the brackish environment i.e., at confluence of Swarnamukhi river (GP-S Station).",signatures:"Madri Pramod Kumar, Tella Lakshmi Prasad, Kothapalli Nagalakshmi, Nadimikeri Jayaraju and Ballari Lakshmanna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74474",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74474",authors:[{id:"259726",title:"Mr.",name:"Ballari",surname:"Lakshmanna",slug:"ballari-lakshmanna",fullName:"Ballari Lakshmanna"},{id:"329070",title:"Dr.",name:"Madri Pramod",surname:"Kumar",slug:"madri-pramod-kumar",fullName:"Madri Pramod Kumar"},{id:"329071",title:"Dr.",name:"Tella",surname:"Lakshmi Prasad",slug:"tella-lakshmi-prasad",fullName:"Tella Lakshmi Prasad"},{id:"337858",title:"Dr.",name:"Kothapalli",surname:"Nagalakshmi",slug:"kothapalli-nagalakshmi",fullName:"Kothapalli Nagalakshmi"},{id:"337860",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadimikeri",surname:"Jayaraju",slug:"nadimikeri-jayaraju",fullName:"Nadimikeri Jayaraju"}],corrections:null},{id:"74848",title:"Heavy Metal Contamination in a Protected Natural Area from Southeastern Mexico: Analysis of Risks to Human Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95591",slug:"heavy-metal-contamination-in-a-protected-natural-area-from-southeastern-mexico-analysis-of-risks-to-",totalDownloads:298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a little of the history of Carmen City, Mexico is addressed; this island is immersed in a Protected Natural Area and in the “Campeche Sound” an oil extraction site. Fishing natural resources were for many years the pillar of the development of the area; the most commercially important species are still shrimp, oysters and scales. Nowadays, although the volumes of capture have decreased considerably, different species of high commercial value are still extracted. The considerable development of the oil industry has brought with its economic development and a better quality of life for its inhabitants; however, the ravages of pollution, rapid population growth, and deforestation have been the unwanted factor. This chapter addresses the effects of heavy metals on human health through a risk analysis, based on the criteria of the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) that was carried out for different commercial species based on carcinogenic factors and not carcinogenic; the results show that the risk from consumption of these species is “potentially dangerous” for human health, especially in those species that, due to their eating habits (mollusks, bivalves, clams) tend to bio-accumulate heavy metals, such as cadmium, which it has been considered by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a risk factor; for this reason, the importance of periodically evaluating and monitoring oyster extraction banks, clams and, in general, all fishery products. Mexican legislation and various international legislations dictate the maximum permissible and tolerable levels of heavy metals in fishery products; the organisms considered in this study exceeded the permissible limits in copper and nickel, which represents a risk for human consumption.",signatures:"Claudia Alejandra Aguilar, Yunuen Canedo, Carlos Montalvo, Alejandro Ruiz and Rocio Barreto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74848",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74848",authors:[{id:"194857",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Ruiz",slug:"alejandro-ruiz",fullName:"Alejandro Ruiz"},{id:"194858",title:"Dr.",name:"Yunuen",surname:"Canedo",slug:"yunuen-canedo",fullName:"Yunuen Canedo"},{id:"327934",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia A.",surname:"Aguilar",slug:"claudia-a.-aguilar",fullName:"Claudia A. Aguilar"},{id:"328392",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Montalvo",slug:"carlos-montalvo",fullName:"Carlos Montalvo"},{id:"328393",title:"Dr.",name:"Rocio",surname:"Barreto",slug:"rocio-barreto",fullName:"Rocio Barreto"}],corrections:null},{id:"73631",title:"Consumption Safety in Relation to Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Periwinkles (Tympanotonus fuscatus) Obtained from Ogbia in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94057",slug:"consumption-safety-in-relation-to-bioaccumulation-of-heavy-metals-in-periwinkles-em-tympanotonus-fus",totalDownloads:373,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study assessed human health risk and accumulation of heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, Cr and Zn) in periwinkles (Tympanotonus fuscatus) obtained from the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Samples were collected for six months on a monthly basis. The samples were digested according to the method described by Association of official analytical chemists and analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). Temporal variations in metal concentrations were observed with values (mgkg−1) ranging as follows Pb (2.34–6.7), Ni (0.55–2.28), Zn (0.55–11.66), Cr (0.74–3.65), Cu (1.15–3.91) and Cd (0.22–1.06). Variation in metal concentration was significantly different (p < 0.05) with metals such as Pb, Ni and Cd found to be above their respective FAO/WHO permissible limits. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of all metals examined was less than their respective reference oral doses (RFD). The target hazard quotient (THQ) non-carcinogenic and the hazard index (HI) of metals were < 1 while the hazard quotient carcinogenic (HQ) ranged between 10−6 – 10−4. The study therefore concluded gradual accumulation of metals and minimal health risk due to consumption of contaminated periwinkles in the study area.",signatures:"Miebaka Moslen and Chioma Hope Adiela",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73631",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73631",authors:[{id:"328757",title:"Dr.",name:"Miebaka",surname:"Moslen",slug:"miebaka-moslen",fullName:"Miebaka Moslen"}],corrections:null},{id:"76911",title:"Role of Heavy Metals in the Incidence of Human Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98259",slug:"role-of-heavy-metals-in-the-incidence-of-human-cancers",totalDownloads:343,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"There has been increased concern on many levels focused on the environmental and occupational exposure of heavy metals and their impact on disease, specifically the carcinogenic potential inducing cancer in humans. Because the impact of heavy metals on human health continues to be a major health concern, research continues to improve our understanding of the carcinogenic potential of these substances. Of particular concern have been human exposure to aluminum, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel, and radium and their carcinogenic potential whether contact is via environmental or occupational exposure. This updated review focuses on the carcinogenic mechanisms heavy metals use to induce malignant transformation of cells as well as addressing the overall environmental and occupational hazards of heavy metal exposure.",signatures:"Vincent Salvatore Gallicchio and Juley Harper",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76911",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76911",authors:[{id:"169299",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent Salvatore",surname:"Gallicchio",slug:"vincent-salvatore-gallicchio",fullName:"Vincent Salvatore Gallicchio"},{id:"329038",title:"Ms.",name:"Juley",surname:"Harper",slug:"juley-harper",fullName:"Juley Harper"}],corrections:null},{id:"74260",title:"Occurrence and Impact of Heavy Metals on Some Water, Land, Flora and Fauna Resources across Southwestern Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94982",slug:"occurrence-and-impact-of-heavy-metals-on-some-water-land-flora-and-fauna-resources-across-southweste",totalDownloads:225,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rapid urbanization and industrialization in communities of Nigeria contribute significantly to environmental pollution. Amongst the diversity of these environmental contaminants are heavy metals, a rarely biodegradable and toxic class of metals. Heavy metals are known to be harmful to plants, aquatic species, and subsequently endanger human health through bioaccumulation or biomagnification. Even at low concentrations, heavy metals may affect key soil microbial processes; inhibit plant metabolism and growth. Toxic metals in groundwater affect water quality and potability, and their presence in aquatic systems also facilitate the production of reactive oxygen species that can damage physiological processes in fishes and other aquatic organisms. This chapter highlights the occurrence and impact of heavy metals in different environmental matrices and organisms sampled across some Southwestern states in Nigeria. Various studies including those of the authors found varying levels of heavy metals, especially in concentrations that can imperil ecosystem functions. While results of studies included in this chapter may suggest heavy metal introduction through anthropogenic-urbanization means, the lack of proper implementation of environmental monitoring laws in Nigeria also clearly exist. As such, the mitigation of heavy metals amongst other pollutants demands better home-grown decentralized technologies.",signatures:"Olufemi Akinnifesi, Femi Adesina, Germaine Ogunwole and Sylvanus Abiya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74260",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74260",authors:[{id:"327647",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Olufemi",surname:"Akinnifesi",slug:"olufemi-akinnifesi",fullName:"Olufemi Akinnifesi"},{id:"328678",title:"Mr.",name:"Femi",surname:"Adesina",slug:"femi-adesina",fullName:"Femi Adesina"},{id:"328679",title:"Mr.",name:"Germaine",surname:"Ogunwole",slug:"germaine-ogunwole",fullName:"Germaine Ogunwole"},{id:"328680",title:"Mr.",name:"Sylvanus",surname:"Abiya",slug:"sylvanus-abiya",fullName:"Sylvanus Abiya"}],corrections:null},{id:"74339",title:"Environmental Impacts of Heavy Metals and Their Bioremediation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95103",slug:"environmental-impacts-of-heavy-metals-and-their-bioremediation",totalDownloads:470,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fast consumption, increasing energy needs, unplanned urbanization, and unconscious discharge of industrial wastes cause pollution of air, soil, food and water resources. Among these pollutants, heavy metals and metalloids are not biodegradable and accumulate in compartments such as water, soil and plants, threatening human and environmental health. Monitoring studies show that heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, nickel, zinc, copper, chromium and trace elements are in first place according to their availability in the environment. Preventive and remedial measures should be taken to reduce the effects of heavy metals. Legal regulations, monitoring studies, the use of soluble and non-toxic compounds in environmental compartments (air, water, soil and plants) in industrial processes, heavy metal-free pesticides, appropriate wastewater treatment plants and use of renewable energy sources instead of fossil fuels are among the priority measures to reduce concentrations of heavy metals in the environment. As a bioremediation approach, removing toxic wastes from the environment by using bioaccumulatory organisms such as plants or mussels maintains its importance among studies aimed at recovery. Studies have shown that integrated methods - especially the combination of suitable plants and microorganisms - are very effective in mitigating the effect of heavy metals in the environment.",signatures:"Ayşe Handan Dökmeci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74339",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74339",authors:[{id:"223548",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ayşe Handan",surname:"Dökmeci",slug:"ayse-handan-dokmeci",fullName:"Ayşe Handan Dökmeci"}],corrections:null},{id:"77756",title:"Metallothioneins: Diverse Protein Family to Bind Metallic Ions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97658",slug:"metallothioneins-diverse-protein-family-to-bind-metallic-ions",totalDownloads:207,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Metallothionein’s (MTs) are the lower molecular weight (6-7 kDa) proteins that are found to be present in almost all organism types ranging from prokaryotes to eukaryotes species. MT are the metal detecting proteins that can mitigate the effect caused by the excess metal ions. They are also found to be involved in cellular process such as cell growth regulation, ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) and DNA repair. The protein was termed as Metallothionein due to the unusual higher metal (metallo) and the sulfur (thiol) content. They are further grouped into 3 classes viz., class I, II and III. The Class I and II MTs are polypeptides that were obtained from direct gene products, the class III MTs are from the cysteine-rich non-translational molecules that are termed as phytochelatins. The metal ions are been sequestered through the MTs with Cys rich motifs. All the cysteines are present in the reduced form and are been co-ordinated through the mercaptide bonds. The cysteines present in the MTs are preserved across the species, it is supposed that, cysteines are essential for the function and the MTs are required for the life. Metallothionins structure, conservation in evolution, their ubiquitous nature of occurrence, the genes redundancy and the programmed MTs synthesis in development, regeneration and reproduction of living organisms are some of the weighty arguments in suspecting MTs to also serve others and perhaps the high particular metal-related cellular roles. In this chapter, there is a detailed discussion about Metallothionein its structure, occurrence and function.",signatures:"Ettiyagounder Parameswari, Tamilselvan Ilakiya, Veeraswamy Davamani, Periasami Kalaiselvi and Selvaraj Paul Sebastian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77756",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77756",authors:[{id:"327354",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Ettiyagounder",surname:"Parameswari",slug:"ettiyagounder-parameswari",fullName:"Ettiyagounder Parameswari"},{id:"426346",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Tamilselvan",surname:"Ilakiya",slug:"tamilselvan-ilakiya",fullName:"Tamilselvan Ilakiya"},{id:"426348",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Veeraswamy",surname:"Davamani",slug:"veeraswamy-davamani",fullName:"Veeraswamy Davamani"},{id:"426349",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Periasami",surname:"Kalaiselvi",slug:"periasami-kalaiselvi",fullName:"Periasami Kalaiselvi"},{id:"426350",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Selvaraj",surname:"Paul Sebastian",slug:"selvaraj-paul-sebastian",fullName:"Selvaraj Paul Sebastian"}],corrections:null},{id:"75491",title:"Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater by Adsorption",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95841",slug:"removal-of-heavy-metals-from-wastewater-by-adsorption",totalDownloads:623,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adsorption processes are extensively used in wastewater treatment for heavy metal removal. The most widely used adsorbent is activated carbon giving the best of results but it’s high cost limits its use. It has a high cost of production and regeneration. As the world today faces a shortage of freshwater resources, it is inevitable to look for alternatives that lessen the burden on existing resources. Also, heavy metals are toxic even in trace concentrations, so an environmentally safe method of their removal necessitated the requirement of low cost adsorbents. Adsorption is a cost-effective technique and gained recognition due to its minimum waste disposal advantage. This chapter focuses on the process of adsorption and the types of adsorbent available today. It also encompasses the low-cost adsorbents ranging from agricultural waste to industrial waste explaining the adsorption reaction condition. The cost-effectiveness, technical applicability and easy availability of raw material with low negative impact on the system are the precursors in selecting the adsorbents. The novelty of the chapter lies in covering a wide range of adsorbents with their efficiency in removal of heavy metals from wastewater.",signatures:"Athar Hussain, Sangeeta Madan and Richa Madan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75491",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75491",authors:[{id:"269233",title:"Dr.",name:"Athar",surname:"Hussain",slug:"athar-hussain",fullName:"Athar Hussain"},{id:"327895",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Richa",surname:"Madan",slug:"richa-madan",fullName:"Richa Madan"},{id:"338775",title:"Dr.",name:"Sangeeta",surname:"Madan",slug:"sangeeta-madan",fullName:"Sangeeta Madan"}],corrections:null},{id:"73841",title:"Biotechnological Approaches to Facilitate Gold Recovery from Double Refractory Gold Ores",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94334",slug:"biotechnological-approaches-to-facilitate-gold-recovery-from-double-refractory-gold-ores",totalDownloads:356,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Double refractory gold ore (DRGO) not only include ppt levels of gold grains locked in sulfide minerals but also a problematic amount of carbonaceous matter. This causes a significant recovery loss of gold during cyanidation because of the strong affinity of the Au(CN)2− with the carbonaceous matter. Combustion decreases the carbonaceous matter content, but also emits pollutant gases like CO2, SO2 and As2O3. Therefore, environmentally-friendly solutions have been explored by using biotechnology. Due to the very small amount of the above targets in the ore, it is challenging to show evidential changes in solid-phase before and after the biomineral processing of DRGO. This chapter introduces the mineralogical and chemical changes in the various solid residues produced during a sequential biotreatment, consisting of the liberation of gold from sulfides by an iron-oxidizer and decomposition of carbonaceous matter by lignin-degrading enzymes (lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, laccase) secreted from a white rot-fungus, which successfully improved of gold recovery to over 90%. In addition, further development of biotechnology in the recovery of gold from DRGO is addressed.",signatures:"Keiko Sasaki and Kojo T. Konadu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73841",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73841",authors:[{id:"228922",title:"Prof.",name:"Keiko",surname:"Sasaki",slug:"keiko-sasaki",fullName:"Keiko Sasaki"},{id:"327015",title:"Dr.",name:"Kojo T.",surname:"Konadu",slug:"kojo-t.-konadu",fullName:"Kojo T. Konadu"}],corrections:null},{id:"74773",title:"Rare Earth Elements Biorecovery from Mineral Ores and Industrial Wastes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94594",slug:"rare-earth-elements-biorecovery-from-mineral-ores-and-industrial-wastes",totalDownloads:226,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Rare earth elements (REEs) are critical raw materials and are attracting interest because of their applications in novel technologies and green economy. Biohydrometallurgy has been used to extract other base metals; however, bioleaching studies of REE mineral extraction from mineral ores and wastes are yet in their infancy. Mineral ores have been treated with a variety of microorganisms. Phosphate-solubilizing microorganims are particularly relevant in the bioleaching of monazite because transform insoluble phosphate into more soluble form which directly and/or indirectly contributes to their metabolism. The increase of wastes containing REEs turns them into an important alternative source. The application of bioleaching techniques to the treatment of solid wastes might contribute to the conversion towards a more sustainable and environmental friendly economy minimizing the amount of tailings or residues that exert a harmful impact on the environment.",signatures:"Laura Castro, M. Luisa Blázquez, Felisa González and Jesús A. Muñoz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74773",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74773",authors:[{id:"328537",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",surname:"Castro",slug:"laura-castro",fullName:"Laura Castro"},{id:"331929",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Luisa",surname:"Blázquez",slug:"m.-luisa-blazquez",fullName:"M. Luisa Blázquez"},{id:"331930",title:"Prof.",name:"Felisa",surname:"Gónzalez",slug:"felisa-gonzalez",fullName:"Felisa Gónzalez"},{id:"331931",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesús A.",surname:"Muñoz",slug:"jesus-a.-munoz",fullName:"Jesús A. Muñoz"}],corrections:null},{id:"74543",title:"Electrochemical and Optical Methods for the Quantification of Lead and Other Heavy Metal Ions in Liquid Samples",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95085",slug:"electrochemical-and-optical-methods-for-the-quantification-of-lead-and-other-heavy-metal-ions-in-liq",totalDownloads:261,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Minerals and elementary compounds of heavy metals are part of the ecosystem. Because of their high density and property to accumulate in stable forms, they are considered to be highly toxic to animals, plants and humans. Continuous mining activities and industrial effluents are the major sources which are adding toxic heavy metal ions into ecosystem and biota. Hence it is of utmost importance to quantify the levels of heavy metal ions in environmental and biological samples. On the other hand, it is equally important to remove the heavy metal ions and their compounds from the environmental and biological samples. That facilitates the environmental samples to be fit for using, consumption. In this regard, promising quantification methods such as electrochemical, spectrophotometric, naked eye sensing, test strips for spot analysis of heavy metal ions are considered for discussion. The main objective of this chapter is to give the overview of the most practiced quantification approaches available in the literature. Please note that reader cannot find the pin to pin publications regarding the same and that is not the aim of this book chapter.",signatures:"Samrat Devaramani, Banuprakash G., Doreswamy B.H. and Jayadev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74543",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74543",authors:[{id:"328918",title:"Dr.",name:"Samrat",surname:"Devaramani",slug:"samrat-devaramani",fullName:"Samrat Devaramani"},{id:"328922",title:"Prof.",name:"Bhanuprakash",surname:"G.",slug:"bhanuprakash-g.",fullName:"Bhanuprakash G."},{id:"329019",title:"Prof.",name:"Doreswamy",surname:"B. H.",slug:"doreswamy-b.-h.",fullName:"Doreswamy B. H."},{id:"334522",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayadev",surname:null,slug:"jayadev",fullName:"Jayadev null"}],corrections:null},{id:"73755",title:"Bio Hydrometallurgical Technology, Application and Process Enhancement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94206",slug:"bio-hydrometallurgical-technology-application-and-process-enhancement",totalDownloads:449,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The review is in general try to see some of the major microorganism involved in bioleaching process and studied by different scholars, identify the mechanics and techniques employed to bioleach minerals and factor that enhance or to inhibit the leaching process of microorganism with major reaction taking while bioleaching. Here the methodology and different leaching technique presented with their respected pros and cons, which are commonly employed and reasons behind with justifiable evidences were presented. The values and bioleaching sulfide mineral (copper), precious metal (gold) and radioactive element (uranium) were discussed with some the known producers in the world and finally some highlight given on industrial application of bioleaching.",signatures:"Mulugeta Sisay Cheru",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73755",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73755",authors:[{id:"327669",title:"Dr.",name:"mulugeta",surname:"sisay",slug:"mulugeta-sisay",fullName:"mulugeta sisay"}],corrections:null},{id:"73098",title:"Modern Technologies for Pest Control: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93556",slug:"modern-technologies-for-pest-control-a-review",totalDownloads:868,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The major concern for farmers is important loss due to pests and diseases, which is regardless of any production system adopted. Plant pathogens, insects, and weed pests devastate over 40% of all possible sustenance creation every year. This loss happens despite utilizing approximately 3 million tons of pesticide per year in addition to the use of a variety of nonchemical controls such as biological controls and crop rotations. If some of this food could be saved from pest attack, it could be utilized to bolster an excess of 3 billion people who are malnourished in the world today. Expansive range of conventional insecticides such as carbamates, organophosphates, pyrethroids, and organochlorines were developed. They have been used to control insect pests in the course of recent decades, resulting in the reduction of the loss of agricultural yield. However, problems of resistance reaching crisis proportions, the extreme unfavorable impacts of pesticides on the environment, and public complaints led to stricter protocols and regulations directed to reduce their utilization. The pest control industry is continuously examining novel technologies and products that will improve the way to manage and prevent pests. The general objective is to likewise diminish the effects of various available pesticides on the environment and on nontarget creatures, besides the economic influence on bottom lines.",signatures:"Meenu Agarwal and Ayushi Verma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73098",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73098",authors:[{id:"327646",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Ayushi",surname:"Verma",slug:"ayushi-verma",fullName:"Ayushi Verma"},{id:"327652",title:"Mrs.",name:"Meenu",surname:"Aggarwal",slug:"meenu-aggarwal",fullName:"Meenu Aggarwal"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6534",title:"Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7573426a162c18f39acc575c1e69f67",slug:"heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Refaat F. 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Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tPhotodetectors are sensors of electromagnetic radiation. These devices may be classified by mechanism of detection, such as photoelectric or photochemical effects, or by performance metrics, such as spectral response. In addition, unique materials or materials systems exhibit physical and chemical properties that allow control or interaction with light converting the optical signal into an electrical signal for applications in photonics, electronics, and optoelectronics.
\r\n\r\n\tThe present book entitled "Photodetectors - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications" aims to provide state-of-the-art knowledge on photodetector fundamentals and technology based on the latest research trends and exciting novel materials. Written by a team of world-renowned experts, with contributions from universities, research institutes, and industries, this book is timely and suitable for students and professionals engaged in photodetector technology research and development. Emphasis will range from synthesis methods, structural and performance characterization, new materials design, processing, and function, optoelectronic properties to theoretical analysis and simulations. Important experimental results are thoroughly addressed, embodying an advanced account of activities in this significant and exciting field in research and industry.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-090-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-089-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-091-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"01d4be8e37c9bf12fd8dcb67c135b29b",bookSignature:"Prof. Kuan W. A. 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Those nanoparticles with small size to large surface area (1–100 nm) have potential medical, industrial and agricultural applications. Scientists have carried out significant efforts toward the synthesis of nanoparticles by different means, including physical, chemical and biological methods [1]. These methods have many disadvantages due to the difficulty of scale-up of the process, separation and purification of nanoparticles from the micro-emulsion (oil, surfactant, co-surfactant and aqueous phase) and consuming large amount of surfactants [2]. Green methods for synthesizing nanoparticles with plant extracts are advantageous as it is simple, convenient, eco-friendly and require less reaction time. Nanomaterials prepared by eco-friendly and green methods could increase agriculture potential for improving the fertilization process, plant growth regulators and pesticides [3]. In addition, they minimize the amount of harmful chemicals that pollutes the environment. Hence, this technology helps in reducing the environmental pollutants [4], and nanotechnology has recently gained attention due to its wide applications in different fields such as in medicine, environment and agriculture [5]. Particularly, the large surface area offered by the tiny nanoparticles, which have high surface area, makes them attractive to address challenges not met by physical, chemical pesticides and biological control methods.
Nanotechnology in agriculture has gained good momentum in the last decade with an abundance of public funding, but the stage of development is good, even though many methods became under the umbrella of agriculture. This might be attributed to a unique nature of farm production, which functions as an open system whereby energy and matter are exchanged freely. The scale of demand of input materials is always being large in contrast with industrial nanoproducts with the absence of control over the input of the nanomaterials in contrast with industrial nanoproducts [6]. Nanotechnology provides new agrochemical agents and new delivery mechanisms to improve crop productivity, and it promises to reduce pesticide applications. Nanotechnology can increase agricultural production, and its applications include: (1) nanoformulations of agrochemicals for applying pesticides and fertilizers for crop improvement; (2) the application of nanosensors in crop protection for the identification of diseases and residues of agrochemicals; (3) nanodevices for the genetic engineering of plants; (4) plant disease diagnostics; (5) animal health, animal breeding, poultry production; and (6) postharvest management. Precision farming techniques might be used to further improve the crop yields but not damage soil and water. In addition, it can reduce nitrogen loss due to leaching and emissions, and soil microorganisms. Nanotechnology applications include nanoparticle-mediated gene or DNA transfer in plants for the development of insect-resistant varieties, food processing and storage and increased product shelf life. Nanotechnology may increase the development of biomass-to-fuel production. Experts feel that the potential benefits of nanotechnology for agriculture, food, fisheries and aquaculture need to be balanced against concerns for the soil, water and environment and the occupational health of workers [7]. Nanotechnology uses are currently being researched, tested and in some cases already applied in food technology [8]. Nanomaterials are considered with specific chemical, physical and mechanical properties. In recent years, agricultural waste products have attracted attention as source of renewable raw materials to be processed in substitution of several different applications as well as a raw material for nonmaterial production. Insecticide resistance is one of the best examples of evolution occurring on an ecological time scale. The study of insecticide resistance is needed, both because it leads to understanding mechanisms operating in real time and because of its economic importance. It has become in insects an increasing problem for agriculture and public health. Agricultural practices could include wide range of selective regimes [1]. Nanotechnology applications are being tested in food technology and agriculture. The applications of nanomaterials in agriculture aim to reduce spraying of plant protection products and to increase plant yields. Nanotechnology means like nanocapsules, and nanoparticles are examples of uses for the detection and treatment of diseases. Nanotechnology derived devices are also explored in the field of plant breeding and genetic transformation. The potential of nanotechnology in agriculture is large, but a few issues are still to be addressed as the risk assessment. In this respect, some nanoparticle attractants are derived from biopolymers such as proteins and carbohydrates with low effect on human health and the environment. Nanotechnology has many uses in all stages of production, processing, storing, packaging and transport of agricultural products. Nanotechnology will revolutionize agriculture and food industry such as in case of farming techniques, enhancing the ability of plants to absorb nutrients, disease detection and control pests.
These days, sustainable agriculture is needed. It may be understood to present a good approach of ecosystem for long run. Practices that can cause long-term damage to
Zinc has been considered as an essential micronutrient for metabolic activities in plants although it is required in trace amounts in plants. It was found that zinc has an important role in management of reactive oxygen species and protection of plant cells against oxidative stresses. Zinc has important functions in the synthesis of auxin or indoleacetic acid (IAA) from tryptophan as well as in biochemical reactions required for formation of chlorophyll and carbohydrates. The crop yield and quality of produce can be affected by deficiency of Zn. The development of insecticide resistance in pest insects has been an increasing problem for agriculture and public health.
Magnesium oxide (MgO) is important inorganic materials with many uses such as adsorbents, fire retardants, advanced ceramics, toxic waste remediation, and photo electronic materials. Therefore, various techniques and routes for synthesis of MgONPs have been reported [1]. MgOH was synthesized by green methods using nontoxic
Fusarium wilt is a destructive disease of tomato and lettuce in several countries due to its severe production loss, prolonged survival of fungus in soil and generation of resistant races. The disease can be reduced to some extent with the use of resistant cultivars and chemicals. However, the occurrence and development of new pathogenic races is a continuing problem, and the use of chemicals is expensive and not always effective. In recent years, the use of nanomaterials has been considered as an alternative solution to control plant pathogens. Ghidan et al. [15] has synthesized nanoparticles of magnesium oxide (MgO) and tested the effect of different concentrations on the green peach aphid (GPA) under the greenhouse conditions [16, 17, 18, 19]. The synthesis of nanomaterials of copper oxide (CuO), zinc oxide (ZnO), magnesium hydroxide (MgOH) and magnesium oxide (MgO) has been carried out successfully by using aqueous extracts of
Nanomaterials such as copper oxide (CuONPs), zinc oxide (ZnONPs), magnesium hydroxide (MgOHNPs) and magnesium oxide (MgONPs) were synthesized by different physical and chemical methods [21]. With the growing needs to minimize the use of environmental-risk substances, such as insecticides, the biosynthesis of nanoparticles as an emerging highlight of the intersection of nanotechnology and biotechnology has received increasing attention. The rate of reduction of metal ions using plants has been found to be much faster as compared to microorganisms and stable formation of nanoparticles has been reported.
Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) are synthesized through different methods [22] such as precipitation [23] and chemical reduction [24]. Many plant aqueous extracts have been reported such as
Several nanomaterials are used as antimicrobial agents in food packing in which silver nanoparticles are in great interest. This is because of its extended use. Some other nanoparticles currently used are titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), silicon oxide (SiO2), magnesium oxide (MgO), gold and silver. All of them have specific characteristics and functions, for example, zinc nanocrystal shows antimicrobial and antifungal activity [34]. Silver was a disinfectant and sterilizing agent used by NASA and Russian Space station for water [35], silver zeolite and silver. Gold has high temperature stability and low volatility and good antifungal and antimicrobial effects against 150 different bacteria [36]. FDA in 2009 approves the direct use of silver as disinfectant in commercial water, since with effective result against microorganisms. The antimicrobial effect of these are
Zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using
The use of nanosilver has been studied recently against phytopathogen
Both the concentrations of nickel nanoparticles (50 and 100 ppm) inhibited the fungal mycelial growth on solid media, and the inhibitions were significant (p ≤ 0.05) over control (Figure 1). Nickel nanoparticles at 100 ppm concentration inhibited the mycelial growth of
Petri dishes showing inhibition of Fusarium wilt causing pathogens: first row,
The inhibitory effects of nickel nanoparticles were also assessed in liquid medium, and the results were similar with solid media. In the liquid media, the fresh mycelial weight of the tested fungal pathogens decreased significantly and more than 50% reduction was recorded with the use of nickel nanoparticles at the concentration of 100 ppm. The results revealed that mycelial growth of tested pathogens was inhibited in a concentration dependent manner. These results suggest that using Ni nanoparticle solution can significantly increase the surface areas acting on the mycelia of
Nickel nanoparticles at the concentration of 100 ppm decreased the number of spore development by 81.40 and 74.60% in
Germination of
The inhibitory effect of Ni nanoparticles on spore germination could be due to their fungicidal effect. These results agreed with the results obtained from other workers on antifungal effects of different metal nanoparticles against some pathogenic fungi such as silver nanoparticles and zinc nanoparticles against copper nanoparticles [46]. Inhibitory effect of Ni nanoparticles could be due to producing of extracellular enzymes from fungi as survival agents caused by stress of toxic materials [47] or could be due to large surface areas (Figure 3) and small sizes to penetrate into the cell membrane of pathogen and work in the cytosols [48].
SEM, nanoflex of large surface areas of MgONPs [
Plant virus particularly spherical virus is considered to be the naturally occurring nanomaterials. The smallest plant viruses known till date are satellite tobacco necrosis virus measuring only 18 nm in diameter [49]. Plant viruses are made up of single or double stranded RNA/DNA as genome which is encapsulated by a protein coat. Their ability to infect, deliver nucleic acid genome to a specific site in host cell, replicate, package nucleic acid and come out of host cell precisely in an orderly manner have necessitated them to be used in nanotechnology. A complete review on use of plant viruses as bio templates for nanomaterials and their uses has been done recently by Young et al. [50].
Food industries are leading in forming the food with good nutritive value. For example, high impermeable packaging nanomaterials are used for protection of food from UV radiations and providing more strength to maintain the food protected from environment, increasing their shelf lives. Nanosensors are used for the detection of chemicals, gases and pathogens in food. In modern terminology, a word is given to such type of packaging as smart packaging. Some studies suggested that people are not accepting the direct involvement of nanoparticles in food due to some risk factors. Therefore, it is needed to provide some safety measurements to reduce the risk and human safety.
The occurrence and development of new pathogenic races is a continuing problem, and the use of chemicals to control pests is expensive and not always effective. In recent years, the use of nanomaterials has been considered as an alternative solution to control plant pathogens. Agricultural practices usually include the systematic application of a wide array of active compounds at variable dosages and frequencies, which represent a wide range of selective regimes.
Metal oxide nanoparticles have controlled the green peach aphid. Magnesium hydroxide, bionanoparticles synthesized were the best control to
Green methods for synthesizing nanoparticles with plant extracts are advantageous as it is simple, convenient, environment friendly and require less reaction time. Nanomaterials prepared by eco-friendly and green methods may increase agriculture potential for improving the fertilization process, plant growth regulators, pesticides delivery of active component to the desired target sites, treatment of wastewater and also enhancing the absorption of nutrients in plant. In addition, they minimize the amount of harmful chemicals that pollutes the environment. Hence, this technology helps in reducing the environmental pollutants. Nanotechnology has recently gained attention due to wide applications in different fields such as in agriculture medicine and environment. The large surface area offered by the tiny nanoparticles, which have high surface area, makes them attractive to address challenges not met by different control methods.
Nanotechnology applications are currently being researched, tested and in some cases already applied across the entire spectrum of food technology, from agriculture to food processing, packaging and food supplements. They are with unique chemical, physical, and mechanical properties. In recent years, agricultural waste products have attracted attention as source of renewable raw materials. Insecticide resistance is one of the best examples of evolution occurring on an ecological time scale. The study of insecticide resistance is important, because it leads to a better understanding of evolutionary mechanisms operating in real time. The development of insecticide resistance in pest insects has been an increasing problem for agriculture and public health. Agricultural practices usually include the systematic application of a wide array of active compounds at variable dosages and frequencies.
The authors are appreciating the support of the University of Jordan, Agriculture School, Amman, Jordan; Aqaba University of Technology, Pharmacy School, Aqaba, Jordan; and King Abdul Aziz University, Center of Nanotechnology, Jedda, Saudi Arabia Kingdom. In addition, they appreciate the contribution of Ms. Nada Al-Antary for her typing and computer work.
The Zika virus (ZIKV) belongs to the family
Clinically, the infection produces a self-limited febrile disease, whose symptoms of the acute phase are fever, headache, myalgia, and cutaneous rash. The virus incubation period in humans can range from 3 to 12 days, very similar to other arboviruses such as dengue and chikungunya virus. Thus, in regions where there is co-infection of these viruses, ZIKV can be sub-notified [2].
The ZIKV is transmitted to humans by the bite of infected female mosquitoes. However, other mechanisms of transmission have been described such as sexual transmission, blood transfusion, and through breastfeeding [3, 4, 5, 6]. In addition, the presence of ZIKV RNA has been identified already in body fluids such as endocervical or nasopharyngeal swab, saliva, and urine, which highlights other possible routes of transmission [7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. For example, ZIKV RNA detection in amniotic fluid was essential to define fetal infection during vertical transmission [12].
During 1947, ZIKV was originally isolated from the serum of a febrile rhesus monkey female, which was used as a sentinel to detect wild yellow fever virus in the Zika forest, localized at Uganda [13]. At the same site, the ZIKV was also isolated from a mosquito genus
Despite this report, ZIKA infections remained relatively unknown until 2007, when it occurred as a major outbreak in Micronesia, representing the first evidence of virus circulation outside the African continent [15].
The disease spread rapidly across the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and in October 2013, initial cases were diagnosed in French Polynesia that culminates with a major epidemic [16]. In February 2014, for the first time, ZIKV was detected in the Americas, and those cases were reported on Easter Island (Chilean territory in the Pacific Ocean), probably related to the outbreak in Micronesia and French Polynesia [17].
In Brazil, the first autochthonous transmission was observed in April 2015 in patients from Rio Grande do Norte, where the sequence of a fragment of viral envelope protein revealed high identity with ZIKV sequences of the Asian lineage [2]. The Ministry of Health of Brazil confirmed the circulation of ZIKV in the country, after identifying the viral RNA in 16 serum samples (8 cases from Bahia and the others from Rio Grande do Norte). The main symptoms described were arthralgia, edema of the extremities, low fever, headache, and retro-orbital pain, conjunctival hyperemia, and maculopapular rashes, besides pruritus, dizziness, myalgia, and digestive disorder [18]. Approximately 80% of ZIKV infections are asymptomatic or display mild-to-moderate symptoms that are self-limited and last between 5 and 7 days [19].
However, before ZIKV outbreak detection, the number of infants born with microcephaly in the second half of 2015 increased tremendously, when compared with historical reports. This observation was done in the Northeast region of the country, and Recife and Salvador and their surroundings were the most severely affected cities [18]. Retrospectively, the anamnesis of most parturients revealed episodes of febrile illness and exanthematous skin lesions during pregnancy [20]. Considering the epidemiological situation, in November 2015, the World Health Organization confirmed the relationship between ZIKV infection and congenital malformations in neonates, with most cases developing microcephaly and/or ventriculomegaly [21, 22].
In addition to CNS malformations due to congenital infections, ZIKV outbreak was also associated with increased number of cases of Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) in French Polynesia, indicating another CNS-related complication resulting from ZIKV infection [23, 24]. In Brazil, severe manifestations associated with ZIKV infections were also described such as GBS, transverse myelitis, and meningitis in adults [23, 25].
ZIKV particle is composed of a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA about 10,794 bp in length involved by a protein capsid and surrounding a lipid membrane. The RNA genome presents 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (UTR), flanking a single long open reading frame (ORF) that translates one polyprotein (5’-C-prM-E-NS1-NS2A-NS2BNS3-NS4A-NS4B-NS5–3′). After cleavage, the polyprotein originates three structural proteins: capsid (C), membrane (M), and envelope (E), which are virus particle components, and seven nonstructural proteins: NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, and NS5, which are involved in genome replication, polyprotein cleavage, and evasion of immunologic response (Figure 1) [26, 27]. The genome region, encoding flavivirus structural proteins, is more susceptible to genome variation when compared to nonstructural coding regions. Envelope protein (E), the major virion surface protein, is responsible for virus-cell interaction and membrane fusion, therefore being the major target for neutralizing antibodies [28]. Three domains were identified in E protein EDI, EDII, and EDIII. Karin Stettler and colleagues demonstrated that monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) directed to EDIII domain presented a potent and specific neutralizing activity to ZIKV, whereas mAbs directed to EDI/EDII domains partially neutralized ZIKV. Additionally, EDI/EDII-specific mAbs displayed higher cross-reactivity with dengue virus and enhanced
Flavivirus particle diagram. Flavivirus are small spherical enveloped particles. Envelope protein (E), responsible for virus-cell interaction and membrane fusion, is the main target for neutralizing antibodies. The membrane-associated protein (M) results from the cleavage of the precursor to membrane protein (PrM) during virus maturation. Capsid proteins (C) assemble into an icosahedral structure (capsid) and involve the virus genomic material (ssRNA+). The genomic RNA coding region is flanked by two untranslated regions (5’ UTR and 3’ UTR) and produces a polyprotein that after proteolytic cleavage generates all functional virus proteins. Adapted from de Vasconcelos et al. [
Regarding the nonstructural proteins, NS1 glycoprotein is a multifunctional virulence factor that intracellularly co-localizes with the virus replication complex. In addition, an infected cell secretes NS1 as a hexameric lipoprotein, and several immunomodulatory functions are proposed for this particular protein [27]. The secretion of NS1 during acute dengue infection culminates in high serum levels of this protein. It occurs mainly during viremic period and encourages the development of NS1-based serologic diagnostic tests during previous dengue outbreaks [30]. Recently, one serologic test for ZIKV based on NS1 reinforces the use of this protein as an acute phase biomarker for flavivirus infection [31]. The NS5 protein is the largest viral protein whose C-terminal portion has RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) activity. The polymerase region of the protein is generally conserved and can be used for the design of a broad range of primers.
Genetic studies using nucleotide sequences derived from the NS5 gene indicated three ZIKV lineages: East African, West African, and Asian [1]. However, after genome-based phylogenetic analysis, Asian and African strains remained as the only two genetic lineages for ZIKV [1]. ZIKV was associated with sporadic human infections in Africa and Southeast Asia by the end of the last century and was described as a zoonotic pathogen [33]. Due to the first isolation in monkeys and mosquitoes, the maintenance of the enzootic ZIKV was first attributed to those two groups of animals. However, antibodies have been detected in other animal species [26]. The ZIKV ability to switch species can play a special role in virus evolution. Especially in virus presenting RNA genome, nucleotide polymorphisms have long been noted as an evolutionary mechanism and indicate viral adaptation to the host [34, 35]. The mutation rate of ZIKV was demonstrated to be between 12 and 25 bases per year and corresponds to 0.2% of total ZIKV genome [36]. On top of the mutation rate, recombination events also play an important role in virus evolution. Fay et al. studying the molecular evolution of ZIKV reported a possible event of recombination in E and NS5 genes affecting African samples [28]. Han et al. propose a recombinant event within Brazilian strain (ZikaSPH2015), French Polynesia strain (H/PF/2013), and strain Z1106033 from Suriname [37]. Noteworthy, the recombination within Asian strains was not supported by Jun and colleagues when 196 ZIKV genomes were analyzed [38]. Therefore, further investigation is needed in order to accurately correlate genome changes and virulence.
Quantitative polymerase chain reaction amplification (qPCR) assays have been used for laboratory diagnosis of viral infectious diseases, since the sensitivity, specificity, and speed of the method allow the rapid detection of viruses in the host, human clinical samples, biopsies, and autopsy tissue. Since ZIKV is an RNA virus, running an initial reverse transcriptase step followed by a qPCR (RT-qPCR) is recommended. This method has been proved to be the most reliable one to confirm ZIKV infection during acute phase. Then, the first step for molecular ZIKV detection is the RNA isolation from different patient biological samples. When one is dealing with tissue samples, it is necessary to mechanically dissociate the freshly isolated tissue fragment to further conduct the nucleic acid extraction process. Other body fluid samples could be directly processed by an RNA isolation kit before viral genome reverse transcriptase reaction followed by amplification using ZIKV-specific primers and probes.
One of the limitations of the PCR technique is related to the presence of inhibitory substances, such as IgG, hemoglobin, lactoferrin in blood samples, and anticoagulants as heparin, that have already been described as PCR inhibitors [39]. In urine samples, the most critical component described as PCR inhibitors is urea, which can lead to degradation of the polymerase. However, its direct effect is dependent on urea concentration in the sample [40]. One way to monitor an inhibitory effect performed by PCR inhibitors is to carry out PCR positive control reactions. Spike-in experiments where an exogenous microorganism is added to your patient sample, to be co-extracted and amplified by another pair of primers and probe, could demonstrate inhibitors’ presence when no amplification occurs [41].
Other limitations of the technique are related to both the time of infection (acute phase) and the type of sample chosen. This relationship is directly associated with the success of the laboratory confirmation. It is known that the presence of the virus in the plasma, saliva, breast milk, and nasopharyngeal swab is short, which allows the detection of viral RNA for a limited time, and during the acute phase of the disease, it is calculated on average 3–7 days after the occurrence of the symptoms. On the other hand, urine and saliva biological samples are optimal in the context of infant and newborn diagnosis due to low invasiveness and easy sample access [7, 10, 42, 43, 44]. In term of RNA detection, urine samples are described to present positivity from the fourth day until 29 days after the onset of symptoms [45], another time this sample opens the possibility of virus detection in longer times, even after the period of viremia. In adults, the biological sample that displays an increased period of viral persistence was semen, with cases where RNA detection occurred months after ZIKV infection. This raises the possibility that viral persistence could exist in both female and male genital tract (Figure 2) [8, 42, 46, 47, 48].
Literature evidence on the average period of virus RNA positivity in different body fluids and serum immunoglobulins levels after symptoms onset. Bars following the timeline indicate sample and proper molecular test that should be used to investigate infection after viral exposition, and dashes represent virus load decrease. *Immunoglobulins development expected for a primary flavivirus infected patient. A secondary exposition should promote earlier and higher IgG serum titles with short and reduced IgM levels. **ZIKV detection in genital fluids without viremia suggests viral tropism and persistence in those organs.
Apart of a positive RT-qPCR result for ZIKV, quantitative PCR offers the opportunity to deliver viral copies relative to tissue milligrams or fluid milliliters. To calculate viral load is imperative to construct a standard curve, from a serial dilution from a reference sample that was previously determined RNA copies or plaque forming units (PFU). Then, the sample result will be possible to extrapolate from a relative measurement to an absolute quantification applied to a patient sample. This quantitative molecular diagnosis, in some pathologies (e.g., Hepatitis B and C, HIV, and herpes), has been already described as important indicators of health status and guide treatment choices. In the case of ZIKV infection, viral load does not appear to be related with clinical adverse events in congenital infections [49] or general population [50], but it was important to demonstrate viral load in different biological samples. As shown in Figure 3, the amniotic fluid has the highest viral load when compared with other biological fluids (urine or blood). However, in the context of an epidemiological outbreak, blood and urine are the more accessible samples with a significantly higher amount of virus and prolonged RNA detection (Figure 2) in urine than blood. The placenta did not present a significant difference when compared to blood and urine.
ZIKV RNA viral load in different biological samples. Noninvasive biological samples urine presents a higher viral load than blood samples (**p-value < 0.001). AF viral load is the highest when compared with other maternal samples (***p-value < 0.0001). AF, amniotic fluid. CSF, cerebrospinal fluid. Data generated from 13 placentas, 12 CSF, 6 fetal tissues, 4 AF, 24 urine, and 49 blood samples.
However, as discussed before, potential ZIKV RNA viral mutation turns RT-qPCR methods not infallible. Viral genetic evolution raises the possibility that polymorphisms inside primer annealing site may generate false negative amplification reactions of the ZIKV genome targeted region. During 2015 ZIKV outbreak, there was six widely used
Another flavivirus laboratory test that has gained prominence is the detection of NS1 viral protein in the serum, which in turn reflects a viral infection during the acute phase [56]. Largely used during DENV outbreaks, it is based on NS1 protein secretion by infected cells that reach high serum concentrations during periods of viral replication during flaviviruses and is considered an important acute phase biomarker for dengue fever. The assay format is suitable for use in routine laboratories around the world, allowing high-throughput testing in epidemic regions [31, 56]. Serological identification of ZIKV infections could also be maximized by parallel testing for IgM/IgG and NS1. The limitation of this assay is related to cross-reactivity between Zika and other flaviviruses, once they display a high degree of homology around their viral proteins, especially with dengue [1]. However, serological tests are constantly improving in order to increase the specificity through the use NS1-based anti-ZIKV, and it has been recently shown to be more sensitive and highly specific for the serodiagnosis of ZIKV infections but has not yet been commercially available [31].
Immunohistochemistry is an important tool to evaluate vertical transmission (placenta infection). Through this, viral particles of ZIKV have already been detected in placental defense cells, known as Hofbauer cells. These cells are of fetal origin and have the ability to migrate, in areas that have contact with trophoblastic epithelium and vessels of the fetus. It is believed that ZIKV has an immune system evasion mechanism and Hofbauer cells are responsible for viral dissemination, facilitating their access to the fetal compartment besides being a viral reservoir [57]. Due to access to the fetal compartment, ZIKV gains open access to fetal layer where no more immunological barrier could arrest their access to fetal central nervous system (CNS) [58].
ZIKV neuronal tropism was observed and described in affected fetus through necropsy studies. It was clearly demonstrated ZIKV antigens being expressed in large amounts in the brain with sporadic amounts of ZIKV antigens found in other fetal tissues, like liver, kidney, heart, and lung [59]. The opportunity to demonstrate CNS prolonged viral persistence was showed in a necropsy study conducted in a 5-month infant deceased after ZIKV congenital infection, which occurred in the first trimester of pregnancy. In this case report, ZIKV was still present in the brain tissue with no evidence of inflammation or brain damage evolution [60].
Virus isolation using cell culture or animals remains as an option for virus detection. Vertebrate or invertebrate cells (e.g.,
The considerable cross-reactivity between flavivirus antibodies is the major challenge for serological test development. In endemic areas, where dengue and Zika viruses cocirculate besides several proposed ELISA tests, individuals previously exposed to other flaviviruses are not prevented to be misclassified. Another complication for patients experiencing a second flavivirus infection is a shorten IgM antibody response that could misdiagnose the time for acute infection [1].
This presents a diagnostic dilemma for patients living in regions in which flaviviruses are endemic, and reliable diagnostic tools that are able to discriminate between primary and secondary ZIKV or DENV infections are urgently needed [1, 62, 63].
Although the precise period of onset and duration IgM class antibodies in response to ZIKV is not well defined, data known by other flaviviruses suggest that IgM for ZIKV should start to be detectable 7 days following infection, in the majority of symptomatic patients (Figure 2). However, it has been recently reported in the literature that seroconversion may occur earlier for one-third of patients [1, 42]. While anti-ZIKV antibody titers decrease, IgM to ZIKV has a window of detection more than 12 weeks following infection for over 80% of individuals [42]. According to the modeling studies with other flaviviruses, including West Nile virus (WNV) and dengue (DENV), this serum persistence is consistent with the antibody responses following infection, suggesting that the mean time to IgM seronegativity ranges from 5 to 6 months [64, 65].
Apart from initial antibody response, IgG neutralizing antibodies (NA) normally develop after IgM response and should persist for years to decades following primary infection. It is believed that NA to ZIKV directed to a key epitope after infection should be highly specific in patients without prior exposure to flaviviruses; however, NA specificity, in the setting of past exposure to a closely related flavivirus, such as DENV, once shares diverse antigenic determinants, decrease specificity to ZIKV epitopes [1].
Another tool that is being proposed in the context of outbreaks is rapid point of care (POC) tests which are based on the IgM/IgG immunochromatography assay. They should be used carefully and are normally interpreted as qualitative screening tests, and further serological investigations are needed. When they present a positive result, the patient samples should be sent for plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), or in the case of pregnant women, RT-qPCR is recommended [66, 67].
Special attention should be given to the risk group composed of newborns, where the immunoenzymatic serological test is extremely important to define congenital infection. ZIKV IgG antibody detection in a newborn may reflect maternal infection due to the passive transfer of this class of immunoglobulins. Based on other congenital infections, uninfected newborns display IgG levels that decline gradually in the first months of life, and this corresponds to the time of elimination of the antibody transmitted by the mother [68]. For this reason, tests to detect IgM are commonly used to confirm infection in the child, and in the context of flavivirus infection, only ZIKV was demonstrated to cross the placental and fetal immunological barriers [69, 70]. ZIKV IgM positivity in CSF, after congenital infection, was described as a reliable tool to discriminate fetal infection, and it characterized high risk for neuroinvasive disease [71].
Until now, the unique reference standard for NA detection related to flaviviruses remains the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). Although technically cumbersome, with several challenges: (1) long turnaround time of days to weeks; (2) requirement for live viral cultures; (3) technical-experience dependence; and (4) high degree of subjectivity, it offers the highest achievable level of specificity. This test initiates with a serial dilution of patient serum that is preincubated with live ZIKV or other closely related viruses (e.g., DENV), followed by deposition onto a virus-susceptible cell monolayer. After proper incubation time, any resulting plaques suggest nonneutralized live virus and absence of specific antibodies. Those plaques are quantified and compared to plaques number obtained in culture wells containing virus-only in order to establish which serum dilution promotes 90% reduction in plaques occurrence in this patient sample (PRNT90). ZIKV and DENV PRNT90 titers are subsequently compared to define the specificity of the NAs [72]. Although the PRNT assay has a higher sensitivity than other tests such as hemagglutination and enzyme immunoassay and is more specific than other serological methods for the diagnosis, the limitation of this test is not discriminate between antibody classes and, especially in secondary flavivirus infections, cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies may contribute to virus neutralization [73]. In addition, PRNTs are time-consuming and laborious and are to be restricted to reference laboratories and research centers because they require the technical capacity to carry them out, as well as a complex laboratory structure [46].
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection is usually an asymptomatic or a mild symptomatic disease in adults, with maculopapular and pruritic rash, fever, conjunctivitis, joint pain, headache, and muscle pain [74]. However, infection during pregnancy may be transmitted to the fetus and causes severe systemic fetuses’ malformations, comprising the congenital Zika syndrome (CZS).
The clinical features of CZS have been described since 2015 Zika’s outbreak in Brazil. They can be divided into structural and functional components [75]. The structural components are cranial morphology, brain, and ocular anomalies, as well as congenital contractures [75]. The functional component is related to neurologic sequelae [75]. Therefore, CZS may consist of (A) cranial morphology: severe microcephaly, overlapping cranial sutures, prominent occipital bone, redundant scalp skin, and neurologic impairment; (B) brain anomalies: thin cerebral cortices, abnormal gyral patterns, increased fluid spaces, subcortical calcifications, corpus callosum abnormalities, decreased white matter, and cerebellar hypoplasia; (C) ocular anomalies: macular scarring (Figure 4A), focal pigmentary retinal mottling (Figure 4B), and optic nerve hypoplasia or atrophy (Figure 4A); (D) congenital contractures: arthrogryposis and club feet; and (E) neurologic sequelae: marked early hypertonia, symptoms of extrapyramidal involvement, epilepsy, and irritability [75, 76, 77]. Early recognition and referral to multidisciplinary care may result in a better outcome for each one of the abnormalities described.
(A) Right eye retinography showing macular (black arrowhead) and peripheral (black arrow) scarring and optic nerve hypoplasia (white arrow); (B) left eye retinography showing focal pigmentary retinal mottling (black arrow).
The diagnostic approach during prenatal care should be different in an endemic area and in a nonendemic area. Endemic area means residence in or travels to the affected area. In addition, in each of these two scenarios, the diagnosis is divided into symptomatic and asymptomatic pregnant women.
The ZIKV infection is divided into acute and convalescent phases. The acute phase is within the first 7 days of the symptoms, and the convalescent phase is 2–12 weeks after [78]. As shown in Figure 5, during the acute phase, the possible primary tests are the ZIKV RT-qPCR and the Immunoglobulin (Ig) M. The first one can be obtained from serum, saliva, urine, or amniotic fluid. When it is detected in the serum or saliva, it is confined to 5–7 days after onset of symptoms, and when it is detected in urine, it lasts up to 3 weeks after onset of illness. The evidence is lacking on the diagnostic accuracy of RT-qPCR of amniotic fluid and on the optimal time to perform amniocentesis [74]. The IgM is detectable ≥4 days after onset of illness [78]. In the convalescent phase, the primary test is IgM and the second test is plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). However, the Zika virus RT-qPCR can also be performed during this phase.
Flowchart showing initially two clinical scenarios (symptomatic and asymptomatic pregnant women) and the different primary and secondary tests and results for Zika virus diagnosis during pregnancy. NAT: RT-qPCR nucleic acid test. IgM: Immunoglobulin M. US: Intrauterine ultrasound. PRNT: Plaques reduction neutralization test.
If the primary results are
If the primary results are
If the primary result is
In endemic area of residence or traveling, the pregnant woman with possible ZIKV exposure should be first tested at initiation of prenatal care and three times during pregnancy [67]. The primary tests should be ZIKV RT-qPCR and ZIKV IgM serology. If available, US should be considered for fetal morphology assessment. The possible results of the laboratory tests and US are described above.
The asymptomatic woman should follow the routine antenatal care. The symptomatic woman should do the primary tests ZIKV RT-qPCR and ZIKV IgM serology. If available, US for fetal morphology assessment should be considered.
Additionally, the differential diagnosis is also crucial for the correct assessment and management of the disease. Signs of maternal disease, as well as intrauterine and neonatal findings, are similar in most of the TORCH’s congenital infections [75, 80]. Moreover, some genetic syndromes (Sd), such as Aicardi-Goutières Sd, pseudo-TORCH Sd, and mutations in the JAM3, NDE1, and ANKLE2 genes can also be in the differential diagnosis [75].
The main clinical findings in maternal TORCH infections include nonspecific signs, like fever, fatigue, malaise, headache, myalgia, arthralgia, lymphadenopathy, conjunctivitis, and making the ability to recognize the specific etiological agent difficult. Moreover, there are typical findings in some of these infections that can lead to the diagnosis. In herpes simplex virus infection, there is also painful genital ulcer, pruritus, and dysuria [80]. In primary syphilis infection, there is a firm, round, and painless chancre on external genitals and vagina, lasting 3–6 weeks [81]. In rubella, parvovirus B19, varicella, and ZIKV, cutaneous rash is an additional important sign [80, 82, 83]. The rash in rubella is maculopapular and usually progresses from the face to the body, fading within 2–4 days [80, 82, 83]. In parvovirus B19, the rash is also maculopapular, persisting until the 6th day and disappearing on the 7–9th day after the first appearance [80, 82, 83]. First, it occurs on the face, sparing nasal, and periorbital zones and second, on the trunk and extremities [83]. In varicella, it is initially pruritic and maculopapular, following a vesicular phase until crushing occurs, usually about 5 days later [84]. Finally, the rash in ZIKV infection is pruritic, descending, and maculopapular, beginning proximally and spreading to the extremities with resolution occurring within 1–4 days of onset [14, 74].
Nonspecific intrauterine US findings in TORCH infections are intrauterine growth restriction, abnormal fluid imbalance (ascites, hydrops, pericardial effusion, pleural effusion, and oligo-polyhydramnios), hepatosplenomegaly and hepatic calcifications, echogenic bowel, echogenic kidneys, and limb deformities [80, 85]. Cerebral brain calcification, although relatively common in most of these infections, can be an important distinguishing factor due to its location [80, 85]. In congenital toxoplasmosis, the calcifications are diffuse and widely distributed, and in rubella, they are at basal ganglia [80, 85]. In CMV congenital infection, the calcifications are usually punctate and periventricular or cortical [80, 85]. Conversely, in ZIKV, the calcifications are larger and denser, usually appearing at the gray and white matter junction [80, 86].
As well as seen with maternal clinical signs and intrauterine US findings, TORCH congenital infection can also produce a similar neonatal clinical presentation, although the features rarely occur simultaneously [87, 88]. The common clinical features include growth retardation, prematurity, jaundice, anemia, hepatosplenomegaly, microcephaly, cerebral calcifications, chorioretinitis, cataracts, microphthalmia, and others [87, 88]. However, clinical findings are more associated, although not exclusively, with a determined etiological agent. Cardiac lesions and deafness have been described in CMV and rubella congenital infections. Cicatricial skin lesions and limb hypoplasia are seen in varicella virus congenital infection [87]. Petechial or purpuric form exanthema (blueberry muffin spot) is typical of CMV infection [80, 82]. Chorioretinitis, hydrocephalus, and cerebral calcifications comprise the characteristic triad of congenital toxoplasmosis [89].
Finally, clinical signs of CZS can also be found in other TORCH infections. Cranial ZIKV morphology and brain anomalies can occur in congenital CMV infection [75]. Congenital contractures can appear in congenital rubella, varicella, and Coxsackie B infections [75]. Neurologic sequelae are seen in most TORCH infections [75]. Ocular anomalies, such as pigmentary mottling and chorioretinal scars, can manifest differently in each of these congenital infections. In rubella, the pigment mottling is usually diffused compared with the focal pigment mottling seen in Zika virus infection (Figure 4B) [77]. Chorioretinal lesions in toxoplasmosis can present with active exudative retinitis or regressed macular or peripapillary retinal scar [77]. In ZIKV congenital infection, chorioretinal lesions are atrophic and colobomatous-like and are found in the macula or retinal periphery (Figure 4A) [77]. Optic nerve hypoplasia, commonly seen in ZIKV congenital infection, is seldom seen in rubella, toxoplasmosis, herpes, and CMV congenital infections [77].
Human clinical diagnosis of ZIKV infection in regions where other arboviruses circulate, mainly DENV and CHIKV, has become a daunting task; therefore, laboratory confirmation is crucial for conclusive diagnosis. Detection of virus genome by RT-qPCR is helpful and demonstrated to be a reliable tool; however, the limited window for virus detection, low viral load, and stability restricted the use of these methodologies. Antibody screening is also hampered by cross-reactivity among other flaviviruses.
Due to impact of ZIKV infection, especially for pregnant women, a confident ZIKV serology test is urgently needed, and this will promote a better prenatal follow-up, especially in endemic areas. Nonetheless, as mentioned above, there are typical findings to aid the correct diagnosis and, thus, the appropriate management and counseling of the disease.
We thank Fernandes Figueira Institute Pediatric Infectious Disease Team for helpful discussions during this work and field expertise from ZIKVIRUSIFF Cohort study registered on clinicaltrials.gov with identifier NCT03255369.
This work was partially supported by Fernandes Figueira Institute Research Program (Programa de Incentivo à Pesquisa II), Rio de Janeiro State Research Grant (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro—grant E-26/201.840/2017), National Research Grant (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico—grant 441098/2016-9), and the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior—Brasil (CAPES)—Finance Code 001.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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The particle reveals interesting properties at the dimension below 100 nm, mostly from two physical effects. The two physical effects are the quantization of electronic states apparent leading to very sensitive size-dependent effects such as optical and magnetic properties and the high surface-to-volume ratio modifies the thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties of materials. The nanoparticles’ unique physical and chemical properties render them most appropriate for a number of specialist applications.",book:{id:"9109",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Engineered Nanomaterials - Health and Safety"},signatures:"Takalani Cele",authors:[{id:"305934",title:"Dr.",name:"Takalani",middleName:null,surname:"Cele",slug:"takalani-cele",fullName:"Takalani Cele"}]},{id:"62151",title:"Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis as a Promising Technology for Hydrogen Production and Energy Storage",slug:"proton-exchange-membrane-water-electrolysis-as-a-promising-technology-for-hydrogen-production-and-en",totalDownloads:3355,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis is industrially important as a green source of high-purity hydrogen, for chemical applications as well as energy storage. Energy capture as hydrogen via water electrolysis has been gaining tremendous interest in Europe and other parts of the world because of the higher renewable penetration on their energy grid. Hydrogen is an appealing storage medium for excess renewable energy because once stored, it can be used in a variety of applications including power generation in periods of increased demand, supplementation of the natural gas grid for increased efficiency, vehicle fueling, or use as a high-value chemical feedstock for green generation of fertilizer and other chemicals. Today, most of the cost and energy use in PEM electrolyzer manufacturing is contributed by the cell stack manufacturing processes. Current state-of-the-art electrolysis technology involves two options: liquid electrolyte and ion exchange membranes. Membrane-based systems overcome many of the disadvantages of alkaline liquid systems, because the carrier fluid is deionized water, and the membrane-based cell design enables differential pressure operation.",book:{id:"7325",slug:"nanostructures-in-energy-generation-transmission-and-storage",title:"Nanostructures in Energy Generation, Transmission and Storage",fullTitle:"Nanostructures in Energy Generation, Transmission and Storage"},signatures:"Radenka Maric and Haoran Yu",authors:null},{id:"72636",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"nanocomposite-materials",totalDownloads:2283,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Nanocomposites are the heterogeneous/hybrid materials that are produced by the mixtures of polymers with inorganic solids (clays to oxides) at the nanometric scale. Their structures are found to be more complicated than that of microcomposites. They are highly influenced by the structure, composition, interfacial interactions, and components of individual property. Most popularly, nanocomposites are prepared by the process within in situ growth and polymerization of biopolymer and inorganic matrix. With the rapid estimated demand of these striking potentially advanced materials, make them very much useful in various industries ranging from small scale to large to very large manufacturing units. With a great deal to mankind with environmental friendly, these offer advanced technologies in addition to the enhanced business opportunities to several industrial sectors like automobile, construction, electronics and electrical, food packaging, and technology transfer.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Mousumi Sen",authors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}]},{id:"64843",title:"Polymer Nanocomposites with Different Types of Nanofiller",slug:"polymer-nanocomposites-with-different-types-of-nanofiller",totalDownloads:4184,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:64,abstract:"The development of polymer nanocomposites has been an area of high scientific and industrial interest in the recent years, due to several improvements achieved in these materials, as a result of the combination of a polymeric matrix and, usually, an inorganic nanomaterial. The improved performance of those materials can include mechanical strength, toughness and stiffness, electrical and thermal conductivity, superior flame retardancy and higher barrier to moisture and gases. Nanocomposites can also show unique design possibilities, which offer excellent advantages in creating functional materials with desired properties for specific applications. The possibility of using natural resources and the fact of being environmentally friendly have also offered new opportunities for applications. This chapter aims to review the main topics and recent progresses related to polymer nanocomposites, such as techniques of characterization, methods of production, structures, compatibilization and applications. First, the most important concepts about nanocomposites will be presented. Additionally, an approach on the different types of filler that can be used as reinforcement in polymeric matrices will be made. After that, sections about methods of production and structures of nanocomposites will be detailed. Finally, some properties and potential applications that have been achieved in polymer nanocomposites will be highlighted.",book:{id:"6854",slug:"nanocomposites-recent-evolutions",title:"Nanocomposites",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites - Recent Evolutions"},signatures:"Amanda Dantas de Oliveira and Cesar Augusto Gonçalves Beatrice",authors:[{id:"249768",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Amanda",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"amanda-oliveira",fullName:"Amanda Oliveira"},{id:"254512",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cesar",middleName:"Augusto Gonçalves",surname:"Beatrice",slug:"cesar-beatrice",fullName:"Cesar Beatrice"}]},{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:4067,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"17",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82909",title:"Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency, Growth Mechanism and Design of III–V Nanowire-Based Solar Cells: Review",slug:"solar-energy-conversion-efficiency-growth-mechanism-and-design-of-iii-v-nanowire-based-solar-cells-r",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105985",abstract:"Nanowires (NWs) are 1D nanostructures with unique and wonderful optical and electrical properties. Due to their highly anisotropic shape and enormous index of refraction, they behave as optical antennae with improved absorption and emission properties, and thus better photovoltaic cell efficiency compared to a planar material with equivalent volume. Implying important advantages of reduced material usage and cost as well as due to its direct bandgap and its flexibility for designing solar cells, we choose to review III–V NWs. Their bandgap can easily be tunable for growing on the cheapest Si substrate. The recent developments in NW-based photovoltaics with attractive III–V NWs with different growth mechanisms, device fabrication, and performance results are studied. Recently, III–V NW solar cells have achieved an interesting efficiency above 10%. GaAsP NW has achieved 10.2%; InP NW has achieved 13.8%; GaAs NW has achieved 15.3%; and moreover the highest 17.8% efficiency is achieved by InP NW. While the III–V NW solar cells are much more vital and promising, their current efficiencies are still much lower than the theoretically predicted maximum efficiency of 48%. In this review, the chapter focused on the synthesis processes of III–V nanowires, vapor-liquid-solid growing mechanisms, solar light harvesting of III–V nanowire solar cells, and designing high-efficiency and low-cost III–V nanowire solar cells.",book:{id:"11461",title:"Advances in Nanowires Synthesis and Applications to Sensing Technologies \ufeff",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11461.jpg"},signatures:"Fikadu Takele Geldasa"},{id:"82660",title:"Organoclay Nano-Adsorbent: Preparation, Characterization and Applications",slug:"organoclay-nano-adsorbent-preparation-characterization-and-applications",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105903",abstract:"Organoclay has a tremendous impact on both fundamental studies and practical applications in numerous fields. In this context, this chapter investigates the performance of Organoclay in wastewater treatment. In particular, the adsorption of various hazardous substances has been reviewed. This study aims to give an overview of the preparation methods of Organoclay. The second purpose was to discuss the removal efficiency and reliability of various pollutants by organoclay. The third goal discussed the isotherms and kinetics used for the data interpretation. This work revealed that the characteristics of Organoclay depend mainly on the type of clay used and the nature of the intercalated surfactant. Sorption efficiency was found to depend on the nature of Organoclay, type of pollutant, pH, contact time and the concentration of pollutant.",book:{id:"11755",title:"Nanoclay - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11755.jpg"},signatures:"Kawthar Yahya, Wissem Hamdi and Noureddine Hamdi"},{id:"81789",title:"Processing of Graphene/Elastomer Nanocomposites: A Minireview",slug:"processing-of-graphene-elastomer-nanocomposites-a-minireview",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104849",abstract:"Since the isolation and identification of graphene, the academic and industrial communities are utilizing its superior properties. This minireview deals with the processing of graphene-based fillers/elastomer nanocomposites. The incorporation of graphene in an elastomeric matrices has significant effects on the properties of nanocomposites. The dispersion of graphene in elastomers is discussed. The processing of graphene/elastomer nanocomposites is discussed. The mechanical properties of the elastomeric matrix can be enhanced due to the presence of graphene. In this review and due to space limitations, we will present an example of improvements in the mechanical characteristics of graphene/styrene-butadiene (SBR) elastomer nanocomposites.",book:{id:"10825",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10825.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammed A. Sharaf and Andrzej Kloczkowski"},{id:"82693",title:"CuO and MWCNTs Nanoparticles Filled PVA-PVP Nanocomposites: Morphological, Optical, Dielectric, and Electrical Characteristics",slug:"cuo-and-mwcnts-nanoparticles-filled-pva-pvp-nanocomposites-morphological-optical-dielectric-and-elec",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105810",abstract:"Copper dioxide (CuO) nanoparticles and multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)-filled poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP) blend matrix (50/50 wt%)-based polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) have been prepared employing the solution-cast method. The X-ray diffraction explores the semicrystalline morphologies of these PNCs. The FTIR, SEM, and AFM measurements of PNCs expose the development of the miscible mix, polymer-polymer and polymer-nanoparticle interactions, and the influence of CuO and MWCNTs nanofillers on the morphology aspects on the main chain of PVA/PVP blend. The nanofiller loading for x = 14 wt% in the PVA–PVP blend matrix significantly enhances the crystalline phase, diminishing the optical energy gap to 2.31 eV. The DC conductivity is found to be maximum for x = 14 wt% loading concentration. The dielectric and electrical characteristics of these PNCs are investigated for an applied frequency range from 1 kHz to 1 MHz. The dielectric permittivity values increase substantially, owing to the decrease in the nano-confinement phenomenon at low frequency. The rise in applied frequency reduces dielectric permittivity and impedance values and enhances AC electrical conductivity. These PNCs having good dielectric and electrical characteristics can be used as frequency tunable nano-dielectric material in electronic devices.",book:{id:"11464",title:"Carbon Nanotubes - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Potential Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11464.jpg"},signatures:"Hassan A.H. Alzahrani"},{id:"81495",title:"Enzyme-Like Property (Nanozyme) of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",slug:"enzyme-like-property-nanozyme-of-iron-oxide-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102958",abstract:"Iron oxide nanoparticles perform biological activity under physiological conditions. They exhibit enzyme-like properties that catalyze redox reactions mediated by natural enzymes of oxidoreductase and are classified into a typical of nanozymes that are defined as nanomaterials with enzyme-like activities. In addition, iron oxide nanoparticles widely exist in biological system, such as magnetosome and ferritin that not only regulate iron metabolism, but also regulate ROS homostasis. The enzyme-like properties of iron oxide nanoparticles render them with broad biomedical applications including immunoassay, biosensor, antimicrobial, anti-tumor, antioxidant. Taken together, iron oxide nanoparticles are bioactive materials and may perform particular biological function in life activity.",book:{id:"10824",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10824.jpg"},signatures:"Lizeng Gao"},{id:"82277",title:"Application of Iron Oxide in Supercapacitor",slug:"application-of-iron-oxide-in-supercapacitor",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105001",abstract:"Iron oxide nanostructures have been considered very promising material as electrode in electrochemical energy storage devices because of their lower cost of synthesis and high theoretical charge storage capacity. Iron oxide nanoparticles and their nanocomposites have performed excellent in supercapacitor. Iron oxide as negative electrode has extended the working voltage window of a supercapacitor. The main problems associated with iron oxide based electrodes are their poor electrical conductivity and cycle stability. Therefore, a conductive carbon matrix has been added to the iron oxide based electrodes to improve the electrochemical performance. In this chapter, recent progress on iron oxide and its composite with different materials as electrode in supercapacitor is summarized. The various synergistic effects of nanocomposites and compositional engineering to enhance the electrochemical performance of iron oxide are also discussed.",book:{id:"10824",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10824.jpg"},signatures:"Rajan Lakra, Rahul Kumar, Parasanta Kumar Sahoo, Sandeep Kumar and Ankur Soam"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:26},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. 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