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",isbn:"978-1-80356-528-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-527-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-529-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"170d1a20a1925b6a29c6146f12ade4a5",bookSignature:"Prof. Ahmed M. Nahhas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11534.jpg",keywords:"Solar Energy, Water Energy, Biomass Energy, Hydro Energy, Wind Energy, PV, Solar, Smart Grid, Wind Generators, Power Electronics, Pumped Hydroelectric, Natural Gas Storage",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 24th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Nahhas is an official reviewer of journals such as the American Journal of Nanomaterials—USA, many International conferences, and holds the Associate Professor position at several Saudi Universities. Professor Nahhas served in many prestigious leading positions including Dean of the College of Engineering at Al-Lith, head of the Department, Vice Dean at Umm Al Qura University, Makkah. He is also a member of IEEE.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"140058",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"M.",surname:"Nahhas",slug:"ahmed-nahhas",fullName:"Ahmed Nahhas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/140058/images/system/140058.jpg",biography:"Ahmed M. Nahhas received his Master’s degree in Computer Engineering from Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois, USA in 1996 and a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering (Electronics) from the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA in 2001. Professor Nahhas’s research has been centered on developing new photonic and electronic devices at micro and nano-scales involving various functional materials such as rare-earth-doped oxides, wideband gap semiconductors, and nanostructured materials. Prof. Nahhas’s research investigates epitaxial growth and fabrication of ZnO and GaN optical devices. Fabrication of MSM photo-detectors has been developed on a macro-scale area of wafer surface using a directed self-organization method and has been investigated as an interaction medium in optical, electrical, chemical, and biological domains. Surface-Plasmon phenomena occurring in structures are of particular interest since many novel properties can be derived from those and can be incorporated into an on-chip configuration for interaction. Professor Nahhas has participated in reviewing several academic articles and dissertations in the area of electrical, electronics, communications, control engineering, and e-learning. He is an official reviewer of journals such as the American Journal of Nanomaterials—USA, many International conferences, and holds the Associate Professor position at several Saudi Universities. Professor Nahhas served in many prestigious leading positions including Dean of the College of Engineering at Al-Lith, head of the Department, Vice Dean at Umm Al Qura University, Makkah. Currently, he works at the College of Engineering and Islamic Architecture, Umm Al Qura University, Makkah, Kingdom of\nSaudi Arabia.",institutionString:"Umm al-Qura University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8446",title:"Zinc Oxide Based Nano Materials and Devices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c1d14eb8eac769093f8d7a219a3884f",slug:"zinc-oxide-based-nano-materials-and-devices",bookSignature:"Ahmed M. 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It is considered as one type of ‘ecosystem service’ that biodiversity provides, and thus is part of the value of biodiversity, often termed ‘natural capital’. Typically blue carbon evaluations mainly consider habitats such as kelp forests, sea grass beds, salt marshes and mangrove swamps. These are global organismal powerhouses of carbon turnover and support huge biomasses of varied animal life [1]. These environments are all characterized by rapid growth (high carbon capture) and high biomass (high carbon storage) but over relatively small, coastal areas that are dwindling with anthropogenic land use pressures. Of these environments, only kelp forests are represented in the polar and subpolar regions (Figure 1a), and even these are scarce because of regular iceberg scouring in shallow waters. Thus blue carbon ecosystem services have to date been little considered in the Arctic and Antarctic, although on land it was realized that a warming Arctic could lead to increased Taiga forest carbon capture and storage. However the magnitude of any negative feedback (mitigation) on climate change is complicated by change in permafrost gas release, reduced albedo because of altered snow cover and less than expected forest growth gains [2]. Nevertheless warming-induced Arctic vegetation expansion represents a rare, and significant, increasing source of carbon capture and thus negative feedback on climate change (this is because of Taiga forest carbon capture is increasing with regional warming, which reduces the greenhouse gas Carbon Dioxide). Antarctica has no forests and > 1% is ice free for the very limited plant biodiversity present, although this is likely to increases with snow and ice retreats.
High latitude benthic biomass and blue carbon. Macro algae at South Georgia (a), benthic fauna in the shallows of Antarctic, Adelaide Island (b) and Arctic Tromsø (b), and at deeper continental shelf depths around Kerguelen.
There are very considerable, if intensely seasonal, phytoplankton (micro-algae) blooms around Arctic and Antarctic coasts and on the underside of seasonal sea ice (the ocean surfaces freeze in winter) [3]. The composition of these blooms vary in time and space but are mainly tiny algae called diatoms, which can be eaten by animals in the food web. On death the vast majority of this huge summer primary productivity sinks through the water column where it is recycled by microbes (mainly bacteria) or eventually reaches the seabed, where most is again recycled, but by seabed microbes. This is called the microbial loop and is responsible for most polar blue carbon and energy cycling, but little is known about how much of this carbon is ultimately buried and thus genuinely sequestered. Even though only a small proportion of this productivity is consumed by animals, this still supports the largest abundances of animals on Earth, the copepod and euphausiid shrimps (krill). Their biomass, their feces [4] and in turn that of their predators (seabirds, seals and whales), become significant agents of carbon storage and turnover. As with primary productivity though, to be sequestered, the carbon accumulated in water column animals must sink to considerable depths and avoid microbial recycling on route or once it arrives at the seabed and be quickly buried. Recent work on the marine primary consumers (often called herbivores) amongst the zooplankton has shown that their vertical migrations, coupled with considerable lipid storage is a major factor in transferring carbon to the seabed [5]. Furthermore passing through the guts of zooplankton, such as krill, changes iron chemically to make it more bio-available, thus promoting and sustaining the very phytoplankton blooms on which they feed [6]. As a result the increased phytoplankton bloom fixes more CO2 and becomes another system feedback.
Although life in the water column in polar oceans is extremely numerous, it is not rich or diverse, compared with the seabed, and crucially is a long way in time and space for the site of ultimate carbon sequestration – the seabed. The vast majority of known polar species are benthic (seabed dwelling) as adults and many for their entire life-cycles [7]. Living on the seabed, especially as most of it is soft sediment (muds and clays), gives considerable potential for benthos to deliver carbon burial and sequestration. One of the primary factors hindering this pathway is seabed disturbance, unburying and reworking carbon in dead organisms. Storms can do this in the shallows and bioturbation (e.g. burrowing activity) across depths, but in the polar regions icebergs and diving mammals (e.g. walrus) can be major reducers of carbon sequestration. However a big factor is human disturbance of the seabed, such as harvesting by trawling. Most of the world’s continental shelf seabed, including the Arctic, is territorial water of varying countries, which has valuable harvestable resources, such as food. In contrast the continental shelf around Antarctica is not owned, and the limited fishing which does occur is strongly regulated by the Committee for Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). This governance, and as a result benthic harvesting impact, difference between the polar regions must have very significant influences on the magnitude of carbon buried and sequestered.
This chapter investigates blue carbon on high latitude seabeds (see Figure 1). Such a consideration starts by focusing on how and why it varies, between organism types, spatially, historically and with specific environmental factors. How blue carbon capture and storage is now changing in response to rapid, recent, regional physical change, such as ‘global climate change’ and stratospheric ozone losses. This is important given that parts of the polar regions are amongst the most rapidly and profoundly changing areas on Earth. An attempt is then made to evaluate the importance of polar blue carbon to the Earth system, with its respect to its action as a negative feedback on climate change. Lastly the likely future of polar blue carbon is considered and how this might be better monitored, for example by initiatives such as the Southern Ocean Observing System (SOOS). The polar oceans are key sinks for anthropogenic production of CO2 and the sensitivity of their carbon cycles to physical change is poorly known and understood [9]. Blue carbon, in contrast to that stored dissolved in polar oceans storage is undoubtedly very much smaller, but increasing and with high genuine sequestration potential, and perhaps its quantification could lead to understanding some of the current unexplained variability in global model projections.
Sediment cores taken by geological scientists around the polar regions have shown very considerable patchiness in the both the amount and proportion of carbonate (CaCO3) in polar sediments [8]. Benthic biological work over the last century has similarly demonstrated a huge variety in the carbon stocks held in biota on the seabed [10]. The source of these is the dissolved carbon (dioxide) in water masses and huge, but intensely seasonal productivity by phytoplankton and dependent consumers, such as copepods and euphausiid crustaceans. The variability in the blue carbon component, despite being complex in both time and space, is predictable on some scales, but knowledge levels are also very patchy. The interface of the water column and the underlying sediments, the seabed, is a very dynamic environment for carbon [11]. Primary productivity, fecal pellets and dead organisms rain down to the seabed where they are mainly broken down by the ‘microbial loop’, thus recycling much of the carbon from near surface waters.
Remarkably it was not until 2012 that the first circum-southern polar data set of carbonate in sediments was compiled (from just over 200 sediments cores from Antarctica’s shelf seas [8]). Low-Magnesium calcite is the dominant phase of sediment carbonate, but high-Magnesium calcite, pure calcite and aragonite are also present. The study found that the proportion of carbonate in sediments was typically low, but could be above 15% in some shallow Weddell and deep Amundsen and Bellingshausen shelf areas. The magnitude of values found was very patchy, but most of the highest values were close to the edge of shelf (termed ‘shelf break’). Even at the shelf break in the same sea carbonate could vary an order of magnitude between adjacent sites, so clearly local factors are very important as well. Notably sediments in regions of high primary production (surface microalgae productivity) such as the West Antarctic Peninsula and Ross Sea were generally below 5% carbonate. The authors concluded that the evidence in their meta-analysis was that benthic animals were not significant contributors to sediment carbonate content. Their core and data spatial coverage, although sparse around East Antarctica (as most marine data sets are), seemingly represented the spectrum of most shelf environments. However the conclusions based on existing samples could be underestimating faunal contributions for several reasons. 1) Across depths, faunal biomass and production is typically highest in the shallows (top 100 m) which were not represented. 2) Across habitats, faunal biomass and production is typically highest in difficult to core situations, such as glacial moraines, sea mounts and steep surfaces. 3) Much faunal production close to shelf breaks may be bulldozed over the edge to cascade down steep continental slopes and canyons – these are heavily iceberg scoured environments (Figure 2). However most blue carbon, the totality of carbon captured by organisms, is not in the form of carbonate but organic carbon as tissue.
Iceberg scouring tracks recorded by the NERC-Conicyt ICEBERGS voyage of RRS James Clark Ross, Marguerite Bay, West Antarctic peninsula, 2017.
Carbon captured by, and stored in, benthic organisms varies (within a set amount of space) over several orders of magnitude. Standing stocks peak in the kelp forests of the subpolar shallows with many kilograms per m2 but decreases to less than a few grams by continental slope depths, on young or ice scoured surfaces, underneath Antarctic ice shelves or in other extreme environmental situations.
Some organism types are very much more important than others in terms of carbon and carbonate capture and storage. Some entire animal groups are poorly represented or absent altogether in the polar waters so clearly contribute little to carbon budgets. Typically variability in carbon contribution can be because of population and individual size (biomass), growth rates, ubiquity and the body structure and chemistry of different organisms. For example amongst the plankton the tiny foraminifera
Pteropod shells are superabundant on the seabed around some Atlantic Ocean seamounts, here collected on a National Geographic Pristine Seas expedition in 2017.
The nature of the seabed often shapes and is shaped by the energy of the environment and thus has a major role in structuring which organisms live there and the quality and quality of their resources, such as food. For example very steep surfaces are nearly always bedrock and associated with high current flow whereas very gently sloping, flat seabeds are usually sediment and associated with lower flow. So-called infauna require soft sediments to burrow into or eat to extract microbes whereas hard surfaces are required by many anchored sessile organisms, such as kelp algae and encrusting animals. The spectrum from bed rock to muds and clays can all potentially hold high and low carbon standing stock biodiversity in the polar regions. Investigation of blue carbon by substratum type is often confounded by interaction with other variables, such as depth, geography, history and functional traits (e.g. feeding type). Nevertheless hard surfaces typically have high densities of rich biota, particularly those which are carbonaceous (bryozoans, brachiopods, corals, sponges and some molluscs). Stones which have been embedded in glacier ice, fall out on melting (termed drop-stones) to form blue carbon hotspots of suspension feeders on otherwise less diverse, sediment plains (Figure 4a) [14]. As a result accumulation of blue carbon by zoobenthos is often most associated with hard surfaces such as boulder scree and glacial moraines [15]. The same work showed that hard surfaces facilitate immobilization of carbon, which is when organic carbon is held within tight matrices of skeleton, such as stony coral polyps (e.g. heavily skeletalized animals are much more likely to fossilize, thus sequestering carbon rather than it being broken down in the microbial loop). However burial conditions, which lead to sequestration are considerably stronger on sediments. Thus highest burial and sequestration rates are found at the interface of hard and soft substrata (Figure 4b, c). Such a combination is hard to investigate because it is a challenging environment to try and obtain cores from (e.g. the hard rocks break the plastic multi-cores and jam box core closing mechanisms).
Blue carbon with substratum type and history. Drop-stones are blue carbon rich oases in the Arctic Barents Sea (A). Highest burial rates of zoobenthic carbon are associated with mixed substrata of boulders in sediments at South Georgia (B). Estimates of Carbon immobilization (circle size) and sequestration (star size) (C) [
Many physical and biological characteristics alter with depth so unsurprisingly it can correlate strongly with benthic carbon accumulation [4]. Increased depth away from the near-surface photic zone progressively separates fauna from their main food supply, phytoplankton, so it reduces growth, densities and biomass [1, 3, 10, 16]. The values of carbon accumulation, immobilization and sequestration can be an order of magnitude lower on the deep continental shelf than in the shallows (Figure 5). In deeper water blue carbon values are probably at least an order of magnitude lower again. Conversely to negative depth influences on blue carbon accumulation, increased depth also reduces the probability and frequency of iceberg scouring on the seabed, thereby increasing the potential life span of benthos and burial chances. The effect of these confounding depth-correlates are complex biological responses to climate change with depth. For example, climate-forced reductions in sea ice, as is happening around the Arctic and parts of the West Antarctic, can reduce blue carbon in the shallows because of increased ice scour but increase it in deep water because of longer phytoplankton blooms [4]. Substratum type and profile, temperature and geographic factors also change with depth. An example of the latter is that benthos become more geographically separated in time and space (not just bathymetrically) from the origin point of their food because of water current velocities and directions.
Zoobenthic blue carbon storage fluctuation with time and depth on the West Antarctic peninsula, modified from [
Most, though not all, shallows and shelf are associated with coast in the polar regions, just like elsewhere in the world. This drives an onshore-offshore gradient in polar blue carbon, but it is further exacerbated by most physical change (e.g. melt runoff, glacier retreat and ice shelf collapse) also being coast-associated. There is major temperature, sea ice duration and productivity variability associated with different regions around and between the polar seas, as is reflected in strongly contrasting biomass [10] and sediment carbonate values [8]. Within a distinct area the separation of different habitats and zoobenthic blue carbon performance can be geographically predictable factors, which also reflect regional history. A clear example of this can be seen in the continental shelf around the South Georgia archipelago. Blue carbon accumulation is highest on the glacial moraines, which are generally found close to the shelf break, the furthest extent of grounded ice in the Last Glacial Maximum [15]. However such moraines can also be found at the head of canyons and part way along some coastal fjords. The oldest sediments beyond these moraines have the highest sediment blue carbon values, whereas the sediments within these moraines (which were covered by grounded ice just 20 kya are blue carbon poor (Figure 4c). The highest blue carbon burial and estimated sequestration rates were at the interface of these moraines and sediments.
Zoobenthic blue carbon levels also reflect more recent historical and geographic factors, such as invasion of seabed following glacier retreat, ice shelf collapses and recovery from iceberg impacts. At South Georgia depressed blue carbon values have been measured nearly a decade after giant (thousands of square km in size) iceberg impact [17]. The same study showed there are distinct macrogeographic hotspots of giant iceberg grounding, but the same is true within regions, where shelf breaks are most likely to be impacted. The hotspots of smaller icebergs are more associated with retreating glaciers and longer periods of open water, such as the West Antarctic Peninsula [16, 17]. As with biodiversity succession, the seabed blue carbon within the shallowest hundred meters probably strongly reflects the duration of recovery since the last iceberg scour at any one location. The lowest continental shelf values of blue carbon are those underneath the thick floating ice shelves [18]. However collapse of these can lead to major new phytoplankton blooms and the highest blue carbon capture rates and benthic growth (blue carbon storage levels) [19]. Ice shelf collapses have been most associated with the Weddell and Bellingshausen seas, most recently the major breakout of the 6000 km2 iceberg from Larsen C. Such events are very important in terms of blue carbon budgets and dynamics, both in the water column [20] and the seabed [17]. As a result there is strong connectivity between temperature, ice changes and blue carbon.
The polar regions, particularly the Southern Ocean, are typically the most thermally constant surface regions of our planet. Annual polar sea temperature variability is generally less than 4°C in the Southern hemisphere but more geographically variable around the Arctic. A major source of variability has been Milankovitch 41 and 101 kyr Earth orbital cycles but this has been overshadowed in the Arctic by rapid, recent, regional climate change. Temperature can theoretically influence blue carbon through influences of ocean chemistry, sea ice formation and duration and physical constraints on enzyme performance, effecting food processing, carbonate synthesis and biomass growth rates. Ashton et al. [21] recently attempted to manipulate polar seabed temperature, whilst leaving other factors unchanged. Their study at Rothera Research Station (WAP), which established a series of temperature controlled artificial substrata, found that temperature had a stronger and more complex influence on growth than expected. A 1°C increase led to a significant increase in blue carbon (but measured as growth increment) whereas responses to a 2°C increase resulted in increased variance of assemblages. The major surprise was the extent of the increased growth (approximately double), which far exceeded that predicted by calculations of a pure temperature effect. The experimental infrastructure has now been transferred to the Canadian Arctic station of Cambridge Bay to compare the response of raised temperature of northern to southern polar nearshore fauna.
Many environmental factors are likely to influence blue carbon capture and storage rates around polar seas but our knowledge and understanding of these is patchy. Amongst the best studied locations are King George Island (South Shetland Islands, Antarctic Peninsula) in the south and West Spitsbergen (Svalbard) in the North. Multinational, interdisciplinary efforts to study biotic interactions to a multitude of environmental parameters at such places are enabling scientists to examine which factors are most important, to which organism types and to which stages of the carbon pathway. In contrast to Ryder Bay, adjacent to Rothera Research Station, where ice scouring [16, 17] and temperature [21] seem to be most important to carbon storage, at Potter Cove, King George Island, sedimentation mainly dictates the composition and performance of benthos. Sahade et al.’s [22] monitoring of that cove since 1998 showed that amongst the many varying factors for benthic life close to a retreating glacier, it was sediment levels and tolerance to this which drove drastic shifts in organism type. However sedimentation is not only co-linked to other variability such as salinity and nutrients but also varies in several different aspects, such as particle density and particle size distributions.
A new multi-year, multi-project investigation of the Atlantic sector of the Arctic, ‘Changing Arctic Ocean’, should elucidate the nature and dynamics of hyperboreal carbon pathways. Of these the Changing Arctic Ocean Seabed (ChAOS) project lead by Leeds University, UK is monitoring oceanography, geochemistry and biology at a latitudinal series of sites along the Barents Sea trough (Figure 6). Results from new initiatives like these should greatly increase our ability to estimate the value and variability of Arctic blue carbon ecosystem services [5, 9] and crucially how it is likely to respond to the very considerable, recent physical changes.
Continental shelf monitoring sites of the changing Arctic Ocean seabed (ChAOS) project, through the Barents Sea.
Organisms incrementally capture and store carbon with distinct seasonal and annual variation (mainly caused by feeding reduction or cessation in winter). These temporal signals in carbon accumulation are externally visible in some organisms and observable in others by section (like tree rings) or through isotopic analyses. Thus one of the easiest approaches to measure carbon capture and storage on the seabed is to sequentially sample benthic growth to establish its variance. Because of the multitude of environmental factors influencing the magnitude of these (Section 2.2 above), simultaneous measurement of many local parameters needs to be made, in order to detect and understand any organismal performance trends. Growth (along with other processes, e.g. development) is typically considered to be slow in polar ectotherm organisms, in comparison with those at lower latitudes in the world [10]. However there is considerable variability in blue carbon captured in that organismal growth, within and between regions, organisms, environments and time. Partitioning out the causes and effects of variability is key to meaningful estimates of blue carbon stocks and how they are likely to change. For example, young animals are likely to have higher specific growth rates (thus have high carbon capture but low storage values) whereas older animals would typically be larger but grow slower (and thus be associated with low carbon capture but high carbon storage values). Thus an event influencing population demographics (e.g. iceberg scour) could change carbon capture relative to storage rates, and this could alter depend on which season it occurred in.
Recent work in the Ross, Weddell and Bellingshausen seas have shown rapid growth rates, and changes in growth rates, are possible in polar organisms. Such blue carbon change has happened in response to wind-driven or ice shelf collapse promoted increased food availability [18, 19, 23] respectively, or increase in temperature [21]. With carbon sinks, sources and flux values being so important to global climate as well as projecting trends and predicting future scenarios it is clear that quantification of blue carbon has an important role in this, and the polar regions are the most poorly known. Understanding biological response to polar change has become even more important since it has become apparent that amongst the most severe physical changes have been associated with these areas.
Despite the relative constancy in many oceanographic parameters over geological time, the polar regions are quite dynamic in fluctuation between ice ages, the duration and rate of change to interglacial periods and within these, the position of the marginal sea ice zone, water masses and ice shelf extent. All of these can directly alter the biomass of organisms, their carbon capture and storage rates as well as direct carbon dioxide uptake and release by oceanic storage. Section 2 has highlighted that sediment carbonate levels [8] and organism blue carbon capture and storage rates [10, 15] all vary considerably between and within regions. Measuring any change over time necessarily must have georeferenced baselines to measure against but most ‘long term monitoring’ programmes are relatively young. One of the most notable multidecadal data sets is that for zooplankton, focused on krill and salps. Analysis of this was one of the first to show change in polar ecosystems (krill reductions) in response to climate [24]. However these organisms are mobile and ice edge associated, which highlight both problems in measurement and interpretation – are the less krill in there survey areas because there are less overall or because they are somewhere-else? Crustacean zooplankton, such as Krill, are important to blue carbon capture and storage rates [5, 6] and may be important to sequestration rates as well [4].
We know little about blue carbon capture, storage and sequestration rates for the vast majority of the seabed, and there are a tiny number of sites which have been monitored regularly for more than a decade. Recently a series of ice shelf disintegrations along the Antarctic Peninsula and some elsewhere have been accompanied by major increases in primary [18] and secondary [19] production. These new and increased stocks of seabed blue carbon there have been estimated to constitute ~7x105 tons of carbon per year equivalent to 10,000 hectares of tropical rainforest [19]. These ice shelf collapses have formed an increasing number of giant icebergs, which have also increased carbon capture in the water column through ocean fertilization [20]. Duprat et al. [20] estimated the increases in water column blue carbon of a number of such icebergs. Those estimates were later built upon in terms of their total blue carbon impact (trade-offs of creating new sink areas and ocean fertilization versus scouring potential) to show a 5000 km2 iceberg contributes a net positive of 106 tons of carbon per year [17]. Ice shelf losses, iceberg production and arctic forest increases [2] are not the only sources of blue carbon change around the polar regions.
Sea ice extent, particularly ‘fast ice’ (the freezing of the sea surface, anchored to land) has been one of the most drastic physical changes in the polar regions, particularly throughout the Arctic. Sea ice changes and primary production responses have been more complex around Antarctica [25], but crucially most sea ice losses have been over productive continental shelf whereas most of the sea ice gains have been over deeper slope and abyssal ocean depths [16]. Historical expedition zoobenthic collections and modern samples of longer lived animals with relevant information in skeletons has shown that blue carbon capture rates may have doubled over the last 25 years around West Antarctica [26]. The mechanism for this seems to be that reduced extent (in time and space) of sea ice leads to longer (but not necessarily larger biomass) phytoplankton blooms, resulting in longer meal times for primary consumers resulting in more carbon storage as growth (Figure 7). The total blue carbon increases driven by sea ice losses [17, 26] probably greatly exceed those caused by ice shelf collapse/giant iceberg formation [17, 18, 19, 20]. However, from what we currently know, change in polar blue carbon is a complex of increases and decreases (Figure 8). Around the Southern Ocean blue carbon increases are most associated with West Antarctic seas and decreases with the East Antarctic coasts [17] but the vast majority of all shelf carbon stocks and change is unknown. It seems likely that the biggest blue carbon changes are near coast caused by ice shelf collapse [18, 19, 20], iceberg scour [19] and glacier retreat driven sedimentation [22] but there could also be significant offshore change associated with a shifting seasonal sea ice margin [4, 24, 25]. Given the higher potential ectotherm growth performances at slightly higher sea temperatures [21] it also seems likely that the Arctic and subpolar regions are key areas to quantify blue carbon budgets for. Quantifying these becomes one of the key steps in estimating biotic feedbacks on climate change.
Schematic showing influence of ozone losses on phytoplankton carbon capture and zoobenthic carbon storage on polar seabeds.
Trends in zoobenthic blue carbon accumulation around the Southern Ocean. The key to cell (3x3 degrees) colors are red (biggest increase) to blue (biggest decrease) [
The cold waters of polar oceans are the major marine sinks for atmospheric CO2 but these are finite, likely diminishing and do not negatively feedback on global climate change. There is evidence to show that polar marine algal capture of CO2 has increased with ice shelf loss [18], sea ice loss [25] and iceberg production [20]. It also seems likely that polar macroalgal production could increase spatial and temporal extent with exposure of new habitats, sea ice reduction and increased light energy reaching the shallows. These negatively feedback (mitigate) on climate change through increased capture of CO2 with increasing atmospheric of CO2 content. Only very small proportions of this captured CO2 are genuinely sequestered, depending on how much reaches the seabed and how much is recycled in the microbial loop and reworked following bioturbation. All natural carbon sequestration is via burial, mainly at the seabed, where zoobenthic assemblages (consumers) live. They are an important part of the negative feedback on climate, as new and longer availability of phytoplankton is converted into increased growth (organic carbon to tissues and inorganic carbon to skeletons). The feedback value is complicated to measure because it is dynamic in space and time but also because of simultaneous positives and negatives. For example ice shelf loss leads to more open water, a) reducing albedo, thus potential to absorb more heat; b) reduces buttressing of ice sheets, thus potential for this to accelerate coastwards, c) increasing potential for gas exchange, d) generating new phytoplankton blooms, e) opening new habitat for zoobenthos and f) generating giant icebergs with ocean fertilization potential [17, 18, 19, 20]. Even the latter components themselves each contain contrasting feedbacks on climate, for example calving of an giant iceberg such as that to break off Larsen C in 2017 may scour and recycle 4x104 tCyr−1 of benthic carbon but algal capture and seabed zoobenthic storage of new carbon contributes a net positive of 106 tons of carbon per year [17]. The magnitude of this negative feedback is probably similar to that of Arctic Taiga expansion [2], although this too has also complicating factors such as increased heat absorption and less than expected growth gains.
Sea-ice loss areas exceed 1,000,000 km2 whereas ice shelf losses approximate to ~30,000 km2 see http://nsidc.org/) so biological responses to these are the largest measured natural negative feedback on climate change. These are dwarfed as an organic carbon store by tropical forests, but these are not increasing as a result of climate change and thus not a negative feedback (their genuine sequestration potential is also low, as burial rates of carbon are very small except for water logged swamp forests). The magnitude of polar blue carbon negative feedback from sea ice losses depends on whether the carbon is calculated from primary production, secondary production, immobilized carbon or sequestered carbon. The sequestration value is considered to be as low as two orders of magnitude different along the cascade from algal production to buried sequestered benthos (Figure 9). Scaling up from regional samples suggests that between 2002 and 2015 the zoobenthic blue carbon negative feedback averaged ~107 T C in production, 4.5x106 T C in immobilization or 1.6x106 tons C in terms of sequestration [16] along the West Antarctic Peninsula continental shelf alone. Scaled up to the whole Antarctic continental shelf area (4.4x106 km2) the annual zoobenthic blue carbon feedback is estimated at 30-80x106 T C yr.−1 but including outer Subantarctic continental shelves, such as the Kerguelen Plateau doubles this [17], equivalent to 1–2% of global anthropogenic output. It is clear this feedback is dynamic, polar blue carbon storage has demonstrably increased in coincidence with climate-forced sea ice changes, at least around West Antarctica [26]. Global climate change, ozone losses and other indirect (e.g. non indigenous species invasions) or direct (e.g. harvesting) anthropogenic pressures have the potential to have major impacts on marine biodiversity [27], and thus considerably increase or decrease polar blue carbon.
Cascade of blue carbon through trophic levels and states in polar waters, scaled to mean annual values. Data for the West Antarctic peninsula [
Carbonates already in Antarctic shelf sediment surfaces could become part of the negative feedback if calcite undersaturation is reached on the Antarctic shelves [8]. Ocean acidification is one of the bigger unknowns for the future of polar benthic carbon, in terms of the cost of calcification for organisms, the potential for dissolution whilst alive and after death [28]. Probably the biggest unknown though is how sea temperature will change. There seem to be very different sea temperature trends between the polar regions, across depths and even within seas around the Southern Ocean [29]. The strongest climate-forced trends to date have been in ice extent change. Sea ice losses, glacier retreat and ice shelf collapse are expected to be sustained, although sea ice models are still in their infancy in terms of even recreating the complexity that has already occurred. Salinity changes can be strongly linked to sea ice changes [29] and is likely to remain very important in the Arctic in terms of surface stratification and stabilization impacts. Stratospheric ozone losses have driven seasonal increases in UV and wind strength, driving knock on influences on sea ice (e.g. maintaining open water areas). The impact of all these factors on polar blue carbon to date has been explored to various levels (Sections 3 and 4) such that for some areas summary trends can be erected (Figure 8). Because such trends have typically relied on scaling up by area and scaling from few taxa, and rarely accounted for all environmental factors, their main purpose is essentially hypothesis testing markers. Several new independent research programmes have been recently launched across polar seas to attempt to quantify and model polar carbon capture and storage, including the blue carbon component (Figure 10).
Apparatus used to estimate surface and sediment carbon and carbonate in polar shelf seas (here shown in the Arctic in 2017). The equipment are shelf underwater camera system (SUCS - above) and multicorer (MUC - below) and their collection products. Note the sponge bisected in one of the core tubes.
Current ideas on the direction of likely trends in polar blue carbon include a wide spectrum of near-future prospects [4, 9, 11, 27, 28]. Reasonable scientific scenarios have been put forward that we can expect drastic reductions in blue carbon storage under current climate projections. These are based on a (largely presumed) inability of polar biodiversity to tolerate lowered pH and increased temperature [9, 13, 27, 28]. This is partly due to the unprecedented level and pace (in recent geological time) of physical change and partly due to the limited options for migration to maintain climate envelope (stay within tolerable conditions). The moderate sea temperature rises expected over the next century could enhance carbon capture and storage [21], although scientific consensus is that more severe temperature rises are likely to reduce polar marine biodiversity performance [27]. However sustained sea ice and ice shelf losses seem likely to increase blue carbon capture and storage rates as to date, but possibly more widespread [16, 17, 26]. Processes by which this could be aided and enhanced, for example creation of artificial polar reefs, have even been financially evaluated but are uneconomical at the current value of industrial carbon capture [30]. Patterns of blue carbon response to climate change are likely to differ strongly between the Arctic and Antarctic, because of their contrasting history and geography, human usage and disparity of current physical change. From current trends it seems most likely that moderate blue carbon increases will occur in Arctic and West Antarctic seas in the near future to be eventually replaced by more severe decreases when critically low pH and high temperatures begin to be reached. Predicting physical trends and blue carbon biological responses in East Antarctic seas is more difficult because of current variability and lack of sustained patterns. It seems intuitively likely that East Antarctic blue carbon patterns may ultimately follow those of other polar locations but with a considerable lag phase. Given the rarity of natural negative feedbacks on climate change and the importance of blue carbon as a current negative feedback, quantification and understanding of polar blue carbon change should be high as a scientific priority.
The author would like to thank the members of the projects; Antarctic Seabed Carbon Capture Change, Changing Arctic Ocean Seabed and ICEBERGS (NERC-Conicyt). The author would also like to thank the following colleagues for help with figures; Will Goodall-Copestake and Sorcha Barnes (Figures 1, 3, 4, 10), Floyd Howard (Figure 2), Jo Hopkins (Figure 6), Jamie Oliver (Figure 7) and Chester Sands (Figure 8).
No conflicts of interest and no funding supported this work.
The heart has an intrinsic conduction system that consists of specialized cells. It can spontaneously depolarize to initiate heartbeats from its rhythmic pacing discharge and coordinate heart electrical activity [1, 2]. The sinoatrial (SA) node is the first pacemaker that starts the electrical impulse resulting in the depolarization and contraction of the atrium. This electrical impulse is distributed throughout the heart through the internodal pathway, atrioventricular (AV) node, AV bundle, branches of the bundle of HIS, and through Purkinje fibers. Without the extrinsic (hormonal and neural) influences, the SA node creates about 100 beats per minute; however, to meet the body’s oxygen requirement under variable conditions, cardiac output (and thus heartbeat) must vary. This is where the autonomic nervous system (ANS) of the heart plays a role [2].
The heart receives extensive innervation by both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems of the ANS. The cardiac efferent preganglionic sympathetic neurons originate from the lateral horns of the spinal cord’s upper thoracic segment (T1-T4) and leave the spinal cord through the ventral (anterior) roots of the corresponding spinal cord nerves. As they reach the superior cervical, medial cervical, cervicothoracic/stellate, and thoracic ganglia of the paravertebral sympathetic nerve chain (SNC), they synapse onto the postganglionic nerves, namely the cardiac cervical nerves and cardiac thoracic nerves, which travel to the heart along with the epicardial vascular structure [1, 2, 3, 4].
The cardiac efferent preganglionic parasympathetic neurons originate in the medulla oblongata’s dorsal motor nucleus and nucleus ambiguus. They travel bilaterally within two vagal nerves and synapse onto the postganglionic nerve fibers in the vagal nerve ganglia located in the cardiac plexus, at the base of the heart [3, 4]. Cardiac plexus consists of a complex network of various nerves including the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and cardiac nerves as well as some tiny parasympathetic ganglia to control cardiac activity. The cardiac plexus is divided into two parts: (1) the superficial part located in the aortic arch concavity and (2) the deep part located between the trachea and the aortic arch. Both parts are connected to provide cardiac autonomic innervation [3].
Most of the cardiac afferent fibers travel in sympathetic cardiac nerves. The first-order sympathetic-sensitive afferent fibers have their cell bodies in the first 4–5 thoracic ganglia. They synapse with the second-order fibers in the spinal cord, where they cross the median line and ascend along the anterior spinothalamic tract (ventral spinothalamic fasciculus) to the posteroventral nucleus in the thalamus. Parasympathetic afferent fibers in the heart primarily function as a mediator for some cardiac reflexes, responding to activation of stretch receptors in the atria (Bainbridge reflex) and left ventricle (Jarisch-Bezold reflex) [3].
The ANS influences most heart functions by affecting the SA node, AV node, myocardium, and small and large vessel walls [2]. The ANS regulates heart rate (chronotropic effect), myocardial cells contractility (inotropic effect), signal conductivity (dromotropic effect), excitability (bathmotropic effect), as well as coronary vascular tone and myocardial blood flow. As the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems have opposite effects on heart functions, the final effect on the heart is the net balance between the two systems. However, their influence differs by their distribution in the heart [2, 3].
The sympathetic system carries an excitatory effect on heart functions and is activated in emergency, stressful situations, or any other situations that require increase of cardiac output; therefore, it is also known as “fight or flight response” [2]. It controls heart function mainly in three effects: (1) It speeds up the depolarization of the sinus node increasing heart rate (positive chronotropic), (2) increases conduction velocity in the AV junction, atria, and ventricles (positive dromotropic effect), (3) increases myocardial contractility both in the atria and ventricle (positive inotropic effect) [2, 3]. Most of these effects are mainly mediated by the β1 adrenergic receptors as they predominate in healthy human hearts, whereas β2 receptors are primarily concentrated in the atria and ventricles thus their functions are linked to the inotropic effect. Both β1 and β2 receptors are distributed in all regions of the heart, nevertheless [3]. In addition, sympathetic activation also promotes constriction of the coronary arteries leading to an increase of cardiac output, which is mediated by α1 and α2 receptors, and dilatation mediated by β2 receptors in the coronary arteries [2, 3].
Conversely, the parasympathetic (vagal) system has inhibitory effects on heart functions. It is activated under restful conditions and is therefore known as rest and digest response [2]. It slows down sinus node activity resulting in a decrease of heart rate, slows down electrical conduction through the AV nodes and conduction system, causing delayed conduction and AV block, decreases atria contractility, and promotes dilatation of the coronary arteries, which result in decreased cardiac output. On atrial cells, parasympathetic activation decreases contractility yet shortens the action potential duration causing an increase in conduction speed, thus leading to reentrant tachyarrhythmias. As parasympathetic fibers are predominantly distributed to the atria while poorly distributed to the ventricles, parasympathetic activation does not significantly affect intraventricular conduction and ventricles’ contractility. The parasympathetic system influences the heart through the M2 receptor and the coronary arteries through M3 receptors [3].
Both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine (Ach) and are called cholinergic; however, their postganglionic release different neurotransmitters. Sympathetic postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine (which resembles epinephrine/adrenalin, thus referred to as adrenergic) while most parasympathetic postganglionic neurons release acetylcholine.3
ANS abnormalities in terms of anatomy and physiology can cause various heart abnormalities. ANS abnormalities are associated with electrical abnormalities which cause heart problems. This can cause a variety of manifestations. In this section, we will discuss more the electrical abnormalities associated with ANS abnormalities in the heart.
Ventricular arrhythmia remains a common cause of sudden cardiac death in myocardial infarction (MI) patients. Following a myocardial ischemic injury, sympathetic axon fibers within the scar become dysfunctional, degenerate, and die. However, contrary to the central neurons, peripheral neurons commonly regenerate back to their target, a phenomenon called nerve sprouting [4, 5]. This efferent sympathetic regeneration is triggered by nerve growth factor (NGF), which levels are found to be increased after MI, and causes hyperinnervation in the infracted are of the heart thereby promoting ventricular arrhythmia. Studies using 123I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) have shown evidence of sympathetic reinnervation in the infracted hearts after MI. A study conducted by Cao et al. [6] demonstrated that the high density of nerve fibers was significantly higher in the peripheral to the area of necrotic tissue of failed hearts. Chen and colleagues also support this phenomenon’s discovery that infusion of NGF to the stellate ganglion causes an increase of nerve density and QT interval prolongation, therefore increases and prolongs ventricular arrhythmias [4, 6, 7, 8]. Furthermore, there have been findings that demonstrate a notable decrease in parasympathetic tone in patients with comorbidities (such as coronary artery disease, MI, and diabetes) during sleep despite the unopposed sympathetic activity, creating a higher risk of ventricular arrhythmia. Another electrical phenomenon following MI that leads to ventricular arrhythmia is an occurrence of heterogeneous distribution of hyperinnervation of sympathetic nerves, particularly in the border zone (despite the remaining viable myocardial cells), which can lead to impulses and therefore initiate tachyarrhythmia. On another note, interventions that reduce sympathetic nerve activity have been shown to reduce the risk of arrhythmias in MI patients, both in humans and animals [6]. Some therapies that are suggested to reduce the risk of ventricular arrhythmia include cervical sympathectomy and spinal cord stimulation (inhibiting cardiac sympathetic tone while enhancing parasympathetic tone). Future therapies may focus on preventing nerve sprouting by inhibiting nerve growth or attaining regional cardiac denervation by ganglia ablation [4].
The influence of ANS on the pathogenesis of atrial fibrillation (AF) had been discovered since 1978 [3]. In the beginning, AF was thought to be a sympathetic-mediated phenomenon; however, studies have shown that sympathetic and parasympathetic systems may contribute to the pathogenesis. Sympathetic-mediated arrhythmia may occur because of β-adrenergic signal pathway activation, which increases Ca2+ transient. On the other hand, parasympathetic activation through Ach stimulation on muscarinic receptors (mainly M2 in the heart) causes a shortened duration of action potential (thus increasing conduction speed) in atria, causing arrhythmias [4, 9]. Studies by Scherf et al. suggested that local application of either aconitine or Ach in the heart may lead to rapid focal firing or AF, which could be terminated by removing the focal source of firing [10, 11]. Whether an AF episode is predominately sympathetic-mediated or parasympathetic-mediated may depend on comorbidities; lone and nocturnal AF (where parasympathetic is profoundly dominant) in patients with normal hearts is usually parasympathetic-mediated whereas AF in patients with organic heart disease or disorders such as phaeochromocytoma or hyperthyroidism is usually sympathetic-mediated. In addition, parasympathetic-mediated AF episodes usually occur weekly, predominantly at night, last for a few hours, and are preceded by progressive bradycardia. In contrast, sympathetic-mediated AF episodes usually occur during the daytime, during exercise, or under stress. The current primary endpoint target of the ablation procedure is the pulmonary vein isolation (PVI), thereby predisposing to reentrant phenomena and high density of nerves. However, studies have demonstrated that direct stimulation to the ganglionated plexus could result in AF, whereas ablation of the corresponding plexus may reverse the alteration of conduction speed [3, 8]. Multiple clinical studies were conducted to compare whether combining ganglionated plexus (GP) ablation with PVI or PVI alone is more effective in suppressing AF, one of which is done by Katritsis et al. l who found that combination of GP ablation and PVI showed higher success compared to PVI alone [9].
Long QT syndrome (LQTS) is characterized by prolonged ventricular repolarization (prolonged QT interval), leading to polymorphic ventricular tachycardia and, therefore, risk of sudden death. It is a heterogeneous syndrome resulting from several cardiac ion channels. Arrhythmias in LQTS patients are often emotional or physical stress-related, and sympathetic activation has been suggested as an important triggering factor. However, the response to this trigger may vary depending on LQTS syndrome. For instance, LQTS type 1 has more prominent and prolonged effects from sympathetic activation than LQTS type 2 [4]. A study has been conducted by Shamsuzzaman [12] to record sympathetic activity using muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) and skin sympathetic nerve activity (SNA). The result of the study demonstrated that in LQTS patients, the baseline of MSNA is very low and further accompanied by slower heart rates and reduced LF. In contrast, the baseline of skin SNA is normal, indicating that LQTS patients have region-specific decreased cardiac sympathetic drive. In such a setting, surges of sympathetic stimulation caused by emotional or physical stress may lead to cardiovascular events [12].
Brugada syndrome is an inherited channel disorder characterized by sodium channel abnormality (and thus ECG abnormalities) that predisposes to ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death despite structurally typical hearts [4, 13, 14]. Another exciting characteristic of Brugada syndrome is that ventricular fibrillation and sudden death mainly occur at rest or during sleep, which is the period of parasympathetic dominance. Furthermore, clinical characteristics and typical ECG changes can be variable over time and are influenced by external factors, such as exercise and pharmacological intervention. Exercise can diminish ECG signs of Brugada syndrome, while on the contrary, drugs that interact with the ANS innervation can unmask or intensify the signs. For this occurrence, studies have suggested that the ANS is involved in the natural history of the syndrome. Prior studies have shown a sympathetic-parasympathetic tone imbalance in patients with Brugada syndrome. A study by Wichter et al. demonstrated a reduced I-MIBG reuptake, either because of a reduced number or function of efferent sympathetic neurons and a reduced transporter capacity for NE reuptake, which indicated a presynaptic adrenergic dysfunction [14]. According to the authors of this study, this reduced sympathetic tone may impact protein phosphorylation and spatial calcium heterogeneity, thus leading to arrhythmias, especially in the downregulation of adrenergic activity or in parasympathetic dominance [14].
Besides electrical abnormalities, ANS also correlates with ischemic heart disease. Following a transmural myocardial infarction (MI), sympathetic fibers within the scar become denervated and die. However, denervation also occurs in the non-infarcted sites distal to the infarction early after occlusion, resulting in a neurotransmission disruption, nerve sprouting, and denervation supersensitivity even in the viable myocardium cells. Not all sites are denervated equally, this disruption leads to a heterogeneous change of effective refractory period (ERP). Together with decreased protection from vagal denervation, this leads to ventricular arrhythmias [4].
As with heart failure, myocardial dysfunction caused by cardiac insult activates neurohormonal mechanisms, including activation of the sympathetic system and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) axis. Increased activation of the sympathetic system causes an increase in NE delivery to myocardial cells. High local catecholamine level leads to ventricular hypertrophy and increase susceptibility to arrhythmia, which worsens the heart’s function and, in turn, further increases sympathetic tone [15]. This activation is initially essential to compensate for the weakened myocardial function; however, in the long term, this activation leads to further deterioration of cardiac function, worsening heart failure, and cardiac decompensation. Besides sympathetic activation, there has been evidence of reduced parasympathetic function, which further worsens heart failure. Heart failure can also cause denervation, creating nerve sprouting and electrical remodeling, leading to ventricular arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death [4, 16].
Following electrical and ischemic instability, ANS also have a direct effect on action potential duration restitution. The destabilization of activation wavefronts is associated with the alteration in action potential duration (APD) resulting from the alteration of the previous diastolic interval, called restitution. Steepened APD restitution curve slope has been associated with complex, unstable dynamics, while a decrease of the steepness of the curve by drugs may suppress ventricular arrhythmia [17, 18, 19]. A study in porcine models by Taggart et al. has shown that sympathetic stimulation with adrenaline (α – and β-adrenergic agonist) steepens the APD restitution curve [20]. The same effect was confirmed in humans with normal ventricles by a more recent study using isoprenaline (β-adrenergic agonist) and adrenaline, demonstrating that both adrenaline and isoprenaline steepen the APD restitution curve at the minimum range of 40 ms. This evidence suggests a mechanism in which the sympathetic nervous system is contributed to inducing arrhythmia and ventricular fibrillation [16]. Additionally, a study conducted in an isolated rabbit heart model demonstrated that parasympathetic activation exerts a contradictory effect, reducing the steepness of the slope, thereby suppressing ventricular fibrillation [21].
By understanding the mechanism of influence of the anatomy and physiology of the ANS heart and its influence on various heart abnormalities, we can determine the appropriate therapeutic approaches. Therapeutic approaches in neurocardiology fall into two focuses: (1) applying novel treatment and (2) interaction of non-drug and multiple drugs treatments. Patients with cardiomyopathy are suggested to have increased sympathetic innervation and decreased parasympathetic innervation; therefore, interventions aiming to reduce sympathetic tone and thereby increasing parasympathetic tone are beneficial to reduce the susceptibility of ventricular arrhythmia sudden cardiac death. Some options of approaches include the following options [4].
Multiple studies have shown that in patients with heart failure, pharmacologically inhibition of sympathetic activity may reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death. Current pharmacological therapies include β-blockers (β-receptor antagonist) and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE-I), which are the mainstay approaches for early hypertension and other cardiovascular disease associated with dysautonomia [22]. Surgical techniques, for instance, sympathectomy, reduce the risk of comorbidities in patients with hypertension and reduce the incidence of ventricular arrhythmia [22].
Pharmacological therapies such as β-blockers, ACE-I, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB), aldosterone antagonists, and statins are proven to decrease the risk of sudden cardiac death in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy. In addition, these drugs also provide modulations of the ANS by decreasing sympathetic activity and increasing parasympathetic activity. Through baroreflex, Angiotensin II decreases vagal bradycardia. This effect can be reversed with ACEI and ARB by increasing parasympathetic output to the heart. In an experimental study using rat models with ischemic cardiomyopathy, aldosterone antagonist and ACEI showed a decrease of myocardial NE content, demonstrating an antisympathetic effect. Statin therapies show several mechanisms in normalizing sympathetic activity and cardiovascular reflex regulation, such as increased baroreceptor sensitivity for heart rate control, reducing angiotensin II-induced sympathetic responses, decreasing baseline of renal sympathetic activity, and downregulating mRNA and protein expression of Angiotensin II type I receptors as well as NADP oxidase subunits of the heart [4].
Biventricular pacing has been suggested to improve hemodynamic status in patients with intraventricular conduction delay and reduced ejection fraction and decreased sympathetic tone in patients with hypertension, thus shifting the autonomic balance of the heart to a less sympathetic more parasympathetic profile [4]. Proper cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT), in the short term, results in left ventricular systolic function improvement and mitral regurgitation reduction, providing a more optimal ventricular filling. Over a more extended period, CRT promotes left ventricular reverse remodeling, leading to significant functional capacity, survival, and quality of life improvements [23].
Several measurements that can be used to index parasympathetic function/activity include resting heart rate, heart rate recovery (heart rate decrease following termination of exercise), heart rate variability, and baroreflex sensitivity (the responsiveness of the cardiovascular system to blood pressure changes). Several studies have shown that reduced parasympathetic function is associated with mortality and leads to risk factors for cardiovascular diseases. Those risk factors include biological factors such as hypertension, diabetes, abnormal cholesterol; lifestyle factors such as tobacco use, physical inactivity, and overweight; and non-modifiable factors such as age and family history [4].
Vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) is a non-pharmacological intervention to normalize autonomic imbalance, directly stimulating the vagus nerve to improve parasympathetic tone and reflex. VNS has been shown to improve left ventricular hemodynamics and increase heart rate variability. VNS also results in better vagal reflex and nitric oxide expression, improvement of the renin-angiotensin system, inflammatory cytokines modulation, reduced heart rate, risk of ventricular arrhythmias, and mortality [24]. A recent multinational, randomized clinical trial called INOVATE-HF (Increase of vagal tone in CHF) demonstrated that VNS significantly resulted in favorable effects on quality of life, NYHA functional class, and 6-min walking distance. However, the ventricular end-systolic volume index was not significantly different [25].
Renal efferent signals regulate renin secretion, water and sodium retention, and intrarenal vascular distribution. Efferent signals (as a response to sensory signals from renal) activate sympathetic fibers, inhibit parasympathetic fibers, and cause a release of catecholamines, which in pathology conditions such as myocardial infarction or heart failure, can increase the risk of arrhythmia [26]. Catheter-based renal denervation (RDN) is a neuromodulation treatment that includes catheter-based ablation to the renal artery wall, thus reducing the afferent and efferent sympathetic activity in the kidney and globally [26, 27, 28]. It has been used to treat drug-resistant hypertension. However, the role of RDN has also been studied as adjunctive therapy in patients with ventricular tachycardia and heart failure. By reducing circulating catecholamines, RDN reduces the electrical heterogeneity in the scarred myocardium and border zone regions and thus decreases susceptibility to ventricular arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death [26]. RDN has also been suggested to reduce blood pressure, reduce NT-proBNP, and improve NYHA class symptoms in patients with heart failure. Therefore, RDN is suggested to be favorably impactful for hypertension, MI, and heart failure [28].
The heart receives extensive innervation by both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems of the ANS. The sympathetic system carries an excitatory effect on heart functions, while the parasympathetic system has inhibitory effects on heart functions. ANS abnormalities associated with electrical abnormalities can cause a variety of heart manifestations, including ventricular arrhythmias, atrial fibrillation, Long QT Syndrome, and Brugada Syndrome. Besides electrical abnormalities, ANS also correlates with ischemic heart disease. Following electrical and ischemic instability, ANS also have a direct effect on action potential duration restitution. By understanding the mechanism of influence of the anatomy and physiology of the ANS heart and its influence on various heart abnormalities, we can determine the appropriate therapeutic approaches. Therapeutic approaches in neurocardiology fall into two focuses: applying novel treatment and interaction of non-drug and multiple drugs treatments, such as selective sympathetic blockade, cardiac autonomics modulation therapies, resynchronization therapy parasympathetic function mortality and cardiovascular risk, vagal stimulation, and renal denervation.
No one to acknowledge.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
neurotransmitters in ANS the autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic components electrical heart abnormalities which are generally characterized by arrhythmias on electrocardiogram findings heart abnormalities based on block of the cardiac conduction system in the AV node heart node located at the atrioventricular junction compensating reaction occurring in an increase in heart rate after an increase in cardiac preload compensating reaction occurring in an increase in heart rate after an increase in cardiac preload excessive innervation bradycardia, hypotension, and apnea heart abnormalities in the form of damage to heart cells due to lack of blood supply to the cells concerned the branch of neurology that studies the nervous system of the heart The New York Heart Association’s (NYHA) functional classification system assists in classifying individuals with congestive heart failure based on their symptoms. a treatment used to treat atrial fibrillation, an irregular heart rhythm. a cluster of cells in the right atrium. These cells can deliver electrical impulses to the heart muscle cells, causing them to contract regularly and autonomously. ganglionated chain from the skull base to the coccyx refers to any procedure that stimulates the vagus nerve, whether physical or electronic.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
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\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
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\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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The exact causes of the cyanoHABs are still not well defined, but eutrophication and climate change (temperature increase, light intensity variation, etc.) are the two assumed main factors that may promote the proliferation and expansion of cyanobacterial blooms. However, these premises need to be profoundly investigated as the optimal combination of all factors such as increased nutrient loading, physiological characteristics of cyanobacterial species, and climate effects which could lead to the blooming pattern will require robust modeling approaches to predict the phenomena. Negative issues associated with cyanoHABs are diverse including the toxic products (cyanotoxins) released by certain taxa which can damage the health of humans and animal habitats around the related watershed as well as generate a huge water quality problem for aquatic industries.",book:{id:"6888",slug:"limnology-some-new-aspects-of-inland-water-ecology",title:"Limnology",fullTitle:"Limnology - Some New Aspects of Inland Water Ecology"},signatures:"Naila-Yasmine Benayache, Tri Nguyen-Quang, Kateryna Hushchyna, Kayla McLellan, Fatima-Zohra Afri-Mehennaoui and Noureddine Bouaïcha",authors:[{id:"186021",title:"Dr.",name:"Noureddine",middleName:null,surname:"Bouaïcha",slug:"noureddine-bouaicha",fullName:"Noureddine Bouaïcha"},{id:"275819",title:"Dr.",name:"Naila",middleName:"Yasmine",surname:"Benayache",slug:"naila-benayache",fullName:"Naila Benayache"},{id:"275821",title:"Dr.",name:"Tri",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen-Quang",slug:"tri-nguyen-quang",fullName:"Tri Nguyen-Quang"},{id:"275878",title:"Ms.",name:"Kateryna",middleName:null,surname:"Hushchyna",slug:"kateryna-hushchyna",fullName:"Kateryna Hushchyna"},{id:"275879",title:"Prof.",name:"Fatima-Zohra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehennaoui-Afri",slug:"fatima-zohra-mehennaoui-afri",fullName:"Fatima-Zohra Mehennaoui-Afri"}]},{id:"60120",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75734",title:"Assessment of Heavy Metals Contamination in Groundwater: A Case Study of the South of Setif Area, East Algeria",slug:"assessment-of-heavy-metals-contamination-in-groundwater-a-case-study-of-the-south-of-setif-area-east",totalDownloads:1936,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Heavy metals in groundwater were analyzed and their sources and impacts were identified using multivariate statistical tools and risk assessment. Three significant factors were extracted by factor analysis (FA), explaining 75.69% of total variance. These factors were in turn described by the clusters C3, C2 and C1, respectively, resulting from the cluster analysis (CA). Factor analysis and cluster analysis revealed significant anthropogenic contributions and water-rock interaction effects of the metals in groundwater. The mean values of heavy metal evaluation index (HEI) and degree of contamination (Cdeg) indices indicated that the groundwater samples were contaminated with high degree of pollution by cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb). The hazard quotients (via ingestion) of Cd and Pb were found to be higher than the safe limits, posing threat to the consumers. However, no risk related to the dermal contact was associated with the measured metal levels.",book:{id:"6401",slug:"achievements-and-challenges-of-integrated-river-basin-management",title:"Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management",fullTitle:"Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management"},signatures:"Lazhar Belkhiri, Ammar Tiri and Lotfi Mouni",authors:[{id:"214036",title:"Dr.",name:"Lazhar",middleName:null,surname:"Belkhiri",slug:"lazhar-belkhiri",fullName:"Lazhar Belkhiri"},{id:"214668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ammar",middleName:null,surname:"Tiri",slug:"ammar-tiri",fullName:"Ammar Tiri"},{id:"214669",title:"Dr.",name:"Lotfi",middleName:null,surname:"Mouni",slug:"lotfi-mouni",fullName:"Lotfi Mouni"}]},{id:"59624",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74700",title:"Information-Communication Technologies as an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Tool for Sustainable Development",slug:"information-communication-technologies-as-an-integrated-water-resources-management-iwrm-tool-for-sus",totalDownloads:1321,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Sustainability is a crucial and at the same time vital approach for satisfying future generations’ rights on natural resources. Toward this direction, global policies, supported by international organizations such as UNESCO and its international science programs, foster sustainable development as principal concept for the management of various thematic areas including the environment. The present work promotes the integration of information-communication technologies (ICTs) in the water resources management field as a state of the art concept that sets the basis for sustainable development at global scale. The research focuses on the ICTs contribution to the evolution of scientific and technological disciplines, such as satellite earth observations, real time monitoring networks, geographic information systems, and cloud-based geo information systems and their interconnection to integrated water resources management. Moreover, selected international research programs and activities of UNESCO International Hydrology Programme (IHP) are synoptically but comprehensively being presented to demonstrate the integration of the technological advances in water resources management and their role toward sustainable development.",book:{id:"6401",slug:"achievements-and-challenges-of-integrated-river-basin-management",title:"Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management",fullTitle:"Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management"},signatures:"Charalampos Skoulikaris, Youssef Filali-Meknassi, Alice Aureli, Abou\nAmani and Blanca Elena Jiménez-Cisneros",authors:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",slug:"charalampos-skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris"}]},{id:"51401",doi:"10.5772/64111",title:"Phycoremediation of Eutrophic Lakes Using Diatom Algae",slug:"phycoremediation-of-eutrophic-lakes-using-diatom-algae",totalDownloads:2302,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Eutrophication as a result of human intervention has led to severe deterioration of fresh water habitats. Due to population growth, industrialization and uncontrolled use of fertilizers led to excess nutrient runoff entering into rivers and lakes; this has caused reduction in water quality and abnormal changes in ecosystem structure and function. A solution to this cultural eutrophication is an urgent necessity since nutrient accumulation renders controlling eutrophication more difficult over time. Using algae for reduction of nutrients is a unique technology, which utilizes the enormous potential of microalgae in restoring water quality. This has a huge potential in urban lakes where there is an urgent need to use such technologies in combination with existing ones to speed up the process to reduce the formation of hypereutrophic lakes and dead zones in oceans. In this book chapter, we explore the enormous potential of diatoms as cost-effective, efficient and eco-friendly remedy for complex problems related to eutrophication. We report the case studies on using diatom-based technology. This will give us a new insight into microalgae-based lake remediation strategies, which can significantly reduce the cost, manpower needed and negative environmental impacts involved in existing technologies.",book:{id:"5282",slug:"lake-sciences-and-climate-change",title:"Lake Sciences and Climate Change",fullTitle:"Lake Sciences and Climate Change"},signatures:"Marella Thomas Kiran, Mallimadugula Venkata Bhaskar and\nArchana Tiwari",authors:[{id:"182729",title:"Mr.",name:"Bhaskar",middleName:null,surname:"Mallimadugula",slug:"bhaskar-mallimadugula",fullName:"Bhaskar Mallimadugula"},{id:"182743",title:"Mr.",name:"Marella",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas Kiran",slug:"marella-thomas-kiran",fullName:"Marella Thomas Kiran"},{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari"}]},{id:"51407",doi:"10.5772/64265",title:"Fuzzy Logic as a Tool for the Assessment of Water Quality for Reservoirs: A Regional Perspective (Lerma River Basin, Mexico)",slug:"fuzzy-logic-as-a-tool-for-the-assessment-of-water-quality-for-reservoirs-a-regional-perspective-lerm",totalDownloads:1779,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The aim of this study is to propose a water quality index for reservoirs in a basin using fuzzy logic. Most of the water quality indices are designed for use in rivers and streams and based on expert opinion; however, when the water is dammed, the quality usually Is modified. Mexico is a country with many contrasts in quantity and quality of water. Management of water resources in the Lerma River is achieved with a system of artificial reservoirs where water is stored in order to meet human needs, such as public supply, industry, agriculture and recreation, among others. Monitoring of 11 reservoirs in the Río Lerma basin was performed to characterize the water quality. Using the water quality data, those indicators that do not represent redundancy were selected based on the concentration gradient that occurred in the different reservoirs. Thus, the proposed index uses eight indicators of water quality. The fuzzy inference system is composed by 633 rules with a score from 0 to 100 and seven verbal categories. The index was validated by comparison with other water quality index, and their use across the basin was tested by applying it in five additional water bodies.",book:{id:"5282",slug:"lake-sciences-and-climate-change",title:"Lake Sciences and Climate Change",fullTitle:"Lake Sciences and Climate Change"},signatures:"Jacinto Elías Sedeño-Díaz and Eugenia López-López",authors:[{id:"153660",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Jacinto Elías",middleName:null,surname:"Sedeño-Díaz",slug:"jacinto-elias-sedeno-diaz",fullName:"Jacinto Elías Sedeño-Díaz"},{id:"190562",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia",middleName:null,surname:"López-López",slug:"eugenia-lopez-lopez",fullName:"Eugenia López-López"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73065",title:"Constructed Wetlands in Wastewater Treatment and Challenges of Emerging Resistant Genes Filtration and Reloading",slug:"constructed-wetlands-in-wastewater-treatment-and-challenges-of-emerging-resistant-genes-filtration-a",totalDownloads:723,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"A wetland is a unique and distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail, and the primary distinctive factor of wetlands from other landforms or water bodies is the occurrence of adaptive vegetation of aquatic plants, characteristic to the unique hydric soil. A constructed wetland is an artificial shallow basin filled with substrate, usually soil or gravel, and planted with vegetation that has tolerance to saturated conditions. As much as the use of constructed wetland has been recommended in the treatment of various forms of wastewater, the system efficiency is a factor of very many natural and artificial factors, with the emerging pollutants and contaminants such as resistant genes being the most complicated contaminants to eliminate through the system. Indeed, the emerging pollutants in forms of antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) have remained prevalent in aquatic environments such as wetlands that receive ARG-loaded sewage. Therefore, this chapter covers a discussion on constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment and challenges of emerging contaminants, such as resistant genes filtration and reloading mechanisms, and provides recommendation for the proper handling and removal of such pollutants from the wetlands’ functional system.",book:{id:"9660",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",title:"Inland Waters",fullTitle:"Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology"},signatures:"Donde Oscar Omondi and Atalitsa Caren Navalia",authors:[{id:"316539",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Donde",slug:"oscar-donde",fullName:"Oscar Donde"},{id:"320769",title:"Ms.",name:"Caren",middleName:null,surname:"Atalitsa",slug:"caren-atalitsa",fullName:"Caren Atalitsa"}]},{id:"60120",title:"Assessment of Heavy Metals Contamination in Groundwater: A Case Study of the South of Setif Area, East Algeria",slug:"assessment-of-heavy-metals-contamination-in-groundwater-a-case-study-of-the-south-of-setif-area-east",totalDownloads:1936,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Heavy metals in groundwater were analyzed and their sources and impacts were identified using multivariate statistical tools and risk assessment. Three significant factors were extracted by factor analysis (FA), explaining 75.69% of total variance. These factors were in turn described by the clusters C3, C2 and C1, respectively, resulting from the cluster analysis (CA). Factor analysis and cluster analysis revealed significant anthropogenic contributions and water-rock interaction effects of the metals in groundwater. The mean values of heavy metal evaluation index (HEI) and degree of contamination (Cdeg) indices indicated that the groundwater samples were contaminated with high degree of pollution by cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb). The hazard quotients (via ingestion) of Cd and Pb were found to be higher than the safe limits, posing threat to the consumers. However, no risk related to the dermal contact was associated with the measured metal levels.",book:{id:"6401",slug:"achievements-and-challenges-of-integrated-river-basin-management",title:"Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management",fullTitle:"Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management"},signatures:"Lazhar Belkhiri, Ammar Tiri and Lotfi Mouni",authors:[{id:"214036",title:"Dr.",name:"Lazhar",middleName:null,surname:"Belkhiri",slug:"lazhar-belkhiri",fullName:"Lazhar Belkhiri"},{id:"214668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ammar",middleName:null,surname:"Tiri",slug:"ammar-tiri",fullName:"Ammar Tiri"},{id:"214669",title:"Dr.",name:"Lotfi",middleName:null,surname:"Mouni",slug:"lotfi-mouni",fullName:"Lotfi Mouni"}]},{id:"60069",title:"Monitoring of Meteorological, Hydrological Conditions and Water Quality of the Main Tributaries of the Transboundary Amu Darya River",slug:"monitoring-of-meteorological-hydrological-conditions-and-water-quality-of-the-main-tributaries-of-th",totalDownloads:1166,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The results of monitoring of meteorological, hydrological parameters and hydrochemistry of the main tributaries of the transboundary Amu Darya River, the Vakhsh, Zeravshan and Pyanj rivers are presented. The influence of climate change on the meteorological characteristics of river basins has been observed. The need for coordination of Central Asian countries in the implementation of integrated water resources management is suggested. It is pointed out that the lack of a developed network of hydrometeorological observation points and a low level of information exchange among the countries of the region often leads to the emergence of scientifically unjustified scenarios and forecasts of climatic and hydrological processes in the region. The creation of a single regional center for cryosphere and hydrometeorological observations for continuous monitoring of processes occurring with water objects in the region is proposed.",book:{id:"6401",slug:"achievements-and-challenges-of-integrated-river-basin-management",title:"Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management",fullTitle:"Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management"},signatures:"Parviz I. Normatov and Inom Sh. Normatov",authors:[{id:"214149",title:"Prof.",name:"Inom",middleName:null,surname:"Normatov",slug:"inom-normatov",fullName:"Inom Normatov"},{id:"214152",title:"Dr.",name:"Parviz",middleName:null,surname:"Normatov",slug:"parviz-normatov",fullName:"Parviz Normatov"}]},{id:"71449",title:"Assessment of the CHIRPS-Based Satellite Precipitation Estimates",slug:"assessment-of-the-chirps-based-satellite-precipitation-estimates",totalDownloads:840,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"At present, satellite rainfall products, such as the Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Stations (CHIRPS) product, have become an alternative source of rainfall data for regions where rain gauge stations are sparse, e.g., Northeast Brazil (NEB). In this study, continuous scores (i.e., Pearson’s correlation coefficient, R; percentage bias, PBIAS; and unbiased root mean square error, ubRMSE) and categorical scores (i.e., probability of detection, POD; false alarm ratio, FAR; and threat score, TS) were used to assess the CHIRPS rainfall estimates against ground-based observations on a pixel-to-station basis, during 01 January 1981 to 30 June 2019 over NEB. Results showed that CHIRPS exhibits better performance in inland regions (R, PBIAS, and ubRMSE median: 0.51, −3.71%, and 9.20 mm/day; POD, FAR, and TS median: 0.59, 0.44, and 0.40, respectively) than near the coast (R, PBIAS, and ubRMSE median: 0.36, −5.66%, and 12.43 mm/day; POD, FAR, and TS median: 0.32, 0.42, and 0.26, respectively). It shows better performance in the wettest months (i.e., DJF) than in the driest months (i.e., JJA) and is sensitive to both the warm-top stratiform cloud systems and the sub-cloud evaporation processes. Overall, the CHIRPS rainfall data set could be used for some operational purposes in NEB.",book:{id:"9660",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",title:"Inland Waters",fullTitle:"Inland Waters - Dynamics and Ecology"},signatures:"Franklin Paredes-Trejo, Humberto Alves Barbosa, Tumuluru Venkata Lakshmi Kumar, Manoj Kumar Thakur and Catarina de Oliveira Buriti",authors:[{id:"66233",title:"Prof.",name:"Humberto",middleName:"Alves",surname:"Barbosa",slug:"humberto-barbosa",fullName:"Humberto Barbosa"},{id:"75701",title:"Dr.",name:"T. V. Lakshmi",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"t.-v.-lakshmi-kumar",fullName:"T. V. Lakshmi Kumar"},{id:"291246",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Thakur",slug:"manoj-kumar-thakur",fullName:"Manoj Kumar Thakur"},{id:"291318",title:"Dr.",name:"Franklin",middleName:"Javier",surname:"Paredes",slug:"franklin-paredes",fullName:"Franklin Paredes"},{id:"318058",title:"Dr.",name:"Catarina",middleName:null,surname:"Buriti",slug:"catarina-buriti",fullName:"Catarina Buriti"}]},{id:"64836",title:"Importance of Optimum Water Quality Indices in Successful Frog Culture Practices",slug:"importance-of-optimum-water-quality-indices-in-successful-frog-culture-practices",totalDownloads:1035,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The optimum quality of water indices is extremely important for successful frog culture. Frogs excrete their excreta and skin debris in water. Therefore, it is necessary to regularly renew the water and clean the tanks and bays of rearing systems. Such care is necessary for the prevention and prophylaxis of diseases, which may cause severe mortalities. Bullfrogs need water of good physical and chemical quality, and thus, water quality indices must be measured before starting a breeding and rearing program. Additionally, the producers should have a good knowledge about the water quality before establishing a rearing system. Aquatic ecosystems are dynamic and even in small rearing water tanks, physical and chemical parameters are interrelated. For example, any change in dissolved oxygen level depends on the water temperature and atmospheric pressure. The dissolved oxygen level is almost 9.08 mg L−1 near sea side at a temperature of 20°C, whereas its concentration rises up to 10.07 mg L−1, if the temperature drops to 15°C, indicating that dissolved oxygen and water temperature are closely interrelated. Thus, physical and chemical parameters of water should be considered and analyzed together because all of these factors have a direct impact on the culture systems.",book:{id:"6888",slug:"limnology-some-new-aspects-of-inland-water-ecology",title:"Limnology",fullTitle:"Limnology - Some New Aspects of Inland Water Ecology"},signatures:"Cleber Fernando M. Mansano, Luiz Sérgio Vanzela, Juliana Heloisa P. Américo-Pinheiro, Beatrice I. Macente, Kifayat U. Khan, João Batista K. Fernandes, Danila Fernanda R. Frias and Marta V. De Stéfani",authors:[{id:"202719",title:"Dr.",name:"Cleber",middleName:null,surname:"Mansano",slug:"cleber-mansano",fullName:"Cleber Mansano"},{id:"202722",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice I.",middleName:null,surname:"Macente",slug:"beatrice-i.-macente",fullName:"Beatrice I. Macente"},{id:"202723",title:"Dr.",name:"Kifayat U.",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"kifayat-u.-khan",fullName:"Kifayat U. Khan"},{id:"203435",title:"Dr.",name:"João Batista K.",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",slug:"joao-batista-k.-fernandes",fullName:"João Batista K. Fernandes"},{id:"267341",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Sérgio",middleName:null,surname:"Vanzela",slug:"luiz-sergio-vanzela",fullName:"Luiz Sérgio Vanzela"},{id:"267342",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana Heloisa Pinê",middleName:null,surname:"Américo-Pinheiro",slug:"juliana-heloisa-pine-americo-pinheiro",fullName:"Juliana Heloisa Pinê Américo-Pinheiro"},{id:"267344",title:"Dr.",name:"Danila Fernanda Rodrigues",middleName:null,surname:"Frias",slug:"danila-fernanda-rodrigues-frias",fullName:"Danila Fernanda Rodrigues Frias"},{id:"267348",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta Verardino",middleName:null,surname:"De Stéfani",slug:"marta-verardino-de-stefani",fullName:"Marta Verardino De Stéfani"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"850",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:163,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"79782",title:"Avian Reproduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101185",signatures:"Kingsley Omogiade Idahor",slug:"avian-reproduction",totalDownloads:149,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Kingsley O.",surname:"Idahor"}],book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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