Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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The topics encompass the technology advancement in the fabrication process of metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors or MOSFETs (which are the fundamental building blocks of CMOS devices) and the applications of transistors in the present and future eras. The book is intended to provide information on the latest technology development of CMOS to researchers, physicists, as well as engineers working in the field of semiconductor transistor manufacturing and design.",isbn:"978-1-78923-497-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-496-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-512-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71097",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"complementary-metal-oxide-semiconductor",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"96b2d63df3822f48468050aa7a44a44c",bookSignature:"Kim Ho Yeap and Humaira Nisar",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6511.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12220,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:14,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 30th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 20th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 21st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 10th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 8th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"24699",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Yeap",slug:"kim-ho-yeap",fullName:"Kim Ho Yeap",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24699/images/system/24699.jpg",biography:"Kim Ho Yeap is an Associate Professor at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia. He is an IEEE senior member, a Professional Engineer registered with the Board of Engineers, Malaysia,a Chartered Engineer registered with the UK Engineering Council, and an ASEAN Chartered Professional Engineer (ACPE). He received his BEng (Hons) Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Universiti Teknologi Petronas in 2004, his MSc in microelectronics from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in 2005, and his PhD from Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman in 2011. In 2008 and 2015, respectively, Dr. Yeap underwent research attachment at the University of Oxford (UK) and Nippon Institute of Technology (Japan). Dr. Yeap is the external examiner and external course assessor of Wawasan Open University. He is also the Editor in Chief of the i-manager’s Journal on Digital Signal Processing. He has also been a guest editor for the Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences and Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences. Dr. Yeap has been given the university teaching excellence award, and 22 research grants. He has published more than 100 research articles (including refereed journal papers, conference proceedings, books, and book chapters). Prior to joining the academic industry, Dr. Yeap worked in Intel corporation in the pre-silicon validation group. He was awarded 4 Kudos awards by Intel for his contributions in the design and verification of the microchip’s design for testability (DFT) features.",institutionString:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"28878",title:"Dr.",name:"Humaira",middleName:null,surname:"Nisar",slug:"humaira-nisar",fullName:"Humaira Nisar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/28878/images/5816_n.jpg",biography:"Humaira Nisar received the BE (Honors) in Electrical Engineering from University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. She received MS degree in Nuclear Engineering from Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan. She received MS degree in Mechatronics and Ph.D. in Information and Mechatronics from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea. Currently, she is Associate Professor at Department of Electronic Engineering, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar, Malaysia. She is also senior member of IEEE. Her research interests include signal and image processing and analysis, bio medical imaging, brain signal analysis, motion estimation and video compression.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"740",title:"Electronic Devices and Materials",slug:"electronic-devices-and-materials"}],chapters:[{id:"58658",title:"Introductory Chapter: Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73145",slug:"introductory-chapter-complementary-metal-oxide-semiconductor-cmos-",totalDownloads:1436,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Kim Ho Yeap and Humaira Nisar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58658",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58658",authors:[{id:"126825",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ho",surname:"Yeap",slug:"kim-ho-yeap",fullName:"Kim Ho Yeap"}],corrections:null},{id:"62046",title:"Advanced Transistor Process Technology from 22- to 14-nm Node",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78655",slug:"advanced-transistor-process-technology-from-22-to-14-nm-node",totalDownloads:1791,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Transistor performance meets great technical challenges as the critical dimension (CD) shrinking beyond 32/28-nm nodes. A series of innovated process technologies such as high-k/metal gate, strain engineering, and 3D FinFET to overcome these challenges are reviewed in this chapter. The principle, developing route, and main prosperities of these technologies are systematically described with theoretical analysis and experimental results. Especially, the material choice, film stack design, and process flow integration approach with high-k/metal gate for sub-22-nm node is introduced; the film growth technique, process optimization, and flow integration method with advanced strain engineering are investigated; the architecture design, critical process definition, and integration scheme matching with traditional planar 2D transistor for 14-nm 3D FinFET are summarized.",signatures:"Huaxiang Yin and Jiaxin Yao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62046",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62046",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"61888",title:"Work Function Setting in High-k Metal Gate Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78335",slug:"work-function-setting-in-high-k-metal-gate-devices",totalDownloads:2637,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"As transistor size continues to shrink, SiO2/polysilicon gate stack has been replaced by high-k/metal gate to enable further scaling. Two different integration approaches have been implemented in high-volume production: gate first and gate last; the latter is also known as replacement gate approach. In both integration schemes, getting the right work functions and threshold voltages for N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (NMOS) and P-type metal-oxide-semiconductor (PMOS) devices is critical. A number of recent studies have shown that the threshold voltage of devices is highly dependent on not just the deposited material properties but also on subsequent device processing steps. This chapter contains a description on the different mechanisms of work function setting in gate last and gate first technologies, the sensitivities to different process conditions and special measurement techniques for gate stack analysis is shown.",signatures:"Elke Erben, Klaus Hempel and Dina Triyoso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61888",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61888",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"60757",title:"Selective Epitaxy of Group IV Materials for CMOS Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76244",slug:"selective-epitaxy-of-group-iv-materials-for-cmos-application",totalDownloads:1849,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) demands an increase of transistor density in the chip, the size of transistors has been continuously shrunk. In this evolution of transistor structure, different strain engineering methods were introduced to induce strain in the channel region. One of the most effective methods is applying embedded SiGe as stressor material in source and drain (S/D) regions by using selective epitaxy. This chapter presents an overview of implementation, modeling, and pattern dependency of selective epitaxy for S/D application in CMOS. The focus is also on the wafer in and ex situ cleaning prior to epitaxy, integrity of gate, and selectivity mode.",signatures:"Guilei Wang, Henry H. Radamson and Mohammadreza Kolahdouz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60757",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60757",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62335",title:"MOS Meets NEMS: The Born of Hybrid Devices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78758",slug:"mos-meets-nems-the-born-of-hybrid-devices",totalDownloads:1029,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Nowadays, the semiconductor industry is reaching an impasse due to the scaling-down process according to Moore’s Law, initiated back in 1960s, for the Metal-Oxide-Technology in use. To overcome such issue, the semiconductor industry started to foresee novel materials that allow the development of nanodevices with a broad variety of characteristics such as high switching speed, low power consumption, robust, among others; that can overcome the inherent issues for Silicon. A few “exotic materials” appear such as Graphene, MoS2, BN-h, among others. However, the time for the novel technology to be mature is a few decades in the future. To allow the “exotic materials” to mature, the semiconductor industry requires of novel nano-structures that can overcome a few of the issues that Silicon-based technology is facing today. A key alternative is based on hybrid structures. Hybrid structures encompass two dissimilar technologies nano-electromechanical systems with the well known Metal-Oxide-Technology. The hybrid nano-structure provides a broad variety of options to be used in such as transistors, memories and sensors. These hybrid devices can give enough time for the technology based on “exotic materials” to be reliable as Silicon based is.",signatures:"Mario Alberto García-Ramírez, Miguel Angel Bello-Jiménez, María\nEsther Macías-Rodríguez, Barbara Cortese, José Trinidad Guillen-\nBonilla, Rosa Elvia López-Estopier, Juan Carlos Gutiérrez-García and\nEverardo Vargas-Rodríguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62335",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62335",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"58610",title:"Comprehensive Analytical Models of Random Variations in Subthreshold MOSFET’s High-Frequency Performances",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72710",slug:"comprehensive-analytical-models-of-random-variations-in-subthreshold-mosfet-s-high-frequency-perform",totalDownloads:889,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Subthreshold MOSFET has been adopted in many low power VHF circuits/systems in which their performances are mainly determined by three major high-frequency characteristics of intrinsic subthreshold MOSFET, i.e., gate capacitance, transition frequency, and maximum frequency of oscillation. Unfortunately, the physical level imperfections and variations in manufacturing process of MOSFET cause random variations in MOSFET’s electrical characteristics including the aforesaid high-frequency ones which in turn cause the undesired variations in those subthreshold MOSFET-based VHF circuits/systems. As a result, the statistical/variability aware analysis and designing strategies must be adopted for handling these variations where the comprehensive analytical models of variations in those major high-frequency characteristics of subthreshold MOSFET have been found to be beneficial. Therefore, these comprehensive analytical models have been reviewed in this chapter where interesting related issues have also been discussed. Moreover, an improved model of variation in maximum frequency of oscillation has also been proposed.",signatures:"Rawid Banchuin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58610",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58610",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"59211",title:"6T CMOS SRAM Stability in Nanoelectronic Era: From Metrics to Built-in Monitoring",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73539",slug:"6t-cmos-sram-stability-in-nanoelectronic-era-from-metrics-to-built-in-monitoring",totalDownloads:1092,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The digital technology in the nanoelectronic era is based on intensive data processing and battery-based devices. As a consequence, the need for larger and energy-efficient circuits with large embedded memories is growing rapidly in current system-on-chip (SoC). In this context, where embedded SRAM yield dominate the overall SoC yield, the memory sensitivity to process variation and aging effects has aggressively increased. In addition, long-term aging effects introduce extra variability reducing the failure-free period. Therefore, although stability metrics are used intensively in the circuit design phases, more accurate and non-invasive methodologies must be proposed to observe the stability metric for high reliability systems. This chapter reviews the most extended memory cell stability metrics and evaluates the feasibility of tracking SRAM cell reliability evolution implementing a detailed bit-cell stability characterization measurement. The memory performance degradation observation is focused on estimating the threshold voltage (Vth) drift caused by process variation and reliability mechanisms. A novel SRAM stability degradation measurement architecture is proposed to be included in modern memory designs with minimal hardware intrusion. The new architecture may extend the failure-free period by introducing adaptable circuits depending on the measured memory stability parameter.",signatures:"Bartomeu Alorda, Gabriel Torrens and Sebastia Bota",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59211",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59211",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"57851",title:"Towards New Generation Power MOSFETs for Automotive Electric Control Units",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70906",slug:"towards-new-generation-power-mosfets-for-automotive-electric-control-units",totalDownloads:1497,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Power metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) are thought to be highly robust and versatile in high-speed switching applications in power electronics design due to its intrinsic high input impedance and compact size. This chapter concerns the development of a high-performance low voltage rating power MOSFET possessing low on-resistance and excellent avalanche current capability for an automotive electric power steering system (EPS). Using industry-standard Technology Computer-Aided Design (TCAD) tools, the planar- and trench-technology power MOSFETs, have been designed, modeled, simulated and compared. We surveyed and analyzed the specific on-resistance due to the different device structures, and various methods are highlighted and compared so that their benefits can be better understood and adopted. Additionally, the device ruggedness has been investigated and its improvement was evaluated and established for that of the trench MOSFET due to gate corner smoothing.",signatures:"Kuan W.A. Chee and Tianhong Ye",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57851",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57851",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9309",title:"Integrated Circuits/Microchips",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c7ff3f191842303cc95e466e28b5e33",slug:"integrated-circuits-microchips",bookSignature:"Kim Ho Yeap and Jonathan Javier Sayago Hoyos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9309.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24699",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ho",surname:"Yeap",slug:"kim-ho-yeap",fullName:"Kim Ho Yeap"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5799",title:"Very-Large-Scale 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\r\n\tThe majority of patients suffering from acute pancreatitis will have a mild, self-limited and uncomplicated course. Local and systemic complications, mild or life-threatening, such as pancreatic and/or peripancreatic fluid collections, walled-off necrosis, infected pancreatic necrosis and chronic disease can occur. The accuracy of the predictors of severity actually employed and the therapeutic choices are still under debate and clinical practice is often discordant with clinical practice guidelines. The aim is to review the physiology and pathophysiology of pancreatic secretion; the management in the acute setting and in the chronic; fluid resuscitation and antimicrobial therapy; the benefits and limitation of early enteral or parenteral nutritional interventions in patients with acute pancreatitis and nutritional recommendations in patients with chronic pancreatitis; the radiologic features of acute and chronic disease. \r\n\tThe successful management of these patients needs a multidisciplinary team composed of gastroenterologists, surgeons, interventional radiologists and specialists in critical care medicine, infectious disease and nutrition. The purpose of this book is to provide the reader with an overview of the multidisciplinary treatment of pancreatitis, both in its acute and chronic form.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-159-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-158-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-160-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4e78047fa5099332e086bc621777e71f",bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Massani and Dr. Tommaso Stecca",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11719.jpg",keywords:"Acute and Chronic Pancreatitis, Diagnosis, Pain Management, Nutrition, MRI, CT, Fluid Resuscitation, ERCP, WON, Pancreatic Pseudocyst, Microbiota, Complications",numberOfDownloads:5,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 2nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 18th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Chief of Department of Surgery at Treviso Regional Hospital, Italy who has served as Adjunct Professor at University of Padua, Italy since 2012. 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1. Introduction
Over the year, the number of connected devices (wirelessly and wired) is ever-increasing, will reach 13 billion by 2023 [1]. To support these always-connected devices, the demand for high speed, high reliability, low-latency, low-cost, dense connectivity, different types of mobility needs, and heterogeneous connectivity is escalating, which forced the telecommunications industry to enter into a new era of the future communication network (FCN) [2]. Furthermore, to unleash the full potential of Industry 4.0, guaranteed real-time communication between humans, robots, factory logistics, and products is a fundamental requirement [3]. The FCN incorporates 5G and beyond 5G network, whose main objectives will be application/service-oriented, which are on-demand and highly heterogeneous in nature [4]. To support ever-increasing devices for application-specific on-demand services, there is a strong requirement to view, design, and optimize the network from an end-to-end perspective.
To supports ever-increasing demand on requirements for different types of usage, applications, services, several technologies have been developed over the year. Table 1 describes the important milestones in both wireline and wireless communication. The development of wireline communication first started in copper and later shifted to the optical domain. In the present day, optical fiber is used in the backhaul network and copper wire is used normally in the access network. In the case of wireless communication, communication first started in the sub-GHz range and slowly it moves towards high-frequency ranges. In the latest, wireless communication is moving towards the 60–100 GHz range (mmWave communication) [4, 5].
Wireline Communication
Wireless Communication
Year
Milestones
Year
Milestones
1876
A. G. Bell transmits the first sentence
1894
Transmission through radio demonstrated by J. C. Bose
1877
First long-distance telephone line
1986
Marconi demonstrates wireless telegraphy
1927
The first transatlantic phone call, from the US to the UK
1901
Send the signal wirelessly across the Atlantic
1948
Shannon published Shannon’s formula
1914
first voice communication was established over a radio
1956
Kapany invented the glass-coated glass rod, named Fiber
1946
The first public mobile telephone was introduced by AT&T
1958
LASER invented by Schawlow and Townes
1973
Motorola makes a mobile call from a handheld mobile phone
1960
Kao demonstrate communication through fiber
1992
GSM starts its operation
1970
Corning Glass produced a practical fiber
1997
IEEE releases WiFi standard
1973
TCP/IP protocol proposed by Kahn and Cerf
2003
Birth of WWWW
1977
the first live telephone traffic through fiber optics
Important milestones in wireless and wireline communication.
To facilitate 5G capabilities (latency less than 1 ms, more than 5 Gbps data rate for high mobile user, other quality of (QoS) and quality of experience (QoE), enhanced spectral, energy and network efficiency, smart security, etc.) FCNs need to enhance existing services. To fulfill 5G and beyond 5G stringent service requirements, it is essential to have an understanding of all available resources across networks (wireless and optical), across radio-access technologies (RAT) (various frequency domain), across services (different class of services and traffic type), across emerging and disruptive technologies (internet-of-things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality/virtual reality (AR/VR)), and across cloud domains, and finally different backhaul network technologies. The 5G applications categories into three main domains: ultra-reliable low latency communication (uRLLC), massive machine type communication (mMTC), and enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) [6, 7]. Moving beyond 5G, 6G communication includes few disrupting technologies, such as machine learning (ML) based communication, augmented reality/virtual reality (AR/VR), holographic communication, high precision service, enhance user experience (towards 5-sense), Industry 4.0, molecular communication and more. Their specifications are futuristic, which include 5 Gbps in data rate, 25 μs in latency, new material for 5-sense experience, etc. Figure 1 provides an overview of the required specifications for three different areas in 5G communication and also in 6G communication [4].
Figure 1.
Characteristics of (a) 5G and (b) 6G communication.
2. Technology evolution over the years
In today’s telecommunication world, user access the services through different transmission media (copper, wireless, and fiber), however, backbone are predominantly optical. Most of the time, the access network is wireless, as the number of devices increases over the years due invent of IoT). In this work, users use the wireless networks for access purposes with the backbone network as optical. Figure 2 gives an idea of how the evolution of optical networks makes an impact on the wireless network. As the requirements of high data rate and low latency are increasing, the availability of optical networks (fronthaul) is coming closer to the home and access distance through wireless is decreasing. In the following, the development of technologies will be discussed in both domains.
Figure 2.
Impact of the evolution of technologies.
2.1 Development of wireless network
Over the years, wireless communication evolved generation-wise, started from 1G analog to 5G digital and moving towards 6G communication. The focus of 5G and 6G technologies is to connect people, society seamlessly along with applications, services, data, and geographical area in a smart networked environment. The present wireless network is heterogeneous in terms of infrastructure (Macrocell to femtocell), spectrum usage (licensed and unlicensed, sub-GHz to THz), coverage (multi-tier), antenna (single to the massive number of antennas), cooperation (user to eNB), and power usage (mW to 100 W).
The technologies developed for supporting these heterogeneous characteristics are co-existing together. These technologies are used to serve their purpose and produce interference on other services while in use, due to this their performance is somehow limited. To enhance performance by increasing awareness and cooperation, 5G technologies proposed several new solutions. These include technologies (as shown in Figure 3) like massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) for higher data rate and better coverage, coordinated multipoint transmission (CoMP) for a lower outage, distributed antenna system (DAS) for better connectivity, software-defined radio (SDR) for reconfigurability, cognitive radio (CR) for better spectrum utilization, cloud computing for better usage, software-defined network (SDN) for an optimized network, and mmWave communication for high bandwidth. These technologies differ in channel characteristics, usage specification, operational requirement, application supports, etc. The 5G communication stipulates to support a data rate of more than 5 Gbps, less than 1 ms latency for high mobility users [5]. Several important developments in 5G wireless networks are.
Figure 3.
A typical scenario of a heterogeneous wireless network.
5G New Radio: Even the existence of various radio technologies, 5G communications proposed a completely new radio interface, named 5G new radio (5G NR). The 5G NR interface is a flexible air interface that supports the mainly three ITU defined categories: uRLLC, mMTC, and eMBB. It can also support various other 5G applications such as automotive and health care. 3GPP defined two frequency ranges: FR1 (below 6 GHz) and FR2 (above 24 GHz) [7, 8].
Massive MIMO: The 5G communication uses massive MIMO as a promising multi-user MIMO technology, where the number of antennas (more than 100) at eNB is much more compared to traditional systems. This massive number of antennas allows substantial gains in system capacity and energy efficiency of both users and the system. Due to the increasing number of antennas, which guides to a more spatial resolution; subsequently, several users can use the same time-frequency resource. This can eventually lead to large capacity gains [9].
Non Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA): Over the year, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is the most preferred transmission technique. However, a non-orthogonal scheme (NOMA) has been proposed for efficient 5G communication. In NOMA, each user are distinguished by their power levels while operating in the same band and at the same time. It works with successive interference cancelation (SIC) at the receiver uses and with the help of superposition coding at the transmitter, all users can utilize the same and entire spectrum band. The transmitter site superimposed all the individual signals into a single waveform, while the receiver finds the desired signal with the help of SIC decodes mechanism [10, 11].
mmWave Communication: Availability of large bandwidth in the millimeter range, 5G & beyond wireless systems proposed to use mmWave communications. The mmWave cites a very short wavelength of the radio frequency spectrum between 24GHz and 100GHz. Due to the much shorter wavelength at millimeter band, it allows the deployment of massive antennas at the transceiver. Thus, the large propagating attenuation due to high frequency will be compensated by using a large antenna array, which provides high gains and finally, provides faster data speeds. In dense deployments scenario, it is also suitable for efficient and flexible wireless backhauling, in addition to supporting ultra-high-speed radio access [12].
Internet of Things (IoT): In the present day, IoT is used almost every possible scenario and application. IoT interconnects different types of devices for various applications and enables machine-to-machine (M2M) communication. BY doing so, it enables data communication between heterogeneous devices automatically without human monitoring and control intervention. Several wireless technologies along with few open standards (Vodafon’s Cellular IoT and the NB-IoT by 3GPP) have been used for the deployment of IoT. The 5G will be able to provide a connection to a massive IoT network, where billions of smart devices can be connected to the Internet. Since the 5G networks provide flexible and faster networks, IoT can be easily integrated with the wireless software define networking (WSDN) paradigm [13].
Coordinated Multipoint (CoMP): 5G communication supports small cell and the availability of numerous devices in the environment, makes the network very dense. In the dense environment, intercell interference will be more severe for edge users, which is one of the main reasons for the repeated outage. CoMP transmission technique exploits this interference scenario to enhance the users’ performances. CoMP mechanism utilizes the resources more effectively and efficiently by dynamic coordination or transmission and reception with multiple eNBs, which eventually improves the service quality of geographically separated UE and enhances the overall system performance [12].
Cognitive Radio: Over the spectrum has been allocated for several usages and the allocated resources are very much under-utilized, To reduce spectrum scarcity and utilize the underutilized spectrum, cognitive radio technology has been proposed. It is an intelligent radio, that can be sense, learn, aware and adapt according to the environment. With the help of software-defined radio (SDR), cognitive radio can be programmed and configured dynamically. SDR is a radio transceiver where radio components (modulators/demodulators, filters, amplifiers, mixers, detectors, etc.) are implemented by software on a personal computer or embedded system [12].
Having understood these technologies of 5G wireless communication, FCN is planning to have the communication system that can achieve data rates of about 100 Tb/s high speed, low latency, and reliable communications are essential for supporting ML/AI at the edge; giving rise to the research field entitled Communication over machine learning. Incorporation of holographic telepresence, holographic communication, virtual reality, and augmented reality in future communication, boost the requirement of wireless communication [14].
2.2 Development of optical network
In the present network scenario, the data generated by the wireless devices are transported through an optical network. In general, optical fiber is connected between wireless base stations (BSs/eNB), and their controlling, switching, and monitoring centers. Due to the enormous available bandwidth, the optical fiber can carry data up to 100 Tbps for networking in the optical network. By using appropriate technology, the capacity can be increased further. Similar to the evolution of the wireless network, the optical networks also evolved generation-wise. During the process of evolution, the optical network incorporated optical cross-connect (OXC), a synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) /synchronous optical network (SONET) rings, optical add-drop multiplexers (OADMs), Software-defined network/network function virtualization (SDN/NFV). Today’s long-haul backbone networks of 10/40 Gbps wavelength channels use wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) transmission systems. Further increase in capacity, the optical network uses a dense WDM (DWDM) frequency grid (12.5, 25, 50, and 100 GHz by G.694.1). Further development of WDM transmission systems makes the system an adaptable DWDM grid.
Optical Transport Network (OTN): ITU-T G.709 defined OTN, which transport digital/optical signal across the core network is a flexible way. Each optical channel carries a separate signal using optical channels multiplexing and uses optical data as a unit. OTN supports the different functions for transporting data, such as multiplexing, routing, management, supervision, and survivability.
Automatically Switched Optical Network (ASON): To accommodate dynamic traffic and their requirements, optical networks need to manage to signal and routing automatically and intelligently. It provides auto-discovery and dynamic connection set-up with the help of dynamic signaling-based over OTN and SDH networks. This is done through a distributed (or partially distributed) control plane, which enables improved support for current end-to-end provisioning, re-routing, and restoration. ASON uses the generalized MPLS (GMPLS) signaling protocol to set up and monitor edge-to-edge transport connections. It also uses single fiber switching to wavelength switching and optical packet switching. The other components, like OXCs, wavelength converters, and OADMs are required for ASON.
Different variant of wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM): WDM is the main transmission technology. Over the year several of its variant has been proposed and used, which are Dense WDM, Coarse WDM, and Time WDM. DWDM uses frequency grids of 12.5, 25, 50, and 100 GHz for transmission. IN the present scenario, many-core networks deployed 1.6 Tbps (40Gbps×40 wavelengths) DWDM system. To support the capabilities for 5G and beyond 5G system, the core network will need to transport 10 Tbps or more per fiber which will be pushed further for future FCN.
CWDM combines multiple optical signals at various wavelengths for transmission in optical fiber cables. Up to 18 channels are allowed to be connected over a dark fiber pair. Unlike 0.4 nm spacing for DWDM, CWDM systems have channels at wavelengths spaced 20 nanometers (nm) apart. CWDM works well in two prominent wavelength regions, 1310 nm, and 1550 nm.
TWDM is a WDM technique, where TDMA is applied to a set of wavelengths instead of just one wavelength. It requires strict coordination with the radio equipment to guarantee low latency, as with TDMA and provides more bandwidth than TDMA. In a passive optical network (PON), TWDM can be used as an alternative for transmitting 5G traffic [14].
Enhanced Common Public Radio Interface (eCPRI) fronthaul: CPRI is the key internal interface of Radio Equipment (RE), or remote radio head (RRH) and base station unit (BBU) or radio equipment controller (REC) via fronthaul transport network. For fronthaul between RRH and BBU, the overall delay must be limited to less than 100 μs over the multi-hop paths in 5G communication. Due to this stringent latency requirement, eCPRI is becoming an important technology for 5G. Its specification supports more flexibility in the positioning in eNBs, where BBU contains part of the PHY layer and higher layer functions of the air interface, whereas the RRH contains the remaining part of the PHY layer functions and the analog radio frequency functions [15].
Software-Defined Optical Network: The SDN paradigm separates the control plane from the data plane and uses an SDN controller for centralizes network control. SDN facilitates NFV for the network virtualization over the physical infrastructure so that multiple virtual networks can operate within. Due to high optical transmission capacities and the specific characteristics of optical components, software-defined optical networks (SDONs) has been proposed. With an underlying optical network infrastructure, SDONs seek to leverage the flexibility of SDN control for supporting networking applications. NFV allows for the flexible operation of multiple virtual optical networks over a given physical optical network infrastructure. SDONs are highly promising for low-latency and high-bandwidth backhauling for 5G eNBs. SDON application layer studies have developed mechanisms for achieving Quality of Service (QoS), access control and security, as well as energy efficiency and failure recovery [16].
Reconfigurable Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers (ROADM): OADM drops the desired wavelengths to local terminals from an incoming multi-wavelength signal by using a wavelength demultiplexer and adds a locally generated wavelength with the remaining pass-through wavelengths to generate the new outgoing multi-wavelength signal. In general, the mux/demux characteristics are fixed. However, to accommodate dynamic behavior and requirements of an optical network, it is almost necessary to have a reconfigurable OADM (ROADM). A ROADM can switch traffic remotely from a WDM system at the wavelength layer and enables the flexibility and reconfigurability of an optical transport network. Having the properties of being colorless (not wavelength selective), directionless (not nodal degree selective), and contentionless (not different wavelength) improves significantly the capacity of add/drop ports in a ROADM [17].
Software-Defined Optics (SDO): Due to dynamic and variable requirements of data traffic, it is almost necessary to do cross-layer interactions. To enables this SDO has been in an optical network. This can be done through the construction of application-specific protocol stacks out of small reusable services [1].
Elastic optical network (EON): EON accommodates dynamic changes of the optical component, such as flexible wavelength assignment, redefined optical switches and various transponders, etc. to improve system performances. It is possible to integrate EON with an IP layer easily to construct an IP-over-EON. The basic unit of switching in EON is a sub-carrier instead of the wavelength in the fixed-grid case since channels are usually composed of a variable number of sub-carriers [18].
Software-defined optical transmission (SDOT): SDOT supports dynamic reconfigurability of optical components and the ability to adapt various transponders. Softwarization and intelligent control of the data plane facilitates SDOT to optimal use of the available resources, which exploits the multiple dimensions and granularities efficiently.
Cognitive optical network (CON): To make more agile optical networking, a cognitive optical network has been proposed. The CON architecture enables high data rate lightpaths while compensating for a variety of dispersion impairments. CON improves the measuring parameters [e.g., optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR), chromatic dispersion (CD), polarization-mode dispersion (PMD), and bit error rate (BER)] while compensates the impairment and subsequently enhance the QoT in the optical network efficiently [19].
3. Performance requirement for end-to-end services
Nowadays, end-to-end performance is based on customer experience. As the data is sent over a heterogeneous network combination of wireless and wired (as shown in Figure 4), passing through several autonomous systems. These are operated by the same or different operators, which are using various networking technologies. These connections are inter-technical, inter-national, and inter-continental. Thus end-to-end performance is measured by the quality of experience (QoE) along with other metrics like quality of service (QoS), quality of resilience (QoR), quality of transmission (QoT), etc.
Figure 4.
A typical service architecture of a wireless access network with an optical backbone.
QoS/QoE parameters are different for different applications. Varies in latency, connectivity, data rate, etc. QoE evaluation by the user depends on several independent factors, such as service type, user profile (details of user personal information), type of equipment, type of content or service pricing policy (free, paid), screen size, etc. QoE is influenced not only by QoS but also by the grade of service (GoS) and QoR, as shown in Figure 5. The most popular measure of QoE is based on the Mean Opinion Score (MOS) [20].
Figure 5.
Factors influencing QoE.
User experience varied QoE while using the service from a different operator. At the technology level, operators are launching new services, which can work with virtualized, software-based, cloud-native, and more agile networks. In general, customer’s QoS/QoE needs to be monitored across physical. In virtualized networks, this becomes even more critical where services will be activated in real-time and need to be tested, fulfilled, and assured in an automated fashion.
The specification of 5G communication is different for different applications, like M2M, high broadband, and uRLLC. All these applications have different requirements (see Figure 2). Apart from these, in 6G communication, several new applications have been proposed, such as holographic telepresence, AR/VR, etc. The transmission requirements of these applications are quite futuristic in terms of data rate, latency, and BER. Thus, maintaining QoE in FCN will be very complex and challenging, as there are different types of CoS asking for separate GoS working in various environments, policies, and networks.
4. Behavior of evolved wireless technologies with corresponding evolved optical techniques to satisfy user QoE
In the present day, users require appropriate supports from the network infrastructure as per the service usages. In general, users are connected to the network through wireless access and the wireless access point is connected to the optical fronthaul node. Depending on the application, the user required variable BW, the latency of wireless access to satisfy its QoE. Optical network technologies will play an important role in addressing these requirements within the radio access network (RAN). Through the deployed network technologies, such as backhaul networks, metro networks, and PONs, etc., optical networks continuously support their QoS. The optical network used an eCPRI fronthaul interface to support the 5G specification. For example, eCPRI of 100 Gb/s supports a 5G system of 200 MHz BW (below 6 GHz frequency) with 64 (8X8) antenna arrays. It can also support mmWave communication of 400 MHz radio bandwidth in 60 GHz frequency range with 256 (16x16) radiating elements by 400–800 Gb/s capacity [21, 22].
Support IoT Applications: I0T is one of the widely used technology in recent times, which is used in a wide variety of applications. The use of IoT appears to be most challenging due to the wide range of different devices, various options of network connectivity, different protocols, methods, etc. It provides support to users with smart services while raising security and privacy threats [23]. The threat becomes challenging while users and networks are heterogeneous. To support this heterogeneity in IoT, SDO provides an appropriate solution. A solution like cognitive radio and CON can work together to facilitate the dynamic behavior and requirements of diverse IoT applications. Apart from this, SDN, wireless-SDN and SDON are also participating to support IoT services, while using edge router to integrate into the network.
Reduce outage of edge users: To reduce the outage of edge users, successful operation of CoMP is necessary, which depends on very fast and highly reliable feedback between the user and eNBs on the channel condition. At the same time, all the eNBs need to be synchronized and data should be present at all eNBs in real-time. Connecting optical fiber link between eNBs should ensure this low latency level as per 5G standard through the fast feedback channel. This is more complex, challenging when the number of participating eNBs is more, and the traffic load of the network increases. These will impact on processing (impact on delay in data transmission), synchronization (impact on a real-time mismatch), which depends on deploying sites topology, backhaul latency, and capacity [23].
Flexible Integration of data traffic: In 5G and 6G wireless communication, the data traffic has a diverse specification and has a wide variety of requirements. To support these dynamic and diverse requirements, flexibility and adaptability should be supported by an optical network. Optical networks supported these flexible and elastic nature by using SDN/NFV. Integration of optical components, such as various variants of ROADMs, OXC in multi-layer SDN makes network towards SDON. The use of different switching paradigms and a combined implementation of the switching elements in electronics and optics (hybrid optical switching) in SODN, can lead to even higher flexibility and better transmission efficiency [24].
Integration to heterogeneity: To support the requirement of 5G, the standards like NG-EPON (by IEEE) and G.hsp.x (by ITU-T) are proposed. Coexistence of 10G PON channels for residential, 100G dedicated channel for business along with wireless fronthaul, supports heterogeneity of 5G & beyond 5G communication. These are supported by long reach TDM-DWDM PON system, with up to 100 km reach, 512 users, and an emulated system load of 40 channels, employing amplifier nodes with either erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), or Raman amplifier or semiconductor optical amplifiers (SOAs). This end-to-end support by SODN with help of PON physical layer along with dynamic wavelength allocation (DWA) in response to increased traffic demand [25].
Service on the fly: Providing service through the cloud is immensely popular among users. The 5G communications also advocate and support the application through the cloud and aim to provide them effectively and efficiently. The Cloud-RAN (C-RAN) approach for 5G wireless splits the radio processing chain to simplify the processing. To optimized support for different technologies, levels of centralization, and deployment options in 5G, EONs offer large degrees of flexibility, adaptability, and programmability in different dimensions. EON provides granular spectrum width consisting of variable numbers of sub-carriers as the demand and deployment technology to support 5G disruptive capabilities, technologies, and use cases. It allows both digital and analog signals to be transported and switched over the same optical fiber, thus facilitating technologies such as mm-wave. Besides, the EON can tune signal properties (e.g., modulation format, bit rate, optical reach, and so on) to cope with the constraints of deployed technologies and different requirements of use cases [26, 27]. Hence, it can provide a much larger bandwidth and more variety of bit rates on an optical fiber.
Enabling Artificial intelligence (AI): In the present times, AI has taken center stage in all kinds of research and development. To provide better support, monitor, and control, every kind of service uses AI technology. AI will learn with the help of a machine learning algorithm for better service. AI and machine learning is the main technology of 5G and 6G communication. Wireless and optical networks use these technologies extensively. Specifications like high speed, low latency, and reliable communications are essential for supporting ML/AI at the edge. This can bring mobile edge computing to AI-at-the-edge [28, 29].
Energy Consumption: As the requirements are increasing to satisfy enhance throughput, latency & other QoS for different classes of traffic, applications, services, and QoE, energy consumption is increasing in the network. The usage of massive MIMO, dense network, heterogeneous network with small cells along with billions of devices increases the power consumption in the network, which increases the greenhouse effect. 5G power consumption at peak hours is 1200 W to 1400 W, which is 300–350% greater than of 4G [30]. However, to work in an energy-efficient way, network wire-line, wireless and core networks) are using the resources in an optimized way, which motivates the network to use different tradeoffs in protocol layers [31], which varies from infrastructure (dense network) to device (visual resolution). A green framework has been proposed for energy-efficient communication in a wireless network with the energy-cognitive cycle, where the awareness is categorized as network awareness and access point awareness module [32].
Every component of the optical network participated in the data transports and consumes energy. The CAPEX amount is more at the beginning, however, usage of massive MIMO along with small cells in dense networks can impact more on OPEX. Usage of NFV decreases the OPEX costs by reducing the conventional purposed hardware, installation, and up-grading for new services and Virtual network functions (VNF) are virtualized tasks implemented by the NFV platform, providing security, load balancing, and other EPC functions [33]. A WDM transmitter/receiver (TX/RX) pair at the interface between each link provides regenerated signals at each wavelength for injection in the next link of the system. Energy consumption exists at many levels in optical transmission systems, from inefficiencies at the device level in optical amplifier pump lasers and their cooling systems, at the circuit level in the tradeoff of efficiency for speed in high-speed electronic circuits used in transmitters and receivers, and at the system level in terms of multiplexing and management overheads [34, 35].
5. Conclusion
This chapter provides an overview of telecommunication networks while considering both wireless and optical networks. The technologies in both the networks were evolved in such that they can assist each other for better performance of users and network as a whole. The chapter provides an overview of the main technologies in 5G and analyses how the optical network technologies are beneficial and cooperative to wireless technologies.
\n',keywords:"Wireless network, 5G, Heterogeneous network, Massive MIMO, 6G, Cognitive radio, Optical network, Cognitive optical network, Ethernet PON",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76291.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76291.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76291",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76291",totalDownloads:228,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:51,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 3rd 2020",dateReviewed:"March 17th 2021",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 18th 2021",dateFinished:"April 15th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The requirement of data increases many-fold in recent years to support the newest technologies in B5G and 6G. Wireless is the last mile solution as access with an optical network as the backbone in future communication systems. Over the years in every new generation, the distance between the base station and the user is decreasing and the optical node is coming closer to the user. There are several technologies like AR/VR, AI, holographic communication, holographic telepresence, etc. are the main candidates in B5G and 6G, which are required high-speed connection with low latency. To support these services, it is almost mandatory that transmit data across the network should be smooth and seamless to provide successful communication. Providing a successful and appropriate wireless link among the users simultaneously to achieve the requirements is becoming more complex, hence challenging. The optical backbone of all wireless access networks requires supporting these user’s requirements, needs to evolve continuously with wireless network evolution. This chapter will study the evolution of both networks to understand their cooperation, alignment, and support.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76291",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76291",book:{id:"10514",slug:"wireless-power-transfer-recent-development-applications-and-new-perspectives"},signatures:"Rajarshi Mahapatra",authors:[{id:"334049",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rajarshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mahapatra",fullName:"Rajarshi Mahapatra",slug:"rajarshi-mahapatra",email:"rajarshim@ieee.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Technology evolution over the years",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Development of wireless network",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Development of optical network",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Performance requirement for end-to-end services",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Behavior of evolved wireless technologies with corresponding evolved optical techniques to satisfy user QoE",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nina Slamnik-Krijestorac, Haris Kremo, Marco Ruffini, Johann M. Marquez-Barja, Sharing Distributed and Heterogeneous Resources toward End-to-End 5G Networks: A Comprehensive Survey and a Taxonomy, IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, volume: 22, Issue: 3, pp. 1592-1628 third quarter 2020)'},{id:"B2",body:'Yangyishi Zhang; Rong Zhang; Jiankang Zhang et al, Far-End Crosstalk Mitigation for Future Wireline Networks Beyond G.mgfast: A Survey and an Outlook, IEEE Access ( Volume: 8), January 2020'},{id:"B3",body:'Roberto Sabella, Paola Iovanna, Giulio Bottari, Fabio Cavaliere. "Optical transport for Industry 4.0", Journal of Optical Communications and Networking, Vol. 12, No. 8, pp. 264-276, August 2020'},{id:"B4",body:'Ioannis Tomkos, Dimitrios Klonidis, Evangelos Pikasis, Sergios Theodoridis. "Toward the 6G Network Era: Opportunities and Challenges", IT Professional, 2020'},{id:"B5",body:'Rajarshi Mahapatra. 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"Toward an Efficient CRAN Optical Fronthaul for the Future Networks: A Tutorial on Technologies, Requirements, Challenges, and Solutions", IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 2018'},{id:"B28",body:'A. Z Azzaouri et al, “Block5GIntell: Blockchain for AI-Enabled 5G Networks,” IEEE Access, vol 8, August 2020'},{id:"B29",body:'Faris B. Mismar et al, Deep Reinforcement Learning for 5G Networks: Joint Beamforming, Power Control, and Interference Coordination, IEEE Transaction on communication, vol 68, no. 3, March 2020'},{id:"B30",body:'A. Mughees et.al, Towards Energy Efficient 5G Networks Using Machine Learning: Taxonomy, Research Challenges, and Future Research Directions, IEEE Access, vol8, pp. 187498-187522, Oct 2020'},{id:"B31",body:'Mahapatra, R., et al. (2016). Energy efficiency tradeoff mechanism towards wireless green communication: A survey. IEEE Communication Survey and Tutorial, 18(1), 686-705. (First Quarter)'},{id:"B32",body:'Mahapatra, R., et al. (2013). Green framework of future heterogeneous wireless network. Computer Network, 57(6), 1518-1528'},{id:"B33",body:'A. N. Al-Quzweeni, A. Q. Lawey, T. E. Elgorashi, and J. M. Elmirghani, “Optimized energy aware 5G network function virtualization,” IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 4493944958, 2019'},{id:"B34",body:'Tucker, R. S. (2011). Green optical communications. Part I: Energy limitations in transport. Part II: Energy limitations in network. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 17(2), 245-274'},{id:"B35",body:'Tucker, R. S. (2011). Green optical communications. Part II: Energy limitations in network. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 17(2), 245-260'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rajarshi Mahapatra",address:"rajarshim@ieee.org",affiliation:'
Dr. SPM International Institute of Information Technology, Naya Raipur, India
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1. Introduction
This first section introduces the motivational background to the study described in this chapter. The study is a response to the difficulties found by an academic physicist trying to upgrade from an amateur cosmologist, who just followed conclusions published in the scientific literature, to a more professional stance by finally studying General Relativity late in life. In 1956 before starting nuclear physics research for a doctoral degree a lifelong interest in the cosmos was triggered by Martin Ryle’s course in Radio Astronomy where he described how using Malmquist bias on the C2 Catalogue source counts he could demonstrate that the cosmos was evolving [1].
The teaching of physics in the early 1950s was largely in the style of natural philosophy which means that nature was observed and then modelling of the phenomena was made by searching for some appropriate mathematics. The current position in cosmology is different. For many years through the middle of the twentieth century the simple assumption of a flat space Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric was used despite the absence of any direct observational evidence supporting this choice. Observations of individual objects in the sky are satisfactorily described using such flat space but there are unobservable consequences such as horizons present in the associated cosmology. Later the mathematical invention of Cosmic Inflation to overcome the horizon problem associated with the flat cosmologies appears to have converted the flatness assumption into an approved folk lore not to be questioned.
Since that time cosmology has included many conjectures required to match the real observed Universe, each of these should carry with it an unknown improbability weighting. Because of the accumulation of such weightings the old fashioned way of choosing between different models describing the same observations would have been to quote Occam’s Razor and select the model with the least conjectures so as to improve the odds of being correct.
The study described here is an attempt to use only well authenticated physics and observations in a return to basics and a natural philosophers method for constructing a model for the evolution of the cosmos. This leads to a new model for the cosmological scale factor which is essentially free from additional conjectures.
2. Background
A hundred years ago Friedmann combined the cosmological principle with Einstein’s Equation to predict ways in which a cosmic metric could change with time, his initial model filled the cosmos with a uniform non-relativistic distribution of matter which slowed down any existing expansion of the cosmos. The symmetry described by the cosmological principle enables the modelling of an expanding evolving cosmos with curved space–time because these conditions imply that the background space–time metric must be an FLRW metric. At low matter densities Friedmann’s solution has open space sections, as the density increases the solution appears to change smoothly through one special solution with a flat space section into the high density region where the space sections are closed and the Universe collapses back to a point. That description is misleading, in more general situations when other fluids are also present in the cosmos there are three disconnected families of solutions, open, flat and closed. Within each family there are many variations in the way that the cosmic scale factor can change with time depending on the particular mixture of substances filling the cosmos. Against any assumed background metric for the Universe the Universe’s content of ordinary matter can be modelled through the formation of structures using conventional physics, see e.g. Peebles’ textbook [2].
The present epoch of the Universe is characterised by a non-uniform distribution of matter and a simple Friedmann solution is not possible because Einstein’s Equation is non-linear and the procedures of solving and smoothing must be carried out in that order, they do not commute (see e.g. page 452 in Padmanabhan’s book [3]). When the wrong order of procedures is used the source distribution does not properly represent the natural distribution so that the solution to Einstein’s Equation is that for a non-existing situation, it must be nonsense in the context of representing nature. The Dark Sector cosmologies which are currently widely used incorporate this mathematical misdemeanour, the cosmology becomes the solution to a problem where its dust component has to be in two places at once, both in galaxy clusters and simultaneously everywhere else, this property of the dust material defies relativity. Being aware of these difficulties suggests questioning all the conjectures which form the essential starting point for Dark Sector models.
The study described here has two themes, one is the blunt rejection of the Dark Energy models, the second theme is a proposal using only well established physical concepts that an open cosmology is highly probable and should be examined further by groups with the appropriate knowledge, skills and computing resources.
In Section 3 the essential physical knowledge and observations which provide a common basis of knowledge for both the new and the Dark Sector models is described, this knowledge is used to make clear those situations where an additional conjecture is necessary to make further progress. All of the science used is well described in many textbooks, the ones quoted here are Padmanahaban’s [3] and Peebles’ [2]. The notation commonly used in applying such basic knowledge to the formation of cosmological models is introduced by describing the uniform radiation era. Section 4 will introduce the proposed new method using probability density distributions using a simple description of the present epoch, the resulting model is an open cosmology. Section 5 describes how the new method may also be used to describe the whole of the evolution of the cosmic background metric from the radiation era to the present day. Section 6 indicates many of the conjectures which have to be made to construct the Dark Sector models. Section 7 concludes by advocating development of the open model and lists some questions which have to be addressed and answered before continuing to use the Dark Sector models.
3. Basic knowledge common to all models
The symmetry described by the cosmological principle implies that the cosmos has a background space–time metric of the FLRW type. The three families of these metrics are distinguished by their space sections being either open, closed or flat, the cosmic scale factor of these metrics will be increasing with time to describe the expansion. The 3D curvature of the space of each time slice is determined by the geometry of the FLRW metric, the flat space section family have infinite radius of curvature whereas the open and closed families have a radius of curvature equal to the scale factor, see e.g. Padmanabhan [3]. This mathematical fact is currently being widely ignored in fitting procedures such as that of the Planck collaboration [4] where small deviations from “flatness” are being interpreted as indicating non flat space sections. Such small curvatures would indicate departures from the cosmological principle which is the most essential assumption of the entire conception of modelling background space-times.
Observations and laboratory experiments confirm that the only directly observable substances in the Universe are made from components of the Standard Model of Particle Physics (SMPP). If in addition to the cosmological principle the contents of the universe are also uniform across each time slice then Einstein’s Equation of General Relativity can be used to determine the way in which the cosmic scale factor changes with time. There are two types of fluid which can be made from the particles of the SMPP, particles which are moving with relativistic speed make a radiation fluid with significant pressure whereas particles moving slowly make a dust fluid with zero pressure. The equation of state relation between the energy density and pressure influences the rate of change of the cosmic scale factor through Friedmann’s Equations which combine General Relativity and FLRW metrics.
The energy density and pressure of particulate fluids are thermodynamic intensive quantities and will be fluctuating, they should correctly be described using the statistical methods of physics and probability distributions. The convention for pressure and temperature introduced by Boltzmann but now used throughout physics for fluctuating quantities is to use the most probable value as the value to represent overall behaviour with the fluctuations being assumed relative to that value. If electromagnetic signalling is used as an example then two situations must be considered, when many particles are involved the fluctuations are thermal noise, symmetrical around the mode of the distribution which equals the average, but when only very small numbers are involved the fluctuations are shot noise with the mode being zero and with fluctuations in just one direction. Probability distributions where the most probable value is zero will be used in this study when considering non-uniformity such as the matter density in the Universe in the present epoch.
Through the second half of the twentieth century it became apparent that the early universe could be modelled using a radiation fluid uniformly filling an expanding cosmos, the radiation era of the Big-Bang. The cosmic density of light elements predicted by Big-Bang nucleosynthesis verifies both the expansion rate as being that of a radiation era and that the density of SMPP matter is close to the value estimated from observations of astronomical objects. The importance of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) to cosmology cannot be exaggerated, it is the most reliable demonstration of the cosmological principle whilst simultaneously justifying the assumption that before its emission at the recombination temperature for atomic Hydrogen the density distribution was uniform. The fluctuations in the CMBR imply that the cosmological principle must be used in a form where the density probability distribution is the same at every spacial point in a particular time slice.
The CMBR is an important boundary in the development of cosmic expansion, before that time uniformity was ensured by radiation mixing throughout the ionised plasma. The emission of the CMBR signals the end of ionisation and the cessation of the mixing, the universe becomes non-uniform. That the universe is non-uniform is obvious in the present epoch, the cosmos is populated by many galaxies in complex structures, the way in which these can form from the minute fluctuations in the CMBR can be explained using ordinary physics [2].
Towards the end of the uniform era the dominating fluid of SMPP particles filling the universe changes in character from the earliest relativistic radiation fluid to a non-relativistic dust fluid with zero pressure. Using the normal Friedmann description the equation showing the relationship between Hubble’s constant H(t) and the cosmic scale factor a(t) adjusted so that these take the values Ho and ao(t) = 1 at the present time is
H2=Ho2ΩRa−4+ΩBMa−3−kc2H0a−2E1
The ΩR and ΩBM are cosmic densities of radiation and baryonic matter normalised in the usual way to that of the flat Friedmann matter only cosmological model. The curvature term where k equals −1, 0 or + 1 has a different character, it is part of the FLRW geometry and represents the relation between the absolute value of the cosmic scale factor and the spacial curvature of the particular chosen geometry, it has nothing to do with Einstein’s Equation but stems only from the symmetry of the Cosmological Principle [3].
At early times in the expanding universe when the cosmic scale factor is smallest the radiation density ΩR term dominates but when the baryonic matter density ΩBM deduced from the Big-Bang nucleosynthesis is used the non-relativistic matter term will have just become relevant at the emission of the CMBR and a simple Friedmann matter only model suggests an open cosmos. The curvature term will always be insignificant during the uniform era which is therefore insensitive to its value and whether k is −1, 0 or + 1 can not be deduced from observations of the uniform era.
4. The present epoch and the open model
Observations of the local environment have shown that it is characterised by an array of galaxies arranged in structures which are separating according to the Hubble flow. At each point in space Einstein’s Equation ensures that it is only the local density of matter which will control the rate of change of volume of a small element of space around that point, the local matter density changes the local scale factor. Remote massive objects will distort the space element as they approach but will return it to its original state after they have passed, not affecting the local scale factor. The matter density probability distribution at each point can be estimated by considering the density distribution over space, it is peaked strongly at zero. The vast majority of points have zero density which means that the local scale factor will be expanding progressively faster than anywhere where the matter density is positive. It is this mechanism where dense regions expand more slowly than empty regions which is essential to trigger the formation of structure. However the main consequence in the context of the local cosmology is that emptiness is becoming ever more frequent. Using a maximum probability algorithm that the best estimate of the cosmic scale factor must be the most frequent local scale factor sets the cosmic scale factor as that for emptiness.
The FLRW metric for empty space is Friedmann’s well known empty universe solution, a useful demonstration of this is given by Vishwakarma [5], he also shows that this metric and a Dark Sector model metric have equally good fits to SNe 1a redshift data. The empty universe solution has a metric like that of the cosmology proposed by Milne [6] in 1935, open and expanding with its cosmic scale factor being the product of the velocity of light and the age of the universe. The galaxies are in free fall and simply drift apart making the Hubble flow. At any time Hubble’s constant is the inverse of the age of the universe and its present value is the only parameter of this cosmology. The obvious conclusion must be that Milne’s metric, a good solution of Einstein’s Equation of General Relativity and the Cosmological Principle, is the best metric with which to approximately model the present day epoch.
In this argument for the present epoch it is assumed that Einstein’s Equations have been exactly solved by Nature before smoothing the solution is attempted, it is then completely free from the commutation misdemeanour inherent in every dark energy model. The resulting model, Milne’s metric, is just a normal FLRW model of a smooth universe neglecting blemishes such as the contamination by many massive galaxies, a situation which also occurs for all other models. Einstein’s Equation is fully respected in this open model, both in the scale factor solution and in the next weak curvature approximation which has to be made to describe the interrelated motions of all the massive objects through the use of Newton’s Laws of Motion.
5. The open model from the radiation era to the present day
If the mode of the density probability distribution rather than the average is used for the uniform era then modelling the scale factor using Eq. 1 is unaffected because the uniformity ensures only a narrow distribution of densities and the mode of the density distribution will be almost identical to the mean in this case. After the emission of the CMBR the density distribution becomes non-uniform and changing with time. Using the mode of the density distribution for the non-uniform era produces a model where the cosmic scale factor responds to the formation of structure by modifying the Friedmann equation as time evolves.
The model is generated by imagining a stepwise numerical time integration technique where the cosmic scale factor change through a step will be calculated using Friedmann’s Equation with the density mode from the start of the step while the changes to the density distribution function during the step are calculated non relativistically in the usual way. At the end of the step the density mode will be different so the Friedmann’s Equation which should be used in the next step to compute the scale factor will be different. In this way the initial conditions for each step match the solution and the nearness of the approximation to a continuous integration with smoothing following solution will increase as the step size decreases. An idiotically simple example of using the wrong order of procedures in a non-linear problem and then applying such an integration procedure to evade its effects is given as an appendix.
In this stepwise process the Friedmann equation to be used is shown below including explicitly the curvature term for an open cosmology (where Ha = c)
H2=Ho2ΩRa−4+ΩBMCta−3+c2Hoa−2E2
The term ΩBMC(t) represents that Baryonic Matter Component which affects the cosmic scale factor at each time, this term changes from its full value ΩBM at the CMBR time to zero for the present day the details depending on how the mode of the matter distribution function evolves with time. Because ΩR and ΩBMC(t) are small for the present epoch the curvature term c2(Hoa)−2 for the Milne metric dominates. In any fitting procedure for the CMBR and structure formation the only parameters will be the properties of the CMBR fluctuation distribution, the Hubble constant Ho and the baryonic matter content ΩBM, all parameters having clear physical meaning in relation to the SMPP and General Relativity and related to observations.
If the early value for Hubble’s constant predicted from the CMBR does not match the late value determined by the SNe 1a data then the value for the matter term required to fit the data may be larger than ΩBM, perhaps dark matter such as that suspected from studies of the Bullet cluster [7] will have to be included. This dark matter must behave in the same way as SMPP matter according to the rules of General Relativity and should not be considered in any way as being similar to the cosmic dust component of Dark Energy models.
A qualitative description of what happens as the Cosmic Baryonic Matter term reduces to zero is simply that isolated discrete lumps of matter are unable to influence the scale factor of the whole of a time slice at once, it should be obvious that such an influence violates relativity principles. As stars and galaxies form they remove the matter from its cosmic role leaving the smaller curvature term to finally take over control of the expansion.
6. The problems of the concordance model
The simplest Dark Energy models introduce four conjectures into their model for the cosmic scale factor, flat space sections, cosmological Dark Matter (DM), Dark Energy (Λ) and weird properties for the dust component. The Friedmann equation on which all these models are based is shown here with a zero a−2 curvature term because of the flatness assumption
H2=Ho2ΩRa−4+ΩBM+ΩDMWDa−3+ΩΛE3
In this equation both matter terms, baryonic ΩBM and dark ΩDM, have been bracketed together because the physical properties for this Weird Dust (WD) are very strange. The Weird Dust appears to have two different density distributions across a time slice, the modeller chooses to use one or the other depending on context, a smooth distribution to compute the cosmic scale factor evolution but then a non-uniform one to compute structure formation. This inconsistency within the model makes it bad science due to the illogicality where the premise of uniformity for the matter content does not match the outcome of the model calculations which predict the destruction of uniformity.
Another way of describing the situation is that in addition to the normal physical properties of an isolated concentrated lump of dust these models conjecture an extra weird property for that isolated concentrated lump of dust, that of being able to instantly affect the universe’s cosmic scale factor uniformly throughout the universe. Such behaviour is not allowed by General Relativity which respects the restrictions of a finite velocity of light.
Each of the conjectured Dark components comes with a quantity of substance and an equation of state all of which are artefacts of the model. These two quantities and two functions provide enough flexibility in the fitting procedures for the solution to respond to the attraction towards flatness imposed on the models by using a zero cosmic curvature term in the Friedmann equation. The quantity ‘Ωk’ = (1 - ΩM - ΩΛ) which is seen for example in the fitting procedures for Planck data [4] cannot represent curvature in a FLRW metric, its value is generally found to be near zero which must simply be a measure of the accuracy within which the fit has approached flatness.
One more conjecture is made in Dark Energy models because the horizon introduced by the flatness means that Inflation must also be conjectured to ensure the cosmological principle is present through both the uniform and non-uniform eras.
7. Summary and conclusion
A new technique to find an approximate solution to Einstein’s Equation for the cosmic scale factor in a non uniform universe has been found by going back to basic physics, SMPP plus General Relativity, and following Boltzmann’s use of maximum probability concepts in physics. This technique causes the cosmic scale factor to be affected by the formation of structures in the universe. The resulting open cosmological model is very different from conventional cosmologies, its simplest predictions are that evolution from the early radiation era to the present epoch produces an empty cosmos with a small contamination of massive galaxies drifting apart in accordance with the observed SN1a redshift data. There appears to be no obvious contradictory observational data to this new cosmological model. This open cosmology has a lower density than flat models, the expansion through the CMBR epoch and the structure forming era will be slower giving extra time for the formation of early astrophysical objects. Detailed structure calculations to see how this open model fits the CMBR and the Baryonic Acoustic Oscillation data are required to validate it further, computations which can be justified by the simplicity of all the physical concepts required to establish it.
The empty universe’s expanding cosmic scale factor can only be modelled by an open cosmology implying that the cosmos has always been open and causally connected. A causally connected model of the universe does not require inflation to establish the uniformity of the cosmological principle. Such a model implies little about the most primordial universe, it must be open, contain the SMPP and a radiation spectrum to match the details of the CMBR.
Examination of Dark Energy models of the cosmos suggests several questions about the conjectures used in the models which should be answered successfully before proceeding to further investigations. The main objection to the Dark Energy models must be the mathematical commutation of procedures misdemeanour, that this is a problem has not gone unacknowledged but the problem has not been confronted directly, it has only been circumvented by additional conjectures which do not eliminate the misdemeanour (see [8] and references therein). Apart from this misdemeanour but perhaps in consequence of the misdemeanour a list of questions requiring answers are:-.
Why select a flat FLRW metric, what model independent observation supports such a choice?
There may be dark matter such as that which might be concentrated in objects such as the Bullet Cluster but what is the conjectured uniformly distributed cosmic dark matter?
What is the meaning of the strangely weird conjectured properties of the dust component in the concordance model Friedmann equation?
Where does the eternal supply of energy for the conjectured dark energy come from?
The Dark Energy models for the cosmic scale factor average the source term in Einstein’s Field Equations before solving, but that problem is non-linear meaning that a mathematical misdemeanour has been included right at the beginning of the modelling, the wrong initial conditions have been used to solve the problem and the answer must be wrong. A peculiar feature of this problem is that the equations are correct and nature provides the correct solution, a consequence is that the Dark Energy models introduce artefacts to correct the wrong solution towards the correct solution, these are Dark Matter and Dark Energy. The following idiotically simple problem is given here to illustrate how this has been done.
Consider a problem where the answer is known from other considerations to be 1/3, the question is:-.
“What is the average value of y where y = x2 over the range -1 < x < +1?”
Averaging then solving gives the answer as zero, wrong because solving and averaging are performed in the wrong order. The initial conditions have been altered from the correct situation to an incorrect one. It is possible to adjust this answer by conjecturing an arbitrary parameter which can be adjusted to match the known answer. This arbitrary parameter will be adjusted to the value 1/3, this parameter is an artefact of the method used to solve the problem but has no real meaning.
Now split the range up into small segments, averaging first for each segment then solving, a final averaging of all the intermediate steps gives an answer quite close to the previously known correct value. By responding to the changing situation as the value of x increases the error has been vastly reduced and no arbitrary constant is required. The error will depend linearly on the step size enabling its size and effect to be detected.
In modelling the development of structure in cosmology the solution is too complicated for normal integration but essentially Dark Energy models do the whole problem without acknowledging the changing situation. The models have to introduce artefacts such as extra dust and Dark Energy, with arbitrary constants and functions, in order to fit observations. The new method using the mode of the matter probability distribution leading to the open cosmology will have reduced the effect of the mathematical misdemeanour by responding to the changing situation, the smaller the step size the smaller the error. No extra artefacts will have to be introduced.
\n',keywords:"cosmology, gravitation, dark matter, dark energy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77754.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77754.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77754",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77754",totalDownloads:237,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"May 9th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 8th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 29th 2021",datePublished:"July 6th 2022",dateFinished:"July 29th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Current literature on the evolution of the cosmic scale factor is dominated by models using a dark sector, these all involve making many conjectures beyond the basic assumption that the Cosmological Principle selects a space–time metric of the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker type through which ordinary Standard Model of Particle Physics matter moves according to General Relativity. In this chapter a different model is made using the same basic assumptions but without making extra conjectures, it depends on following the idea introduced by Boltzmann that when physically meaningful concepts fluctuate the value which will be observed is the one which has the highest probability. This change removes the mathematically incorrect procedure of averaging the matter density before solving Einstein’s Equation, the procedure which causes the introduction of many of the conjectures. In the non-uniform era the changes are that the evolution of the scale factor is influenced by the formation of structure and removes the conjecture of having to use two inconsistent probability distributions for matter through space, one to calculate the scale factor and one to represent structure. The new model is consistent from the earliest times through to the present epoch. This new model is open and matches SNe 1a redshift data, an observation which makes it a viable candidate and implies that it should be fully investigated.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77754",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77754",signatures:"Arthur N. James",book:{id:"10954",type:"book",title:"Dark Matter",subtitle:"Recent Observations and Theoretical Advances",fullTitle:"Dark Matter - Recent Observations and Theoretical Advances",slug:"dark-matter-recent-observations-and-theoretical-advances",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",bookSignature:"Michael L. Smith",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10954.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-456-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-440-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-457-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"59479",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"L.",surname:"Smith",slug:"michael-smith",fullName:"Michael Smith"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"416655",title:"Dr.",name:"Arthur N.",middleName:null,surname:"James",fullName:"Arthur N. James",slug:"arthur-n.-james",email:"anjames@ns.ph.liv.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Basic knowledge common to all models",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The present epoch and the open model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The open model from the radiation era to the present day",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. The problems of the concordance model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Summary and conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ryle, M. The Observatory. 1955; 75: 137'},{id:"B2",body:'Peebles P. J. E., Principles of Physical Cosmology. Chichester: Princeton University Press; 1993.'},{id:"B3",body:'Padmanabhan T., Gravitation, Foundations and Frontiers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2010.'},{id:"B4",body:'Ade P. A. R. et al, Planck 2015 results, XIII. Cosmological parameters. Astron.Astrophys, 2016; 594 A13'},{id:"B5",body:'Vishwakarma R. G., Mysteries of the Geometrization of Gravitation. Res. Astron. Astrophys. 2013; 13: 1409-1422'},{id:"B6",body:'Milne E. A., Relativity, gravitation and world-structure. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1935'},{id:"B7",body:'Clowe D., Gonzalez A. and Markevich M., Weak-Lensing Mass Reconstruction of the Interacting Cluster 1E 0657-558: Direct Evidence for the Existence of Dark Matter. Astrophys. J. 2004; 604 (2): 596-603'},{id:"B8",body:'Buchert T., Mourier P. and Roy X., On average properties of inhomogeneous fluids in general relativity III: general fluid cosmologies. Gen. Rel. Grav; 2020: 52 27'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Arthur N. James",address:"anjames@ns.ph.liv.ac.uk",affiliation:'
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He was Board certified as a Specialist in Gynecology and Obstetrics with honors at Catholic University of Rome in 1983. From 1983 to 1998 he was the Assistant at the Gynecology and Obstetrics Clinique of Ancona. In 1998 he was appointed Associate Professor of Gynecology and Obstetrics at the University of Polytechnics. Since 2005 he works as a Professor at the Gynecology and Obstetrics University Politecnica Marche. Currently he chairs the Department of Clinical Sciences at the same University. Prof. Tranquilli is a member of many scientific societies, among others, the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Italianan Association for Gynecology and Obstetrics, Association of Gynecological Universities of Italy. He is the Elected President (2012-14) of the International Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy, and Co-Editor in Chief of the Journal “Pregnancy Hypertension”. He is also a reviewer of main Journals in the field and a member of several Editorial Boards. His main scientific interest has always been focused on maternal and fetal medicine. 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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. 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Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:9291,totalCrossrefCites:167,totalDimensionsCites:400,abstract:null,book:{id:"2270",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"42566",doi:"10.5772/53706",title:"Challenges and Opportunities for Spark Plasma Sintering: A Key Technology for a New Generation of Materials",slug:"challenges-and-opportunities-for-spark-plasma-sintering-a-key-technology-for-a-new-generation-of-mat",totalDownloads:9168,totalCrossrefCites:99,totalDimensionsCites:213,abstract:null,book:{id:"3478",slug:"sintering-applications",title:"Sintering Applications",fullTitle:"Sintering Applications"},signatures:"M. Suárez, A. Fernández, J.L. Menéndez, R. Torrecillas, H. U. Kessel, J. Hennicke, R. Kirchner and T. Kessel",authors:[{id:"102383",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Suárez",slug:"marta-suarez",fullName:"Marta Suárez"},{id:"103822",title:"Dr.",name:"J.L",middleName:null,surname:"Menendez",slug:"j.l-menendez",fullName:"J.L Menendez"},{id:"103833",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Torrecillas",slug:"ramon-torrecillas",fullName:"Ramón Torrecillas"},{id:"162633",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"adolfo-fernandez",fullName:"Adolfo Fernández"}]},{id:"23617",doi:"10.5772/24118",title:"Collagen- vs. Gelatine-Based Biomaterials and Their Biocompatibility: Review and Perspectives",slug:"collagen-vs-gelatine-based-biomaterials-and-their-biocompatibility-review-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:9461,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:203,abstract:null,book:{id:"1487",slug:"biomaterials-applications-for-nanomedicine",title:"Biomaterials",fullTitle:"Biomaterials Applications for Nanomedicine"},signatures:"Selestina Gorgieva and Vanja Kokol",authors:[{id:"55577",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanja",middleName:null,surname:"Kokol",slug:"vanja-kokol",fullName:"Vanja Kokol"},{id:"61285",title:"BSc",name:"Selestina",middleName:null,surname:"Gorgieva",slug:"selestina-gorgieva",fullName:"Selestina Gorgieva"}]},{id:"46243",doi:"10.5772/57255",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors – Principles, Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-mechanisms-and-applications",totalDownloads:13737,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:163,abstract:null,book:{id:"3817",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection"},signatures:"Camila G. Dariva and Alexandre F. Galio",authors:[{id:"169261",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:"G.",surname:"Dariva",slug:"camila-dariva",fullName:"Camila Dariva"},{id:"170138",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Galio",slug:"alexandre-galio",fullName:"Alexandre Galio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"76780",title:"Basics of Clay Minerals and Their Characteristic Properties",slug:"basics-of-clay-minerals-and-their-characteristic-properties",totalDownloads:1930,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Clay minerals such as kaolinite, smectite, chlorite, micas are main components of raw materials of clay and formed in presence of water. A large number of clays used to form the different structure which completely depends on their mining source. They are known as hydrous phyllosilicate having silica, alumina and water with variable amount of inorganic ions like Mg2+, Na+, Ca2+ which are found either in interlayer space or on the planetary surface. Clay minerals are described by presence of two-dimensional sheets, tetrahedral (SiO4) and octahedral (Al2O3). There are different clay minerals which are categorized based on presence of tetrahedral and octahedral layer in their structure like kaolinite (1:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers), smectite group of clay minerals (2:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers) and chlorite (2:1:1 of tetrahedral, octahedral and octahedral layers). The particle size of clay minerals is <2microns which can be present in form of plastic in presence of water and solidified when dried. The small size and their distinctive crystal structure make clay minerals very special with their unique properties including high cation exchange capacity, swelling behavior, specific surface area, adsorption capacity, etc. which are described in this chapter. Due to all these unique properties, clay minerals are gaining interest in different fields.",book:{id:"10949",slug:"clay-and-clay-minerals",title:"Clay and Clay Minerals",fullTitle:"Clay and Clay Minerals"},signatures:"Neeraj Kumari and Chandra Mohan",authors:[{id:"258132",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Mohan",slug:"chandra-mohan",fullName:"Chandra Mohan"},{id:"352399",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeraj",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"neeraj-kumari",fullName:"Neeraj Kumari"}]},{id:"51535",title:"An Introduction to Hydrogels and Some Recent Applications",slug:"an-introduction-to-hydrogels-and-some-recent-applications",totalDownloads:11734,totalCrossrefCites:70,totalDimensionsCites:140,abstract:"Hydrogels have existed for more than half a century, and today they have many applications in various processes ranging from industrial to biological. There are numerous original papers, reviews, and monographs focused on the synthesis, properties, and applications of hydrogels. This chapter covers the fundamental aspects and several applications of hydrogels based on the old and the most recent publications in this field.",book:{id:"5251",slug:"emerging-concepts-in-analysis-and-applications-of-hydrogels",title:"Emerging Concepts in Analysis and Applications of Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Emerging Concepts in Analysis and Applications of Hydrogels"},signatures:"Morteza Bahram, Naimeh Mohseni and Mehdi Moghtader",authors:[{id:"179718",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",middleName:null,surname:"Bahram",slug:"morteza-bahram",fullName:"Morteza Bahram"},{id:"185713",title:"Dr.",name:"Naimeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohseni",slug:"naimeh-mohseni",fullName:"Naimeh Mohseni"},{id:"185714",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdi",middleName:null,surname:"Moghtader",slug:"mehdi-moghtader",fullName:"Mehdi Moghtader"}]},{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2672,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Environmental pollution has been rising in the past few decades due to increased anthropogenic activities. Bioremediation is an attractive and successful cleaning technique to remove toxic waste from polluted environment. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms. The main principle is degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms. Bioremediation can be carried out ex-situ and in-situ, depending on several factors, which include but not limited to cost, site characteristics, type, and concentration of pollutants. Hence, appropriate bioremediation technique is selected. Additionally, the major methodologies to develop bioremediation are biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bioventing, biopiles, and bioattenuation provided the environmental factors that decide the completion of bioremediation. Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"18275",title:"Modeling and Identification of Parameters the Piezoelectric Transducers in Ultrasonic Systems",slug:"modeling-and-identification-of-parameters-the-piezoelectric-transducers-in-ultrasonic-systems",totalDownloads:10197,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"201",slug:"advances-in-ceramics-electric-and-magnetic-ceramics-bioceramics-ceramics-and-environment",title:"Advances in Ceramics",fullTitle:"Advances in Ceramics - Electric and Magnetic Ceramics, Bioceramics, Ceramics and Environment"},signatures:"Pawel Fabijanski and Ryszard Lagoda",authors:[{id:"13086",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawel",middleName:null,surname:"Fabijański",slug:"pawel-fabijanski",fullName:"Pawel Fabijański"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16251,totalCrossrefCites:187,totalDimensionsCites:407,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"14",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83055",title:"Boron Clusters in Biomedical Applications: A Theoretical Viewpoint",slug:"boron-clusters-in-biomedical-applications-a-theoretical-viewpoint",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106215",abstract:"In this chapter, we presented an analysis of the recent advances in the applications of boron clusters in biomedical fields such as the development of biosensors and drug delivery systems on the basis of quantum chemical calculations. Biosensors play an essential role in many sectors, e.g., law enforcement agencies for sensing illicit drugs, medical communities for detecting overdosed medications from human and animal bodies, etc. The drug delivery systems have theoretically been proposed for many years and subsequently implemented by experiments to deliver the drug to the targeted sites by reducing the harmful side effects significantly. Boron clusters form a rich and colorful family of atomic clusters due to their unconventional structures and bonding phenomena. Boron clusters and their complexes have various biological activities such as the drug delivery, imaging for diagnosis, treatment of cancer, and probe of protein-biomolecular interactions. For all of these reactivities, the interaction mechanisms and the corresponding energetics between biomaterials and boron clusters are of essential importance as a basic step in the understanding, and thereby design of relevant materials. During the past few years, attempts have been made to probe the nature of these interactions using quantum chemical calculations mainly with density functional theory (DFT) methods. This chapter provides a summary of the theoretical viewpoint on this issue.",book:{id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg"},signatures:"Ehsan Shakerzadeh, Elham Tahmasebi, Long Van Duong and Minh Tho Nguyen"},{id:"83048",title:"Structural, Magnetic, and Magnetodielectric Properties of Bi-Based Modified Ceramic Composites",slug:"structural-magnetic-and-magnetodielectric-properties-of-bi-based-modified-ceramic-composites",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106569",abstract:"In this chapter, we introduce a promising composite material, which can be used as a potential candidate in the field of charge storage, sensors, and spintronic devices. The structural, magnetic, and magnetodielectric properties of the pure cum composite samples are investigated. The Rietveld refinement of the X-ray data confirmed the presence of a single (A21am) and mixed phases (A21am + R-3c + Pbam) in the pure and composite sample, correspondingly. The SEM microstructure suggests the contrasting nature of the homogeneous and heterogeneous distribution of grains in the corresponding pure and composite sample. The magnetic properties of the composite sample increase due to the enhanced exchange interaction between the different magnetic ions. The frequency-dependent dielectric subjected to a constant magnetic field indicates the signature of magnetodielectric (MD) coupling for both the samples. The field variation of the MD loop shows the symmetric hysteresis loop in the composite due to the addition of magnetostrictive La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 and the non-collinear antiferromagnetic Bi2Fe4O9 phase. The maximum value of MD% (~0.12%) is enhanced by ~13 times in the composite than in the pure sample. Therefore, the improved MD coupling and symmetric switching of the MD loop of the composite make it a suitable candidate for low power consumption storage devices.",book:{id:"11117",title:"Smart and Advanced Ceramics and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11117.jpg"},signatures:"Rasmita Jena, Kouru Chandrakanta and Anil Kumar Singh"},{id:"83035",title:"Breaking the Property Trade-Offs by Using Entropic Conceptions",slug:"breaking-the-property-trade-offs-by-using-entropic-conceptions",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106532",abstract:"Entropic conception has been used as an effective strategy for developing materials to break the property recordings of current materials, for example, breaking the trade-off between the high-strength and low-ductility structural alloys. The performance of materials usually under a complex circumstance, a balance of multiple properties, for example, combined the high-strength, high ductility, high conductivity, high corrosion resistance, high irradiation resistance, etc., the strategy of high-entropy-alloy (HEA) will provide a materials design and development technology to realize the goal. Magnetic materials usually exhibit excellent magnetic properties but weak mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The reported unique behaviors of HEAs, for example, self-healing effects may be the mechanism for the high irradiation resistance of the HEAs, and self-sharpening behaviors of the tungsten-based HEAs main closely be related to the serration behaviors.",book:{id:"11468",title:"High Entropy Materials - Microstructures and Properties",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11468.jpg"},signatures:"Yong Zhang and Xuehui Yan"},{id:"82929",title:"Prediction of Solubility and Miscibility Parameters of Bismuth-Arsenic Complex and Amorphous Mineral Compounds Using Molecular Dynamics Simulation",slug:"prediction-of-solubility-and-miscibility-parameters-of-bismuth-arsenic-complex-and-amorphous-mineral",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106316",abstract:"Bismuth is one of the most difficult impurities to remove in mining concentrates and low concentrations generate problems in silver and copper refineries. Therefore, financial penalties are established when concentrations exceed 0.05%. Some researchers had used arsenic to remove bismuth with results of up to 52% of extraction. Unfortunately, this mechanism is not yet fully understood. The objective of this research was to obtain the solubility parameters of amorphous mineral compounds, including bismuth-based compounds, through computational simulation using molecular dynamics. The composition of the mineral sample was determined by X-ray diffraction and the crystalline species were obtained and modeled using Materials Studio software. The nanostructures were optimized by an energy minimization methodology using the Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno algorithm and were validated using the figure of merit equation and density. Simulations were performed using the Universal Force Field at constant pressure and temperature. The results of the minerals identified in the sample were compared with arsenic trioxide, indicating miscibility between As2O3 and Bi2O3, possible miscibility with 10 other minerals, and immiscibility with the rest. The results indicate that As2O3 can be successfully used for the removal of Bi2O3 without a negative effect on the recovery of other minerals of higher commercial value.",book:{id:"11467",title:"Bismuth-Based Nanostructured Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11467.jpg"},signatures:"Francisco Adrián De la Torre-Martínez, Efren Delgado, María Dolores Josefina Rodríguez Rosales, Hiram Medrano-Roldán, Javier López-Miranda and Damián Reyes-Jáquez"},{id:"82940",title:"Role of Surface Defects and Optical Band-gap Energy on Photocatalytic Activities of Titanate-based Perovskite Nanomaterial",slug:"role-of-surface-defects-and-optical-band-gap-energy-on-photocatalytic-activities-of-titanate-based-p",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106253",abstract:"In recent years, water pollution has become one of the major challenges faced by humans because of consistent rise in population and industrial activities. Water pollution due to discharge from cosmetics and pharmaceutical wastes, organic dyes, and heavy metal seen as carcinogens has the potential to disrupt hormonal processes in the body. Different approaches such as chlorination, aerobic treatment, aeration, and filtration have been deployed to treat wastewaters before being discharged into the streams, lakes, and rivers. However, more attention has been accorded to treatment approaches that involve use of nanomaterial due to non-secondary pollution, energy efficiency, and ease of operation. Titanate-based perovskite (TBP) is one of the most frequently studied nanomaterials for photocatalytic applications because of its stability and flexibility in optical band-gap modification. This chapter provided an overview of basic principles and mechanisms of a semiconductor photocatalyst, and current synthesis techniques that have been used in formulating TBP nanomaterial. The effect of reaction conditions and approaches such as doping, codoping, composites, temperature, pH, precursor type, surface area, and morphology on surface defects and optical band-gap energy of TBP nanomaterial was highlighted. Importantly, the impact of surface defects and optical band-gap energy of TBP on its photocatalytic activities was discussed. Finally, how to enhance the degradation efficiency of TBP was proposed.",book:{id:"11469",title:"Recent Advances in Perovskite Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11469.jpg"},signatures:"Izunna Stanislaus Okeke, Priscilla Yahemba Aondona, Amoge Chidinma Ogu, Eugene Echeweozo and Fabian Ifeanyichukwu Ezema"},{id:"82718",title:"Refractories for the Cast Iron Melting",slug:"refractories-for-the-cast-iron-melting",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105973",abstract:"Refractory is a very important component in economically successful melting of cast iron. Refractory is used to line the furnace or any other vessel used for melting or holding of the molten metal. This chapter has discussed the different type of furnaces used for the melting of cast iron, the special features of those furnaces and the operational parameters of those furnaces with special emphasis on the coreless induction furnace, which is most commonly used. It has dealt with the installation practices of the refractory lining and also has discussed the mode of failure of the refractory lining and the precautions to be taken during installation and during use.",book:{id:"11766",title:"Cast Iron - Production, Properties, Characterization, and Casting Defects Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11766.jpg"},signatures:"Prasunjit Sengupta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:80},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"11478",title:"Recent Advances in the Study of Dyslexia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11478.jpg",hash:"26764a18c6b776698823e0e1c3022d2f",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"June 30th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82903",title:"Walking Accessibility to Primary Healthcare Services: An Inequity Factor for Olders in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (Portugal)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106265",signatures:"Eduarda Marques da Costa, Ana Louro, Nuno Marques da Costa, Mariana Dias and Marcela Barata",slug:"walking-accessibility-to-primary-healthcare-services-an-inequity-factor-for-olders-in-the-lisbon-met",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg",subseries:{id:"90",title:"Human Development"}}},{id:"82622",title:"Contemporary Geographical Gerontology: Reconciling Space and Place in Population Ageing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105863",signatures:"Hamish Robertson",slug:"contemporary-geographical-gerontology-reconciling-space-and-place-in-population-ageing",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hamish",surname:"Robertson"}],book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg",subseries:{id:"90",title:"Human Development"}}},{id:"82610",title:"Perspective Chapter: The Role of Learning Styles in Active Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105964",signatures:"Armando Lozano-Rodríguez, Fernanda Inez García-Vázquez and José Luis García-Cué",slug:"perspective-chapter-the-role-of-learning-styles-in-active-learning",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"81909",title:"Educational Paradigm with Ubuntu Mindset: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals in Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104929",signatures:"George Frempong and Raavee Kadam",slug:"educational-paradigm-with-ubuntu-mindset-implications-for-sustainable-development-goals-in-education",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82243",title:"The Language that Grade R Students Use to Achieve the Envisaged Mathematics Outcomes, a South African Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105446",signatures:"Shakespear M. 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Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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