Medical Research Council (MRC) grading of muscle strength.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5518",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Holographic Materials and Optical Systems",title:"Holographic Materials and Optical Systems",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Holographic Materials and Optical Systems covers recent research achievements in the areas of volume holographic optical elements and systems, development of functionalized holographic recording materials, and applications in holographic imaging and metrology. Designs of single and multiplexed volume holographic optical elements for laser beam shaping, combining, and redirection are covered, and their properties are studied theoretically and experimentally. The high impact of holography in imaging and metrology is demonstrated by applications spreading from thickness and surface measurements, through antenna metrology and analyzing high-density gradients in fluid mechanics to characterization of live objects in clinical diagnostics. Novel functionalized materials used in dynamic or permanent holographic recording cover photopolymers, photochromics, photo-thermo-refractive glasses, and hybrid organic-inorganic media.",isbn:"978-953-51-3038-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3037-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5792-2",doi:"10.5772/63255",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"holographic-materials-and-optical-systems",numberOfPages:518,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b028b2c4c816f05035ff7fb7178fc04b",bookSignature:"Izabela Naydenova, Dimana Nazarova and Tsvetanka Babeva",publishedDate:"March 22nd 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5518.jpg",numberOfDownloads:42923,numberOfWosCitations:70,numberOfCrossrefCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:9,numberOfDimensionsCitations:80,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:9,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:189,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 10th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 31st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 3rd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"32332",title:"Prof.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Naydenova",slug:"izabela-naydenova",fullName:"Izabela Naydenova",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32332/images/1700_n.png",biography:"Prof. Izabela Naydenova received her MSc in applied optics from the University of Sofia in 1993 and PhD in physics from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in 1999. She worked as a Postdoctoral researcher at the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, (1999-2002). Dr Naydenova joined the Centre for Industrial and Engineering Optics, Dublin Institute of Technology as an Arnold F. Graves postdoctoral research fellow in October 2002 and took up current position as a Lecturer in the School of Physics, Dublin Institute of Technology in September 2008. Her current research interests are in holographic recording materials, with a particular focus on photopolymer nanocomposites and self-processing photopolymers, and their applications in holographic sensing, holographic data storage, optical micro patterning and micromanipulation, the design and fabrication of diffractive optical devices by dye deposition lithography. Izabela Naydenova is the author and co-author of more than hundred full length articles and five book chapters on holography related topics.",institutionString:null,position:"Lecturer",outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"186885",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsvetanka",middleName:null,surname:"Babeva",slug:"tsvetanka-babeva",fullName:"Tsvetanka Babeva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186885/images/5289_n.jpg",biography:"Tsvetanka Babeva is currently Full Professor and Deputy Director of Institute of Optical Materials and Technology at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria. She received her PhD in Physics from Bulgarian Academy of Science in 2003 and her habilitation in 2010. Her professional experience includes 18 years as a scientist in Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and 27 months as Arnold F. Graves fellow in Centre of Industrial and Engineering Optics at Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland. Her present research is devoted to optical characterization of thin films and developing of porous materials and photonic structures for optical sensing applications.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"186886",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimana",middleName:null,surname:"Nazarova",slug:"dimana-nazarova",fullName:"Dimana Nazarova",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186886/images/5290_n.jpg",biography:'Dr. Dimana Nazarova is associate professor in Institute of Optical Materials and Technologies \\"Acad. Jordan Malinovski\\" - Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia. Currently she is a head of department \\"Optical metrology and holography \\". She received her first MSc in applied optics from the Sofia University and her second MSc in finance from the University of National and World Economy in Sofia. Dimana Nazarova received her PhD in physics from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in 2009. Her research interests are focused on holographic recording materials, optical metrology and optical plasmon-polariton resonances, and more specifically in azopolymers and azopolymer nanocomposites and their applications in holographic data storage.',institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"568",title:"Computer Technology",slug:"human-computer-interaction-computer-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"53618",title:"Volume Holography: Novel Materials, Methods and Applications",doi:"10.5772/67001",slug:"volume-holography-novel-materials-methods-and-applications",totalDownloads:3005,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter aims to establish a link between material compositions, analytical methods and advanced applications for volume holography. It provides basics on volume holography, serving as a compendium on volume holographic grating formation, specific material requirements for volume holography and diffractive properties of the different types of volume holographic gratings. The particular significance of three‐dimensional optical structuring for the final optical functionality is highlighted. In this context, the interrelation between function and structure of volume holograms is investigated with view to research on and development of novel materials, methods and applications. Particular emphasis will be placed on analytical methods, assuming that they provide access for a deeper understanding of volume holographic grating formation, which appears to be prerequisite for the design of novel material systems for advanced applications.",signatures:"Tina Sabel and Marga C. Lensen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53618",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53618",authors:[{id:"56428",title:"Prof.",name:"Marga",surname:"Lensen",slug:"marga-lensen",fullName:"Marga Lensen"},{id:"192619",title:"Dr.",name:"Tina",surname:"Sabel",slug:"tina-sabel",fullName:"Tina Sabel"}],corrections:null},{id:"52974",title:"Volume Holographic Optical Elements as Solar Concentrators",doi:"10.5772/66200",slug:"volume-holographic-optical-elements-as-solar-concentrators",totalDownloads:1985,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we investigate the possibility to realize a holographic solar concentrator by using a new photopolymeric material as recording medium. Therefore, two different configurations of holographic lenses (lenses with spherical and cylindrical symmetry) are described in terms of both recording process and optical response characterization. Finally, we propose the possibility to use this new photopolymer to realize holographic solar concentrator for space applications.",signatures:"Maria Antonietta Ferrara, Gaetano Bianco, Fabio Borbone, Roberto\nCentore, Valerio Striano and Giuseppe Coppola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52974",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52974",authors:[{id:"104314",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Antonietta",surname:"Ferrara",slug:"maria-antonietta-ferrara",fullName:"Maria Antonietta Ferrara"},{id:"106792",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Coppola",slug:"giuseppe-coppola",fullName:"Giuseppe Coppola"},{id:"192658",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaetano",surname:"Bianco",slug:"gaetano-bianco",fullName:"Gaetano Bianco"},{id:"192659",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Borbone",slug:"fabio-borbone",fullName:"Fabio Borbone"},{id:"192660",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Centore",slug:"roberto-centore",fullName:"Roberto Centore"},{id:"192661",title:"Dr.",name:"Valerio",surname:"Striano",slug:"valerio-striano",fullName:"Valerio Striano"}],corrections:null},{id:"53837",title:"Volume Bragg Gratings: Fundamentals and Applications in Laser Beam Combining and Beam Phase Transformations",doi:"10.5772/66958",slug:"volume-bragg-gratings-fundamentals-and-applications-in-laser-beam-combining-and-beam-phase-transform",totalDownloads:3124,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Two major volume Bragg grating (VBG) applications will be presented and in particular laser beam combining and holographically encoded phase masks. Laser beam combining is an approach where multiple lasers are combined to produce more power. Spectral beam combining is a technique in which different wavelengths are superimposed spatially (combined) using a dispersive element such as a volume Bragg grating. To reduce the complexity of such combining system instead of multiple individual VBGs, it will be demonstrated that a single holographic element with multiple VBGs recorded inside could be used for the same purpose. Similar multiplex volume holographic elements could be used for coherent beam combining. In this case, the gratings operate at the same wavelength and have degenerate output. Such coherent combining using gratings written in photothermo-refractive (PTR) glass will be discussed. The chapter also demonstrates that binary phase profiles may be encoded into volume Bragg gratings, and that for any probe beam capable of satisfying the Bragg condition of the hologram, this phase profile will be present in the diffracted beam. A multiplexed set of these holographic phase masks (HPMs) can simultaneously combine beams while also performing mode conversion. An approach for making HPMs fully achromatic by combining them with a pair of surface gratings will be outlined.",signatures:"Ivan Divliansky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53837",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53837",authors:[{id:"192442",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Divliansky",slug:"ivan-divliansky",fullName:"Ivan Divliansky"}],corrections:null},{id:"54405",title:"Holographically Recorded Low Spatial Frequency Volume Bragg Gratings and Holographic Optical Elements",doi:"10.5772/67296",slug:"holographically-recorded-low-spatial-frequency-volume-bragg-gratings-and-holographic-optical-element",totalDownloads:2054,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Low spatial frequency volume gratings (a few hundred lines per millimetre) are near the borderline of what can be considered Bragg gratings. Nevertheless, in some applications, their very low selectivity can be a benefit because it increases the angular and spectral working range of the holographic optical element. This chapter presents work carried out using an instantaneously selfdeveloping photopolymer recording material and examines holographic optical elements with spatial frequencies below 500 lines/mm. The advantages of volume photopolymer holographic gratings are discussed in the context of existing research. Specific examples explored include a combination of off‐axis cylindrical lenses used to direct light from a solar simulator onto a c‐Si solar cell, producing increases of up to 60% in the energy collected. A study of the microstructure of such elements is also presented. A good fit is obtained between the experimental and theoretical Bragg curves and the microstructure of the element is examined directly using microscopy. This is followed by a discussion of an unusual holographic recording approach that uses the nonlinearities inherent in low spatial frequency grating profiles to record gratings using a single beam. In conclusion, the properties of low spatial frequency volume gratings are summarized and future development discussed.",signatures:"Suzanne Martin, Hoda Akbari, Sanjay Keshri, Dennis Bade, Izabela\nNaydenova, Kevin Murphy and Vincent Toal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54405",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54405",authors:[{id:"32332",title:"Prof.",name:"Izabela",surname:"Naydenova",slug:"izabela-naydenova",fullName:"Izabela Naydenova"},{id:"191835",title:"Dr.",name:"Suzanne",surname:"Martin",slug:"suzanne-martin",fullName:"Suzanne Martin"},{id:"193782",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoda",surname:"Akbari",slug:"hoda-akbari",fullName:"Hoda Akbari"},{id:"193783",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",surname:"Toal",slug:"vincent-toal",fullName:"Vincent Toal"},{id:"193784",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sanjay",surname:"Keshri",slug:"sanjay-keshri",fullName:"Sanjay Keshri"},{id:"193785",title:"Dr.",name:"Dennis",surname:"Bade",slug:"dennis-bade",fullName:"Dennis Bade"},{id:"193786",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",surname:"Murphy",slug:"kevin-murphy",fullName:"Kevin Murphy"}],corrections:null},{id:"54090",title:"Holographic Optical Elements and Application",doi:"10.5772/67297",slug:"holographic-optical-elements-and-application",totalDownloads:3825,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Holographic optical element has a high diffraction efficiency and a narrow-band frequency characteristic, and it has a characteristic that is able to implement several features in a single flat device. It is widely applied in various fields. In this chapter, the principle and characteristics of the holographic optical elements are described in detail, and few typical holographic optical element-based applications, such as head-mounted display, lens array, and solar concentrator, are introduced. Finally, the futuristic research concepts for holographic optical element-based applications and contents are discussed.",signatures:"Nam Kim, Yan-Ling Piao and Hui-Ying Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54090",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54090",authors:[{id:"36088",title:"Prof.",name:"Nam",surname:"Kim",slug:"nam-kim",fullName:"Nam Kim"},{id:"195375",title:"MSc.",name:"Yanling",surname:"Piao",slug:"yanling-piao",fullName:"Yanling Piao"},{id:"195376",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Huiying",surname:"Wu",slug:"huiying-wu",fullName:"Huiying Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"53838",title:"Holographic Data Storage Using Parallel-Aligned Liquid Crystal on Silicon Displays",doi:"10.5772/67158",slug:"holographic-data-storage-using-parallel-aligned-liquid-crystal-on-silicon-displays",totalDownloads:1407,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The parallel-aligned liquid crystal on silicon (PA-LCoS) microdisplay has become a widely used device for the photonics community. It is a very versatile tool that can perform several tasks which transforms it into a key element in many different photonics applications. Since our group is interested in holography, in this chapter, we want to use these displays as the data entry point for a holographic data storage system (HDSS). Due to the novelty of this kind of device, we have done an intense work characterizing it. These efforts are reflected in this chapter where the reader will find two different characterization methods that will enable to predict the performance of the device in a specific application. Additionally, we present how a phase-only device can be used as a data pager using different modulation schemes and combined with a photopolymer as the holographic recording material.",signatures:"Francisco J. Martínez Guardiola, Andrés Márquez Ruiz, Sergi\nGallego Rico, Roberto Fernández Fernández, Jorge Francés Monllor,\nManuel Ortuño Sánchez, Inmaculada Pascual Villalobos and\nAugusto Beléndez Vázquez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53838",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53838",authors:[{id:"46619",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrés",surname:"Márquez",slug:"andres-marquez",fullName:"Andrés Márquez"},{id:"191593",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Martínez",slug:"francisco-javier-martinez",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martínez"},{id:"192588",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergi",surname:"Gallego",slug:"sergi-gallego",fullName:"Sergi Gallego"},{id:"192589",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Fernández",slug:"roberto-fernandez",fullName:"Roberto Fernández"},{id:"192590",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Francés",slug:"jorge-frances",fullName:"Jorge Francés"},{id:"192591",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Ortuño",slug:"manuel-ortuno",fullName:"Manuel Ortuño"},{id:"192592",title:"Prof.",name:"Inmaculada",surname:"Pascual",slug:"inmaculada-pascual",fullName:"Inmaculada Pascual"},{id:"192593",title:"Prof.",name:"Augusto",surname:"Beléndez",slug:"augusto-belendez",fullName:"Augusto Beléndez"}],corrections:null},{id:"53642",title:"Microtopography and Thickness Measurement with Digital Holographic Microscopy Highlighting and Its Tomographic Capacity",doi:"10.5772/66750",slug:"microtopography-and-thickness-measurement-with-digital-holographic-microscopy-highlighting-and-its-t",totalDownloads:1671,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The refocusing capacity is a unique feature of digital holography. In this chapter, we show the capability of reconstructing digital holograms at different planes for different purposes. One of such purposes is to increase the focus depth of the microscope system. First, we show experimental results of the feasibility to perform digital holographic microscopy (DHM) using a Mirau interferometric objective. A profile phase comparison of a 4.2 μm high microlens using interferometry and DHM, extending the depth of focus of the microscope objective as proof of the proposal, is presented. Second, it is also useful in reducing shot noise when using an LED as a light source. In order to attain the reduction noise, we performed an averaging process of phase and amplitude images reconstructed at different reconstruction distances. This reconstruction range is performed within the focus depth of the optical system. We get a reduction of 50% shot noise. Finally, we show a strategy based on this tomographic capability of reducing a ringing effect by using an ideal filter in off‐axis digital holography.",signatures:"Miguel León-Rodríguez, Juan A. Rayas-Alvarez, Amalia Martínez-\nGarcía and Raúl R. Cordero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53642",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53642",authors:[{id:"104100",title:"Dr.",name:"Amalia",surname:"Martínez-García",slug:"amalia-martinez-garcia",fullName:"Amalia Martínez-García"},{id:"192687",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Miguel",surname:"León-Rodríguez",slug:"miguel-leon-rodriguez",fullName:"Miguel León-Rodríguez"},{id:"193150",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Rayas",slug:"juan-rayas",fullName:"Juan Rayas"},{id:"193151",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl R.",surname:"Cordero",slug:"raul-r.-cordero",fullName:"Raúl R. Cordero"}],corrections:null},{id:"53479",title:"3D Capture and 3D Contents Generation for Holographic Imaging",doi:"10.5772/65904",slug:"3d-capture-and-3d-contents-generation-for-holographic-imaging",totalDownloads:2245,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The intrinsic properties of holograms make 3D holographic imaging the best candidate for a 3D display. The holographic display is an autostereoscopic display which provides highly realistic images with unique perspective for an arbitrary number of viewers, motion parallax both vertically and horizontally, and focusing at different depths. The 3D content generation for this display is carried out by means of digital holography. Digital holography implements the classic holographic principle as a two‐step process of wavefront capture in the form of a 2D interference pattern and wavefront reconstruction by applying numerically or optically a reference wave. The chapter follows the two main tendencies in forming the 3D holographic content—direct feeding of optically recorded digital holograms to a holographic display and computer generation of interference fringes from directional, depth and colour information about the 3D objects. The focus is set on important issues that comprise encoding of 3D information for holographic imaging starting from conversion of optically captured holographic data to the display data format, going through different approaches for forming the content for computer generation of holograms from coherently or incoherently captured 3D data and finishing with methods for the accelerated computing of these holograms.",signatures:"Elena Stoykova, Hoonjong Kang, Youngmin Kim, Joosup Park,\nSunghee Hong and Jisoo Hong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53479",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53479",authors:[{id:"159421",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoonjong",surname:"Kang",slug:"hoonjong-kang",fullName:"Hoonjong Kang"},{id:"159423",title:"Dr.",name:"Sung Hee",surname:"Hong",slug:"sung-hee-hong",fullName:"Sung Hee Hong"},{id:"166139",title:"Dr.",name:"Youngmin",surname:"Kim",slug:"youngmin-kim",fullName:"Youngmin Kim"},{id:"192818",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",surname:"Stoykova",slug:"elena-stoykova",fullName:"Elena Stoykova"},{id:"195834",title:"Ms.",name:"Joosup",surname:"Park",slug:"joosup-park",fullName:"Joosup Park"},{id:"195835",title:"Dr.",name:"Jisoo",surname:"Hong",slug:"jisoo-hong",fullName:"Jisoo Hong"}],corrections:null},{id:"54085",title:"Multiwavelength Digital Holography and Phase-Shifting Interferometry Selectively Extracting Wavelength Information: Phase-Division Multiplexing (PDM) of Wavelengths",doi:"10.5772/67295",slug:"multiwavelength-digital-holography-and-phase-shifting-interferometry-selectively-extracting-waveleng",totalDownloads:2069,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we introduce multiwavelength digital holographic techniques and a novel multiwavelength imaging technique. General multiwavelength imaging systems adopt temporal division, spatial division, or space-division multiplexing to obtain wavelength information. Holographic techniques give us unique multiwavelength imaging systems, which utilize temporal or spatial frequency-division multiplexing. Conventional multiwavelength digital holography systems have been combined with one of the methods listed above. We have proposed phase-shifting interferometry selectively extracting wavelength information, characterized as a multiwavelength three-dimensional (3D) imaging technique based on holography and called phase-division multiplexing (PDM) of multiple wavelengths. In PDM, wavelength-multiplexed phase-shifted holograms are recorded, and multiwavelength information is separately extracted from the holograms in the space domain. Phase shifts are introduced for respective wavelengths to separate object waves with multiple wavelengths in the polar coordinate plane, and multiple object waves are selectively extracted by the signal processing based on phase-shifting interferometry. Additionally, the system of equations needed to obtain a multiwavelength 3D image is solved with less wavelength-multiplexed images using two-step phase-shifting interferometry-merged phase-division multiplexing (2π-PDM), which makes the best use of 2π ambiguity of the phase and two-step phase-shifting method. The PDM techniques are reviewed and color 3D imaging ability is described with numerical and experimental results.",signatures:"Tatsuki Tahara, Reo Otani, Yasuhiko Arai and Yasuhiro Takaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54085",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54085",authors:[{id:"191368",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tatsuki",surname:"Tahara",slug:"tatsuki-tahara",fullName:"Tatsuki Tahara"}],corrections:null},{id:"53468",title:"Dynamic Imaging with X-ray Holography",doi:"10.5772/66689",slug:"dynamic-imaging-with-x-ray-holography",totalDownloads:1643,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"X-ray holography is a type of coherent diffractive imaging where the phase information is physically encoded in the diffraction pattern by means of interference with a reference beam. The image of the diffracting specimen is obtained by a single Fourier transform of the interference pattern. X-ray holography is particularly well-suited for high resolution dynamic imaging because, intrinsically, the reconstructed image does not drift and the images show high contrast. Therefore, the motion of features between two images can be determined with a precision of better than 3 nm, as demonstrated recently. In this chapter, the technical aspects of X-ray holography are discussed from an end user perspective, focusing on what is required to obtain a high quality image in a short time. Specifically, the chapter discusses the key challenges of the technique, such as sample design and fabrication, beam requirements, suitable end stations, and how to implement pump-probe dynamic imaging. Good imaging parameters were found using simulations and experiments, and it is demonstrated how a deviation from the optimum value affects the image quality.",signatures:"Felix Büttner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53468",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53468",authors:[{id:"191423",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Buettner",slug:"felix-buettner",fullName:"Felix Buettner"}],corrections:null},{id:"54092",title:"Indirect Off-Axis Holography for Antenna Metrology",doi:"10.5772/67294",slug:"indirect-off-axis-holography-for-antenna-metrology",totalDownloads:2058,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Phase acquisition in antenna measurement, especially at millimeter- and submillimeter-wave frequencies, is an expensive and challenging task. The need of a steady phase reference demands not only a very stable source but unvarying temperature conditions and strong positioning accuracy requirements. Indirect off-axis holography is an interferometric technique that allows for characterization of an unknown field by means of a simple filtering process of the hologram or intensity interference pattern in the spectral domain, provided that the reference field, employed to interfere with the unknown field, is known in amplitude and phase. This technique can be used to avoid the effect of the errors related to the phase acquisition and to further develop new efficient and robust techniques capable of phase retrieval from amplitude-only acquisitions allowing for cost and complexity reduction of the measurement setup. A short review of the state-of-the-art in antenna metrology is presented in this chapter, as well as a description of conventional indirect off-axis techniques applied to this field. Last sections are devoted to the description of novel measurement techniques developed by the authors in order to overcome the main limitations of the conventional methods.",signatures:"Ana Arboleya, Jaime Laviada, Juha Ala-Laurinaho, Yuri Álvarez,\nFernando Las-Heras and Antti V. Räisänen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54092",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54092",authors:[{id:"35795",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Las-Heras",slug:"fernando-las-heras",fullName:"Fernando Las-Heras"},{id:"151926",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Laviada-Martinez",slug:"jaime-laviada-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Laviada-Martinez"},{id:"191702",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Arboleya",slug:"ana-arboleya",fullName:"Ana Arboleya"},{id:"192399",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",surname:"Álvarez",slug:"yuri-alvarez",fullName:"Yuri Álvarez"},{id:"195296",title:"Dr.",name:"Juha",surname:"Ala-Laurinaho",slug:"juha-ala-laurinaho",fullName:"Juha Ala-Laurinaho"},{id:"195297",title:"Prof.",name:"Antti V.",surname:"Räisänen",slug:"antti-v.-raisanen",fullName:"Antti V. Räisänen"}],corrections:null},{id:"52987",title:"Surface Characterization by the Use of Digital Holography",doi:"10.5772/66082",slug:"surface-characterization-by-the-use-of-digital-holography",totalDownloads:1635,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Digital holography (DH) is an attractive measuring optical technique in the fields of engineering and science due to its remarkable accuracy and efficiency. The holograms are recorded by an interferometer and reconstructed by numerical methods such as Fresnel transform, convolution approach, and angular spectrum. Because harmful coherent noise often arises when long coherent lengths are used, bright femtosecond pulse light with ultrashort coherent length may be the solution to reduce both spurious and speckle noises. Since the usual DH uses a visible light, it is difficult to visualize 3D internal structure of visibly opaque objects due to their limited penetration depth. The terahertz (THz) radiation has a good penetration capability; thus, 3D visualization of both surface shape and internal structure in visibly opaque object can be achieved via THz-DH technique.",signatures:"Dahi Ghareab Abdelsalam, Takeshi Yasui, Takayuki Ogawa and\nBaoli Yao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52987",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52987",authors:[{id:"39011",title:"Prof.",name:"Baoli",surname:"Yao",slug:"baoli-yao",fullName:"Baoli Yao"},{id:"191708",title:"Prof.",name:"Dahi",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"dahi-ibrahim",fullName:"Dahi Ibrahim"}],corrections:null},{id:"52907",title:"Digital Holographic Interferometry for Analysing High‐Density Gradients in Fluid Mechanics",doi:"10.5772/66111",slug:"digital-holographic-interferometry-for-analysing-high-density-gradients-in-fluid-mechanics",totalDownloads:1617,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Digital holographic interferometry has been developed by ONERA for analysing high refractive index variations encountered in fluid mechanics. First, the authors present the analysis of a small supersonic jet using three different optical techniques based on digital Michelson holography, digital holography using Wollaston prisms and digital holography without reference wave. A comparison of the three methods is given. Then, two different interferometers are described for analysing high‐density gradients encountered in high subsonic and transonic flows. The time evolution of the gas density field around a circular cylinder is given at Mach 0.7. Finally, a digital holographic method is presented to visualize and measure the refractive index variations occurring inside a transparent and strongly refracting object. For this case, a comparison with digital and image holographic interferometry using transmission and reflection holograms is provided.",signatures:"Jean‐Michel Desse and François Olchewsky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52907",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52907",authors:[{id:"36145",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Michel",surname:"Desse",slug:"jean-michel-desse",fullName:"Jean-Michel Desse"},{id:"195263",title:"Mr.",name:"François",surname:"Olchewsky",slug:"francois-olchewsky",fullName:"François Olchewsky"}],corrections:null},{id:"53093",title:"Holography: The Usefulness of Digital Holographic Microscopy for Clinical Diagnostics",doi:"10.5772/66042",slug:"holography-the-usefulness-of-digital-holographic-microscopy-for-clinical-diagnostics",totalDownloads:2263,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Digital holographic (DH) microscopy is a digital high-resolution holographic imaging technique with the capacity of quantification of cellular conditions without any staining or labeling of cells. The unique measurable parameters are the cell number, cell area, thickness, and volume, which can be coupled to proliferation, migration, cell cycle analysis, viability, and cell death. The technique is cell friendly, fast and simple to use and has unique imaging capabilities for time-lapse investigations on both the single cell and the cell-population levels. The interest for analyzing specifically cell volume changes with DH microscopy, resulting from cytotoxic treatments, drug response, or apoptosis events has recently increased in popularity. We and others have used DH microscopy showing that the technique has the sensitivity to distinguish between different cells and treatments. Recently, DH microscopy has been used for cellular diagnosis in the clinic, providing support for using the concept of DH, e.g., screening of malaria infection of red blood cells (RBC), cervix cancer screening, and sperm quality. Because of its quick and label-free sample handling, DH microscopy will be an important tool in the future for personalized medicine investigations, determining the optimal therapeutic concentration for both different cancer types and individual treatments.",signatures:"Zahra El-Schich, Sofia Kamlund, Birgit Janicke, Kersti Alm and\nAnette Gjörloff Wingren",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53093",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53093",authors:[{id:"20513",title:"Dr.",name:"Anette",surname:"Gjörloff Wingren",slug:"anette-gjorloff-wingren",fullName:"Anette Gjörloff Wingren"},{id:"20514",title:"Dr.",name:"Birgit",surname:"Janicke",slug:"birgit-janicke",fullName:"Birgit Janicke"},{id:"192836",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahra",surname:"El-Schich",slug:"zahra-el-schich",fullName:"Zahra El-Schich"},{id:"193114",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sofia",surname:"Kamlund",slug:"sofia-kamlund",fullName:"Sofia Kamlund"},{id:"193116",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kersti",surname:"Alm",slug:"kersti-alm",fullName:"Kersti Alm"}],corrections:null},{id:"54326",title:"Unlabeled Semen Analysis by Means of the Holographic Imaging",doi:"10.5772/67552",slug:"unlabeled-semen-analysis-by-means-of-the-holographic-imaging",totalDownloads:1535,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The morphology, the motility, and the biochemical structure of the spermatozoon have often been correlated with the outcome of in vitro fertilization and have been shown to be the sole parameters of the semen analysis in predicting the success of intracytoplasmic sperm injection and intracytoplasmic morphologically selected sperm injection. In this context, digital holography has demonstrated to be an attractive technique to perform a label-free, noninvasive, and high-resolution technique for characterization of live spermatozoa. The aim of this chapter is to summarize the recent achievements of digital holography in order to show its high potentiality as an efficient method for healthy and fertile sperm cell selection, without injuring the specimen and to explore new possible applications of digital holography in this field.",signatures:"Giuseppe Coppola, Maria Antonietta Ferrara, Giuseppe Di Caprio,\nGianfranco Coppola and Brian Dale",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54326",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54326",authors:[{id:"104314",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Antonietta",surname:"Ferrara",slug:"maria-antonietta-ferrara",fullName:"Maria Antonietta Ferrara"},{id:"106792",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Coppola",slug:"giuseppe-coppola",fullName:"Giuseppe Coppola"},{id:"195343",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Di Caprio",slug:"giuseppe-di-caprio",fullName:"Giuseppe Di Caprio"},{id:"195344",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianfranco",surname:"Coppola",slug:"gianfranco-coppola",fullName:"Gianfranco Coppola"},{id:"195345",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Dale",slug:"brian-dale",fullName:"Brian Dale"}],corrections:null},{id:"54099",title:"One-Step Holographic Photoalignment for Twisted Nematic Liquid Crystal Gratings",doi:"10.5772/67293",slug:"one-step-holographic-photoalignment-for-twisted-nematic-liquid-crystal-gratings",totalDownloads:1850,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Liquid crystal gratings, in which liquid crystal molecules are periodically aligned, are fabricated by highly efficient and practical one-step holographic photoalignment method using a photocrosslinkable polymer liquid crystal (PCLC). This method is an innovative fabrication technique for liquid crystal grating containing a twisted nematic alignment, which does not require a conventional complex fabrication process. In this chapter, three types of liquid crystal gratings with twisted nematic alignment are fabricated. Periodic director distributions of these liquid crystal gratings are analyzed based on the elastic continuum theory and observed experimentally using a polarized light optical microscope. Furthermore, the polarization diffraction properties were measured by illumination with a visible laser beam. The resultant liquid crystal gratings exhibit various polarization diffraction properties depending on the director distributions and the polarization states of the incident beams. These polarization diffraction properties are well explained by theoretical analysis based on Jones calculus. These resultant liquid crystal gratings exhibit great potential for application as a diffractive optical element that can simultaneously control the various parameters of the light wave, such as amplitude, polarization states, and propagation direction.",signatures:"Kotaro Kawai, Moritsugu Sakamoto, Kohei Noda, Tomoyuki Sasaki,\nNobuhiro Kawatsuki and Hiroshi Ono",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54099",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54099",authors:[{id:"44903",title:"Prof.",name:"Nobuhiro",surname:"Kawatsuki",slug:"nobuhiro-kawatsuki",fullName:"Nobuhiro Kawatsuki"},{id:"44904",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Ono",slug:"hiroshi-ono",fullName:"Hiroshi Ono"},{id:"195307",title:"Mr.",name:"Kotaro",surname:"Kawai",slug:"kotaro-kawai",fullName:"Kotaro Kawai"},{id:"195308",title:"Dr.",name:"Moritsugu",surname:"Sakamoto",slug:"moritsugu-sakamoto",fullName:"Moritsugu Sakamoto"},{id:"195309",title:"Mr.",name:"Kohei",surname:"Noda",slug:"kohei-noda",fullName:"Kohei Noda"},{id:"195310",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomoyuki",surname:"Sasaki",slug:"tomoyuki-sasaki",fullName:"Tomoyuki Sasaki"}],corrections:null},{id:"52925",title:"Application of High Performance Photoinitiating Systems for Holographic Grating Recording",doi:"10.5772/66073",slug:"application-of-high-performance-photoinitiating-systems-for-holographic-grating-recording",totalDownloads:2445,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a compilation of different systems able to photogenerate active radicals toward polymerization reaction( type I, type II and three component photoinitiating systems) for application in holographic grating recording when associated to monomers is reviewed. In particular, the visible curable system is associated to fluorinated acrylate monomers formulation for creation of transmission gratings. The PIS efficiencies are presented in term of diffraction grating yields and compared to photopolymerization experiments. The special case of photocyclic initiating systems is described in details, its influence on the grating built up being discussed on the basis of selected mixtures using visible dyes, electron donors (e.g. amines), electron acceptors (e.g. iodonium salts) or hydrogen donors as coinitiators. The role of the photochemical properties of dye on the performance of the holographic recording material is investigated through time resolved and steady state spectroscopic studies of the PIS (e.g. nanosecond laser flash photolysis), to highlight the photochemistry underlying active radicals photogeneration. In order to get more insight into the hologram formation, grating formation curves were compared to those of monomer to polymer conversion obtained by real time Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (RTFTIR). This work outlines the importance of the coupling between the photoinitiating system (i.e. the photochemical reactions) and the holographic resin.",signatures:"C. Ley, C. Carré, A. Ibrahim and X. Allonas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52925",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52925",authors:[{id:"192542",title:"Prof.",name:"Xavier",surname:"Allonas",slug:"xavier-allonas",fullName:"Xavier Allonas"},{id:"195358",title:"Prof.",name:"Christian",surname:"Ley",slug:"christian-ley",fullName:"Christian Ley"},{id:"195359",title:"Dr.",name:"Christiane",surname:"Carré",slug:"christiane-carre",fullName:"Christiane Carré"},{id:"195360",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"ahmad-ibrahim",fullName:"Ahmad Ibrahim"}],corrections:null},{id:"53931",title:"Fluorite Crystals with Color Centers: A Medium for Recording Extremely Stable but Broadly Transformable Holograms",doi:"10.5772/66114",slug:"fluorite-crystals-with-color-centers-a-medium-for-recording-extremely-stable-but-broadly-transformab",totalDownloads:1637,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The mechanisms of (i) forming the photochromic color centers in fluorite crystals (“additive coloring”) and (ii) recording and transforming holograms through the use of their photochromism are described here. The diffusion‐drift mechanism of hologram recording in additively colored fluorite crystals determines the recording kinetics and properties of holograms. An important feature of holograms recorded in additively colored fluorite is an opportunity to perform the photothermal transformation of color centers under the incoherent optical radiation that results in nondestructive switching of the hologram between the amplitude, amplitude‐phase (in‐phase or counter‐phase), and phase types at a given readout wavelength. Possible applications of holographic elements based on the additively colored fluorite crystals are discussed.",signatures:"Aleksandr I. Ryskin, Aleksandr E. Angervaks and Andrei V.\nVeniaminov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53931",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53931",authors:[{id:"191902",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Ryskin",slug:"alexander-ryskin",fullName:"Alexander Ryskin"},{id:"191903",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandr",surname:"Angervaks",slug:"aleksandr-angervaks",fullName:"Aleksandr Angervaks"},{id:"191969",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Andrey",surname:"Veniaminov",slug:"andrey-veniaminov",fullName:"Andrey Veniaminov"}],corrections:null},{id:"52949",title:"New Photo-Thermo-Refractive Glasses for Holographic Optical Elements: Properties and Applications",doi:"10.5772/66116",slug:"new-photo-thermo-refractive-glasses-for-holographic-optical-elements-properties-and-applications",totalDownloads:1821,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a survey of recent achievements of the ITMO University (St. Petersburg, Russia) in developing new holographic media such as fluoride, chloride, and bromide silicate photo-thermo-refractive (PTR) glasses as well as the holographic diffractive optical elements that are the volume Bragg gratings recorded in the glasses for improving dramatically the parameters of laser systems of different types. The photo-thermo-induced crystallization process and the properties of fluoride, chloride, and bromide PTR glasses are demonstrated. This new technology enabled recording high-efficiency phase volume holograms in the optical quality silicate glass. These holograms are used for developing a number of unique diffractive optical elements that provide new opportunities for the laser technique. Some examples of designing and fabricating of holographic optical elements such as the super-narrowband filters for solid-state lasers and laser diodes, laser beam combiners, and collimator sights are demonstrated in this chapter. It is shown that the PTR glass doped with rare earth ions can be used for designing lasers with Bragg reflectors and distributed feedback.",signatures:"Nikonorov Nikolay, Ivanov Sergey, Dubrovin Victor and Ignatiev\nAlexander",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52949",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52949",authors:[{id:"71065",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Nikonorov",slug:"nikolay-nikonorov",fullName:"Nikolay Nikonorov"},{id:"191950",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergei",surname:"Ivanov",slug:"sergei-ivanov",fullName:"Sergei Ivanov"},{id:"192711",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Ignatiev",slug:"alexander-ignatiev",fullName:"Alexander Ignatiev"},{id:"192712",title:"Mr.",name:"Viktor",surname:"Dubrovin",slug:"viktor-dubrovin",fullName:"Viktor Dubrovin"}],corrections:null},{id:"54120",title:"Active Holography",doi:"10.5772/66435",slug:"active-holography",totalDownloads:1471,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The laser active structures with spatial modulation of lasing controlled by the transversely distributed excitation are implemented. The dye-doped cholesteric liquid crystal (DD CLC) and polymer were used as a laser active medium. The interference pattern of two coherent pumping beams was used for excitation of the laser layers. The second harmonic of a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser (532 nm) was used for the pumping. The interference pattern of the pumping light was located in the plane of the laser active layer. The emission of lasers was observed perpendicular to laser active layers from the opposite side of the incidence of the pumping light. The periodical character of the modulation of intensity along cross section of the lasing depends and corresponds to the parameters of the interference pattern of the pumping. So, the emitted light field qualitatively looks like a diffraction from an elementary hologram, and obtained lasers can be called as active elementary hologram.",signatures:"Zurab V. Wardosanidze",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54120",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54120",authors:[{id:"30074",title:"Dr.",name:"Zurab",surname:"Wardosanidze",slug:"zurab-wardosanidze",fullName:"Zurab Wardosanidze"}],corrections:null},{id:"54034",title:"Two-Wave Mixing in Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Structures for Dynamic Holography",doi:"10.5772/67190",slug:"two-wave-mixing-in-organic-inorganic-hybrid-structures-for-dynamic-holography",totalDownloads:1567,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter reviews recent progress of two-wave mixing in a novel organic-inorganic hybrid structures that combine essential properties as large anisotropy and strong birefringence, typical for organics with the excellent photosensitivity and photoconductivity of inorganics into single, compact devices. Depending on the designed assembly and operation principle, the proposed structures can record dynamic holographic gratings at Raman-Nath or Bragg regimes of diffraction, respectively. When the two beams interact in a structure based on a photoconductive material and birefringent layer (usually liquid crystal), the beam coupling with high amplification values occur in a liquid crystal layer, however, the fringe period of recorded holograms is limited to few μm scale. In contrast, when the two beams interact in a structure based on a photorefractive material and birefringent layer, the beam-coupling occurs in both composites, due to the surface activated photorefractive effect. The prime significance of the later structure is the ability to act as a holographic grating at Bragg regime allowing sub-micron spatial resolution. Moreover they are easy and simple to fabricate where the processes are all optically controlled. The above examples open scenarios to design new devices that meet the latest requirements of 3D display technologies and optical information processing.",signatures:"Vera Marinova, Shiuan Huei Lin and Ken Yuh Hsu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54034",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54034",authors:[{id:"193790",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vera",surname:"Marinova",slug:"vera-marinova",fullName:"Vera Marinova"},{id:"201914",title:"Prof.",name:"Shiuan Huei",surname:"Lin",slug:"shiuan-huei-lin",fullName:"Shiuan Huei Lin"},{id:"201915",title:"Prof.",name:"Ken Yuh",surname:"Hsu",slug:"ken-yuh-hsu",fullName:"Ken Yuh Hsu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"227",title:"Holograms",subtitle:"Recording Materials and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"387abdd08b8e746166708959cb92d246",slug:"holograms-recording-materials-and-applications",bookSignature:"Izabela Naydenova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/227.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32332",title:"Prof.",name:"Izabela",surname:"Naydenova",slug:"izabela-naydenova",fullName:"Izabela Naydenova"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"516",title:"Advanced Holography",subtitle:"Metrology and Imaging",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bbc41f37a1852fde0085f571ed18c9ca",slug:"advanced-holography-metrology-and-imaging",bookSignature:"Izabela Naydenova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/516.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32332",title:"Prof.",name:"Izabela",surname:"Naydenova",slug:"izabela-naydenova",fullName:"Izabela Naydenova"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"58",title:"Holography",subtitle:"Research and Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"holography-research-and-technologies",bookSignature:"Joseph Rosen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/58.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16544",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Rosen",slug:"joseph-rosen",fullName:"Joseph Rosen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3327",title:"Holography",subtitle:"Basic Principles and Contemporary Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7589c5eb833076268ef362804d998cf5",slug:"holography-basic-principles-and-contemporary-applications",bookSignature:"Emilia Mihaylova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3327.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"151277",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia",surname:"Mihaylova",slug:"emilia-mihaylova",fullName:"Emilia Mihaylova"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6120",title:"Human Computer Interaction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f44cfcfc500c43f07872e78045ab51c",slug:"human_computer_interaction",bookSignature:"Ioannis Pavlidis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"134973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Pavlidis",slug:"ioannis-pavlidis",fullName:"Ioannis Pavlidis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1960",title:"Semantics",subtitle:"Advances in Theories and Mathematical Models",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"62b864d16ddca1c2e1373c63e01b4835",slug:"semantics-advances-in-theories-and-mathematical-models",bookSignature:"Muhammad Tanvir Afzal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1960.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108253",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Tanvir",surname:"Afzal",slug:"muhammad-tanvir-afzal",fullName:"Muhammad Tanvir Afzal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2176",title:"Modern Speech Recognition",subtitle:"Approaches with Case Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5b7bf5acf914b5a023b47d690de0da52",slug:"modern-speech-recognition-approaches-with-case-studies",bookSignature:"S. 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Assessment of the individual with spasticity
Provision of education and promoting self-management
Physical management of spasticity(physiotherapy or occupational therapy)
Orthoses
Pharmacological intervention
Setting up a service
Accurate assessment of spasticity is the starting point to make a proper and valuable plan for this route. In addition to assessing physical changes, resistance to movement, weakness, and contractures, the impact of spasticity on the activities of daily life should be considered as well. These assessments should also be carried out in the follow-up visits. In some references, it is recommended to perform the assessments by a professional in this area in a multidisciplinary visit with a team of specialists and clinicians instead of assessments by different specialists in several visits. The assessment consists of two parts: history and physical examination.
The ultimate goal of assessment of history is to provide a thorough history that encompasses the impact of the disease on the patient’s communications and interactions with the environment and also covers all aspects of the disease. Therefore, the provision of a checklist is recommended (Appendix 1). In addition to the suggested questions, the answers to these two questions are very important in history taking and should be included in the treatment plan: Does the spasticity contribute to improving your performance? And is this spasticity a local problem or a generalized one?
The physical examination involves three steps, as follows.
For observation, it is recommended to evaluate the items of posture, alignment, presence of spontaneous spasms, seating if applicable, movement patterns when moving (e.g., walking, transferring or picking up objects), and pressure sores. However, observation alone is not enough and outcome measurements (Appendix 2) such as timed 10-meter walk test and goniometry are useful.
The grading scale of the Medical Research Council (MRC) (Table 1) can be used to assess both weakness and spasticity. However, its application in severe to moderate spasticity is difficult.
Grade | Definition |
---|---|
0 | No contraction |
1 | Flicker of contraction only |
2 | Active movement with gravity eliminated |
3 | Active movement against gravity |
4 | Active movement against gravity and resistance |
5 | Normal power |
Medical Research Council (MRC) grading of muscle strength.
Trunk and limb spasms are evaluated in this step. This assessment is usually performed using the Modified Ashworth scale. However, it may fail to distinguish between neuronal and non-neuronal causes of spasticity [1]; thus, the items addressed in Table 2 should be noted to avoid misinterpretation [2]. It is effective to use the Tardiu scale [3] to differentiate between the neuronal component and the non-neuronal one because of the evaluation at different velocities [4]; however, it is more time-consuming than the Ashworth test. It should be noted that the suggested tests are specified for spasticity evaluation in limbs, and if one of the patient’s chief complaints is trunk spasticity, the verbal or visual analog scales can be used as well as measuring the distance between two fixed points on the trunk in fast and slow trunk flexions by using a tape.
Perform three passive movements only and record the score of the resistance felt on the third movement |
The score is taken within the available range |
Move the limbs in the best alignment possible, record position and use when repeating measures |
Regulate the speed by counting 1001, 1002, 1003 |
Recommendations to standardize the measurement of the Ashworth scale.
It is important to use outcome measures in clinical evaluation; however, it is always challenging to maintain a balance between test simplicity and speed with its reliability and validity [5], so different tests and methods have been suggested with respect to the disease diagnosis. In this book, we recommend the outcome measure of the National Hospital of Neurology and Neurosurgery (NHNN) in London with a few modifications [2], which is typically used for patients with moderate to severe spasticity (Appendix 2).
When the assessment is over and the treatment plan is being outlined, any physician should ask himself an important question: “why should I treat this spasticity?” and the more important question is “what are the patient’s expectations of this treatment?” So the ultimate goal should be discussed with the patients and their caregivers to expect a realistic outcome. Since these goals are different for each patient, the following desires can be addressed: sitting comfortably in a wheelchair, adequate and comfortable night sleep, easier catheterization for bladder drainage, etc.
Different algorithms [6, 7, 8] have been developed for the evaluation of and therapeutic approach to spasticity; one of the most applied of them has been developed by Stevenson et al. [2] and is presented in Figure 1.
Therapeutic approach to spasticity.
Nowadays, it has been found that the patient’s awareness of the disease and the situation he/she is dealing with promotes the therapeutic process and interventions. This view and its results have also led to the development of courses known as Expert Patient Programmes [9]. The patient and his/her caregivers’ understandings of the medical conditions and therapeutic interventions are crucial and effective to the treatment and therapeutic protocol selection. This is especially because different therapeutic interventions for spasticity do not have a linear nature and several treatments are sometimes considered for the patient at the same time (Figure 1).
To improve the spasticity treatment efficacy, some instructions should be presented to the patient, either verbally or using a written material [10]. These instructions include the following:
Maintaining movement and adequate positioning and B) Recognizing and preventing factors that may aggravate or trigger spasticity and spasms.
Maintaining movement and adequate positioning:
A main factor in the spasticity treatment is to maintain the joints’ range of motion, which should be performed by the patient or his/her caregiver. Moreover, maintaining muscle length is the second factor that is usually achieved by stretching or splinting [8]. Thus, sitting and standing positions are also critical.
Recognizing and preventing factors that may exacerbate spasticity and spasms:
Elimination of unwanted sensory triggers is an important factor in spasticity reduction. Naturally, cutaneous and visceral triggers (Table 3) regulate the interneuronal activity by signaling to the spinal cord. Elimination and dysfunction of some modulating pathways can inhibit polysynaptic reflexes (such as flexor withdrawal) and cause spasm [11].
Cutaneous stimuli | Visceral stimuli |
---|---|
Skin lesion (red or inflamed skin, broken skin, infected skin, pressure sores, ingrown toenails) | Bowel and bladder dysfunction: for example, constipation, overflow or diarrhea, infections, retention or incomplete emptying |
Tight-fitting clothes or urinary leg bag straps | Any systemic or localized infection |
Uncomfortable orthotics or seating systems | Deep-vein thrombosis |
Sensory stimulations that may aggravate spasticity.
Similarly, abnormal activities of spinal cord circuits induce discharges in motor neurons innervating several muscles, thereby causing a concurrent contraction of these muscles and aggravating spasticity [12, 13]. Sometimes, some patients are aware of such stimuli exacerbating their symptoms (e.g., bowel habit) while having no clue how to modulate or reduce them. The patients should consider the following:
1. Optimization of bladder and bowel management. Any defecation alteration including urinary retention, infection, constipation, or diarrhea can exacerbate the symptoms. Even the mild infection (e.g., Candida) can aggravate the symptoms.
2. Maintaining skin integrity. Avoiding any skin irritation, infection, and pressure sores is effective in spasticity reduction. So skin examinations, especially in the vulnerable areas including the areas under pressure or under orthosis, as well as preventing ingrown toenails and deep-vein thrombosis are needed.
Sometimes, there are individual factors that each patient gradually realizes (e.g., in some women, symptoms exacerbate during menstruation period). Knowledge of some of these risk factors is important in treatment choice. In some cases, elimination of some of these factors or waiting for a few days (e.g., in menstruation period) and or a temporary rise in the drug dosage is very effective in solving the patient’s problem.
Another point of patient education is that the weakness and spasticity are concomitant [2]; so the patient should know that sometimes the weakness becomes more pronounced by medication use and subsequent spasticity reduction while patients consider this effect as a drug side effect or lack of response. So, in case the spasticity is an effective factor in preserving some of the patient’s functions (e.g., standing up and going to the bathroom in the morning), the medication should be taken after the desired activity (going to the bathroom).
Patients should receive written information on the medication dosage, side effects, and follow-up tests for the response to treatment. There should be a telephone number in the form for convenient communication with the health care center or the physician.
The key to a satisfying treatment for spasticity is to educate the patient properly and ensure that the patient follows the instructions correctly. Also, as spasticity changes during the treatment, treatment regimens should change with the patient’s condition and be flexible. Proper patient management requires physiotherapy initiation immediately after the disease diagnosis and at regular intervals throughout the disease course, depending on the patient’s condition and the diagnosis made by the treatment team. On the other hand, assessment and differentiation between the neuronal and non-neuronal (connective tissue, joint component, muscle, and tendon) causes of hypertonia are critical because the treatment of non-neuronal [14] (passive) causes involves physical therapies such as stretching and splinting; these problems do not respond to medical treatments.
The goal of physical management is to maintain and even improve the performance level and prevent the problems secondary to spasticity. In fact, spasticity reduction is not always a treatment goal, as in some cases maintaining the patient’s function requires a little spasticity and increased tone. Therefore, physical management focuses on the performance, discomfort and pain relief, and prevention of secondary complications including contractures and pressure ulcers. The key goals of a physical management plan include the following [2]:
Maintaining the viscoelastic characteristics of tissues including tendons, muscles, and joints to prevent contractures. This goal is achieved through active and passive movements as well as standing and stretching with splints.
Controlling the spasticity and spasm so that they will not be self-perpetuating; for example, using techniques and methods in the situations and positions exacerbating the symptoms.
Maintaining the individual’s level of performance. It can be achieved by strengthening activities and keeping cardiovascular fitness.
Evaluation of spasticity as a positive factor in the patient’s function. But a balance should be maintained between the benefits and spasticity-induced complications.
Generally, there is no single physical modality and the treatments are parallel and concomitant, depending on the patient’s conditions. In the following, the treatment options will be discussed in detail.
Standing is considered as a therapeutic option since it activates the anti-gravity muscles, improves flexibility, reduces contractures, modulates the neuronal component of spasticity, reduces sensory inputs and lower limb spasms, and has positive psychological effects [15, 16, 17, 18]. Regarding the duration and frequency of this physical therapy, studies have suggested a duration of between 30 minutes and 1.5 hours while most patients have performed this exercise for 40 minutes and with a frequency of three to four times a week [18, 19, 20]. Remember that the duration and frequency depend on the patient’s condition; so, the decision should be made based on this factor. However, at least 30 minutes of standing seems to be reasonable. The best standing position is in an extended posture with neutral alignment of the trunk, pelvis, and lower limb joints, carried out actively by the patient himself/herself or by using standing aids including Oswestry standing frames, motorized or hydraulically assisted standing systems, standing wheelchairs, or at least a tilt table (according to the patient symptom severity respectively) [2]. In all these cases, hypotension is the most notable complication, which can be prevented by arrangements such as avoiding sudden position change or by using compression stockings.
In most of the cases, patients with spasticity are advised for spasticity reduction and less attention is paid to muscle weakness, and sometimes strengthening exercises are not prescribed because of the concern for spasticity exacerbation [21]. It is recommended, to the extent possible, to perform active exercises in order to increase the strength, re-educate movement patterns, and improve cardiovascular fitness. The outcomes achieved by these exercises are not usually observed in passive exercises. Nowadays, it has been found that not only is antagonist muscle weakness effective in spasticity, but also an imbalance between agonist and antagonist muscles exacerbates the symptoms and causes atrophy [21]. The movement patterns should also change; in fact, proper movement patterns should be instructed. At the same time with limb exercises, the alignments of the trunk and pelvic girdle should be maintained. These exercises alter muscle functions and structures [22]. The strengthening recommendations should be realistic and close to the patient’s daily life activities and include all the involved muscles [23, 24]. Although no specific protocol has been suggested for this kind of patients, most studies recommend the protocol adapted from the sport sources. These traditional training rates are a load of 60–80% of one repetition maximum (the maximum load that can be lifted once), three sets of 10 repetitions carried out three or four times a week.
Alongside these exercises, cardiovascular fitness exercises have been recommended in various papers [25, 26]. Because these exercises are being neglected in these patients due to their inactivity especially.
The task-focused active-use therapy techniques such as the constraint-induced movement therapy can sometimes be used for upper limbs. The techniques should be used in an intensive program over a short period (e.g., 4–8 weeks) [27].
When the patient cannot move his/her limb, passive movements can be carried out by another person. In passive movement, generally, all the body joints should be moved in their ranges of motion daily. According to the studies, it seems that using passive movements can be effective in changing spasticity pattern, alleviating secondary non-neuronal complications, and improving positioning [2]. It is recommended to perform the passive movements daily, and it can be carried out before the patient repositioning. These movements should be safe and comfortable for both the patient and caregiver. Spasmolytic medication taking in 20–30 minutes before the movements can be helpful [2]. Sometimes sudden stretching can exacerbate the spasm, so the movements should be performed at slow speed. Skin irritations can cause symptom exacerbation as well; thus, the best way is to desensitize the skin on a gradual basis or handling the limb on top of clothes. Grabbing and holding the ball of the foot should be avoided because it is usually a sensitive point for these triggers and better not to be touched [2]. Moreover, the movements should be carried out with the best alignments of the muscles and joints, overstretching should not occur, and stereotypical spasticity patterning (e.g., flexing the hip in the midline rather than in adduction and internal rotation) should be avoided.
The critical point is that after the movements are over, the patient should be positioned properly. The position should not be the same as the previous position caused by spasms to keep the benefits of the movements [2]. Usually, these movements are not performed by the physician or therapist because it is time-consuming and is not cost-effective. So in addition to providing written material on the right techniques for the patient and caregivers, assistance appliances such as continuous passive movement machines (CPMs) or lifters (hoist) can also be used [2].
Typically, with a 2-day immobilization, muscle changes initiate, including muscle shortening and atrophy, muscle compliance reduction, and increasing the ratio of collagen to muscle fibers [21]. Following these changes, there will be an increase in the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretching, which can exacerbate the neuronal component of spasticity and subsequently the non-neural component [28]. On the other hand, stretching induces actin and myosin synthesis; as a result, the number of sarcomeres as well as the muscle length increases [21, 29]. So far, there is no agreement on the duration and frequency of stretching exercises but the following protocol can be considered for the daily schedule [30, 31].
It is suggested to administer the stretching according to the patient’s daily schedule and his/her posture [2]. The stretching can be carried out actively or passively (by someone else or with FES). We can use the positioning, for example standing, sitting, or lying down with using splints and orthosis, to achieve a prolonged stretching. Another important point is that while stretching a muscle, the antagonist muscle shortens, so there should be a balance in the stretching schedules for all the muscles [2, 32]. Regarding the duration of stretching, studies have suggested 20, 30, or even 60 minutes. So, there is no single protocol [30], but it seems that the efficacy increases with longer durations. Also, it seems that stretching before the exercises has a more favorable effect.
The patient should be given written instruction on stretching. Stretches should include the back muscles, quadriceps, hip flexors, hip adductors, hamstrings, calf muscles (gastrocnemius and soleus), wrists, and fingers, and should be performed actively or passively. The therapist should modify the stretching based on each patient’s condition.
As well as improving the effective stretching and subsequent maintaining of range of motion, correct positioning also helps in altering the spasticity pattern, modifying asymmetry, and decreasing the risk of pressure-induced skin injuries [33]. The golden key to good positioning is to change the position during the day. An ideal position is important in both lying and sitting; moreover, the presence of exacerbating factors and triggers (e.g., pressure sore, pain) is critical in position selection. Performing passive exercises before positioning is helpful; for example, when the patient tries to use a T roll for the leg flexion position, performing several knee and hip flexions and bending the hips and knees up toward the chest and abdomen facilitate this position [34].
In correct positioning, muscles should be stretched and longer than usual. For example, these are the suggestions to improve the positioning in a patient with continuous spasticity-induced hip adduction: The patient should monitor his/her sitting position and try to keep his/her knees apart while sitting so that he/she does not get accustomed to the wrong position. The impact of trunk and pelvis positions on the legs should be evaluated. In a flexed posture with a posteriorly tilted pelvis, the legs tend to be in internal rotation and adduction; so, having a firmer seat base, a contoured cushion, or extra trunk support may facilitate a more anteriorly tilted pelvis position, trunk extension, and better lower limbs alignment. In patients unable to reduce adduction, using aids including a pummel, rolled-up towel, cushion or T roll can help in reducing the adduction.
In patients suffering from spasticity, the sitting position should be modified to improve the performance, accommodate to contractures and deformities established, maintain comfort, and reduce fatigue [35, 36]. The main requirements for a good sitting position are a firm seat base and backrest with subtle changes by altering the seat base to promote an anterior tilt of the pelvis to help in achieving hip flexion, abduction, and external rotation as well as trunk extension.
Patients with weakness in the trunk and neck extensors can use the tilt-in-space systems [37, 38], where the patient seat has a reclining at the back and flexion at the hip. In this system, hip flexion decreases the extension tone and spasticity as well as providing support for the patient’s back (by the backward movement of the backrest). Also, these seats improve kyphosis and breathing of the patients and reduce fatigue and pressure ulcers.
As the patient’s spasticity status changes throughout the treatment, it is necessary to re-evaluate the patient’s sitting position.
Orthoses or splints are tools for improving limb performance and preventing deformity. These appliances are usually custom-made [39]. Non-removable splinting devices made of plaster or casting tape are referred to as “casts.” Casts are also a type of splint. Orthoses are used for the following treatment goals [27, 39]:
Providing control over the joint’s range of motion and thus improving its performance.
Maintaining prolonged stretches on the muscle’s tendon to alter or modify the changes occurred in tissues.
Modifying deformities established (e.g., using heel raise in leg length discrepancy).
Changing the neuronal component of spasticity through prolonged stretches and sensory input alteration.
Increasing the patient’s comfort.
Correction of the posture.
Correction of upper extremity performance.
Improving walking efficiency.
In children, preventing hip migration or slowing its progress.
In administering orthoses, in addition to discussing the treatment goals with patients, the method of use, duration, and times of use should be discussed as well. In each visit, the patient should be asked about pain, discomfort, and sleep disorder, while muscle wasting and the places under pressure by orthosis should be examined. Incorrect orthosis usage and feeling discomfort with orthosis use can exacerbate the symptoms and cause new deformities. There is no contraindication for administering orthoses; however, some problems addressed in Table 4 can limit the use of splints, so these points should be noticed during the follow-up visits and proper solutions should be considered [2].
Sensory impairment | Uncontrolled epilepsy |
---|---|
Unstable intracranial pressure | Heterotrophic ossification |
Poor skin condition | Edema |
Vascular disorder | Acute inflammation |
Fracture or severe soft tissue injury | Medically unstable |
Behavioral/cognitive disorders | Frequent spasms |
Access to limb required for medical purposes |
Precautions for the use of splints or orthoses.
The most common splints based on the usage area are discussed here according to the evidence from different sources and guidelines. Evidence grading is according to Tables 5 and 6 [40]. However, some of the splints are not mentioned here, we did not intend to deny their effects but only the splints with the best evidence are discussed.
Quality of evidence | Grading | Characteristics |
---|---|---|
High | A | Based on consistent results from well-performed randomized controlled trials, or overwhelming evidence of an alternative source, for example, well-executed observational studies with strong effects |
Moderate | B | Based on randomized controlled trials where there are serious flaws in conduct, inconsistency, indirectness, imprecise estimates, reporting bias, or some other combination of these limitations, or from other study designs with special strengths |
Low | C | Based on observational evidence, or from controlled trials with several very serious limitations |
Very low | D | Based on case studies or expert opinion |
GRADE quality of evidence grading.
Strength | Grade | Benefits and risks |
---|---|---|
Strong | 1. “It is recommended. ..” | Benefits appear to outweigh the risks (or vice versa) for the majority of the target group |
Conditional | 2. “It is suggested. ..” | Risks and benefits are more closely balanced, or there is uncertainty in likely service user values and preferences |
Strength of grade.
The following advice is suggested to correct contractures [40]:
It is possible to use casts at the end of the range of motion for acute brain injury and stroke patients to improve the range of motion (2C). The cast should be replaced every 5–7 days. Use the cast for a 2- to 12-week period.
In severely spastic patients, we can use casts with botulinum toxin injection (2B). The cast should be replaced every 5–7 days. Use the cast for a 2- to 12-week period.
Using adjustable ankle splints at the end of the range of motion improves the joint’s range of motion (2C). Splints are used 6–23 hours a day for 2–12 weeks and should be adjusted with improvements at the end of the range of motion.
While using non-custom-made splints, necessary precautions should be taken to prevent pressure sores (2D).
Contracture prevention [40]:
Using ankle casts at the end of dorsiflexion range can prevent contractures in ABI patients (2C). Primary casts should be replaced every 5–7 days depending on the change in the range of motion until the patient can maintain the plantar grade position. The last cast should be used as a bivalved plantar grade cast for 18 hours a day until the splint can maintain the range of motion.
The ankle splint can prevent the limitation of the ankle’s range of motion when the ankle is at a plantar grade position (2B). The recommended duration of use for ankle splint is 6–10 hours at night for 2–5 weeks.
While using non-custom-made splints, necessary precautions should be taken to prevent pressure sores (2B).
Performance improvement [41]:
The plantar spasticity ankle foot orthosis (AFO) can be used for better walking. In the case of mild spasticity, the single midline posterior stop AFO is used. The type of AFO with pins in the posterior channels can be used for more severe cases. Moreover, in patients with weak extensors of hip or knee, the solid type is recommended while the hinged type is suitable for patients with adequate control. In patients with crouched gait and passive range of motion in hip joints and pelvis, a ground reaction force AFO can be used.
Contracture improvement [40]:
It is possible to use casts at the end of range of motion for acute brain injury and stroke patients to improve the knee’s range of motion (2D). The cast should be replaced every 5–7 days. Use the cast for 2–12 weeks.
Short-term application of the cast (1–4 days) entails fewer complications compared to the longer uses (5–7 days) (2C).
Contracture prevention [40]:
Using casts at the end of range of motion in acute brain injury and stroke patients can prevent contractures (2C). The cast should be replaced every 5–7 days. Use the cast for a 2- to 5-week period.
Use this cast with caution in the patients with acute lesions (acute brain injury and stroke) and decreased level of consciousness for preventing secondary complications such as pressure sores (2C).
Knee splints can be used for standing control and walking improvement as well.
Contracture improvement [2, 40]:
Using splints for deformity correction in hand and wrists is not routinely advised for every patient (e.g., in stroke and acute brain injury patients). However, they can be used in certain cases in an optional way (2B). These splints are custom-made or serial and adjustable (10 degrees wrist extension and finger extension with MCP flexion, wrist at neutral, or maximal available range of movement). Most of them are used for 20 minutes to 12 hours a day for a 1- to 8-week period.
Contracture prevention [2, 40]:
Using splints for deformity prevention in hand and wrists is not routinely advised for every patient (e.g., in stroke and acute brain injury patients). However, they can be used in certain cases in an optional way (2B). In the studies, the splints have been used in different positions (10 degrees wrist extension and fingers fully extended, wrist at neutral, or close to maximal available range of movement) with duration of 6–12 hours a day for a 1- to 8-week period.
Using splints in combination with botulinum toxin in selected cases can be effective in reducing the spasticity that has resulted in range of motion loss (2C). The splint is used at the end of the available range of movement but is not adjusted daily. On the other hand, strapping is used at the end of available range of movement, with daily adjustment to maximal stretch for 6 days.
Using electrical stimulation in combination with splints is not recommended for contracture prevention (2A).
Custom-made hand and wrist splints should not be used routinely for prevention from spasticity exacerbation in acute brain injury and stroke patients (2B).
A wrist splint at neutral position can be effective in hand pain prevention caused by joint malalignment (2A). These splints should be used for minimum 6 hours a day for 13 weeks.
Performance improvement [2, 42]:
Sometimes, a splint is also used to improve performance (Figure 2) or prevent tissue damage (e.g., sheepskin palm protector).
Using volar splints in children with cerebral palsy can reduce the spasticity and improve the range of motion and performance in upper limb. However, theses splints are not effective on the upper limb movements in stroke patients.
Using dorsal splints has no effect on spasticity, range of motion, and performance of upper limb in stroke patients.
Dynamic splints can improve the upper limb performance and accelerate spasticity reduction.
The use of C-Bar splint is an effective method to improve hand performance and range of motion while decreasing spasticity in upper limb of cerebral palsy children.
Using anti-pronation splints can be an effective technique to improve the performance of upper limb, range of motion of forearm supination, and wrist extension, as well as reducing the severity of spasticity in forearms pronator muscles and wrist flexor muscles. These splints are also effective in improving the gripping and pinching ability in children suffering from spastic diplegia cerebral palsy.
Extension splints are not helpful in the rehabilitation program of stroke patients.
As a modern splint, SAEBO splints can be helpful in improving the upper limb of stroke patients.
In general, volar, dorsal, anti-pronation, and C-Bar splints are effective in spasticity reduction and performance improvement of upper limb in children with cerebral palsy while SAEBO and dynamic splints are useful for performance improvement and spasticity reduction of upper limb.
sheepskin palm protector is used to prevent tissue damage.
Contracture improvement [40, 42]:
Using casts is recommended at the end of range of motion to modify the elbow’s range of motion (2C). The cast should be replaced every 3–7 days. Use the cast for a 1- to 4-week period.
Short-term application of the cast (1–4 days) entails fewer complications compared to the longer use (4–7 days) (2C).
Enough studies for contracture correction by splint are not available.
Contracture prevention [40]:
Enough studies for contracture correction by splints are not available.
Performance improvement [42]:
Elbow gaiters are recommended to maintain extension and improve function.
Spinal braces are usually used in cases with muscle weakness. In the patients with spasticity being the predominant complaint, spinal braces are not frequently used. It is because they are difficult to fit on the patients, are not comfortable, and can induce breathing problems and sores [2]. In these cases, the use of customized seating with individualized truncal and pelvic support can be a more beneficial and comfortable option. The braces can be used in patients with kyphosis and scoliosis if it helps in sitting.
On the decision for the treatment of spasticity, considering goals is a critical point and pharmacological interventions should be considered with non-pharmacological treatment for optimizing the effectiveness of management [2]. Another important point in prescription of drugs is about the patient’s situation and the dosage and timing should be considered according to it. For example, painful nocturnal spasms may best be managed with a long-acting agent taken at night-time that has sedative side effects. As a rule for all medication, “start low and go slow” [2]. Although it is time-consuming, this approach will limit any deleterious effects on function or unwanted side effects. For better discussion, pharmacological interventions are categorized according to spasticity pattern including, generalized, segmental, and focal.
There are several oral treatments for management of generalized spasticity. However, there is more interest for some medications according to the country strategy (e.g., there is more discussion in American papers for Clonidine, but it is currently little used in the UK) [39]. Generally, these drugs are used more for spasticity management: baclofen, diazepam, tizanidine, dantrolene, gabapentin, and clonidine (Table 7). They may be used to provide systemic effect for modest spasticity severity. Choosing the drug is dependent on patient problems and goals [2, 39]. For example, if the neuropathic pain is a problematic as well as spasticity, gabapentin should be considered for this patient. Besides, some of the drugs are more recommended in papers for specific diagnosis; for example, gabapentin is also recommended as first- or second-line treatment for spasticity in the UK National Guidelines for Multiple Sclerosis [39].
Drug | Starting dose | Maximum dose | Side effects |
---|---|---|---|
Baclofen | 5–10 mg daily | 120 mg daily, usually in three divided doses | Drowsiness, weakness, paresthesia, nausea, vomiting |
Diazepam | 2 mg daily | 40–60 mg daily, usually in three or four divided doses | Drowsiness, reduced attention, memory impairment Dependency and withdrawal syndromes |
Tizanidine | 2 mg daily | 36 mg daily, usually in three or four divided doses | Drowsiness, weakness, dry mouth, postural hypotension Monitor liver function |
Dantrolene | 25 mg daily | 400 mg daily, usually in four divided doses | Anorexia, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, weakness, dizziness, paraesthesiae Monitor liver function |
Gabapentin | 300 mg daily (can start at 100 mg daily) | 2400 mg daily, usually in three divided doses | Drowsiness, somnolence, dizziness |
Drugs in spasticity treatment.
There is no evidence-based consensus for combination drug regimes for oral treatment. However, they can be used according to associated features [2, 43]. There is no right or wrong way to titrate drugs in combination, and professionals suggest avoiding polypharmacy. If there is intolerance for maximum dose of first-line drug, continue the highest level the individual can tolerate comfortably and added the second-line drug and titrated upward. If the patient’s problem has been decreased with this regime, the first drug can be cautiously withdrawn to see if monotherapy with the second-line drug alone is sufficient to achieve the goal of treatment. For optimizing the treatment, it is very important the patient has had written information about treatment goals and efficacy and side effects of drugs.
Evidence-based recommendations for choosing the drug are listed below:
Baclofen: It is more effective in patients with either multiple sclerosis (MS) [44] or spinal cord injury and few have concentrated on spasticity of cerebral origin, including stroke or traumatic brain injury [43].
Tizanidine: It reduces sign and symptoms in MS, spinal cord injury and stroke; no functional benefit has, however, been demonstrated in MS and spinal cord injury [45].
Dantrolene: It is the only available agent that works out of CNS with direct action on skeletal muscle. So, it can be prescribed for spasticity originating from both spinal and supraspinal lesions. It is effective in management of MS patient and has modest effect in spinal cord injury, stroke, and cerebral palsy [46, 47, 48]. It does not demonstrate any changes in function.
Diazepam: The efficacy of it in spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, and MS has been proven. However, its side effects are more than those of other drugs in the studies [43].
Gabapentin: There is beneficial effect of gabapentin on measures of spasticity in MS and spinal cord injury [49, 50].
Clonidine: Its major use has been as an anti-hypertensive agent, but it is efficient in the spinal cord injury spasticity [43].
In children’s spasticity, baclofen (for long treatment) and diazepam (for rapid onset) are recommended by NICE guideline [27].
This type of spasticity benefits from interathecal administration. This route of administration delivers the medication directly to where it is needed with less unwanted side effects like drowsiness and impaired cognition. Interathecal baclofen pump has been used since 30 years ago [39]. It is effective for lower limbs and trunk spasticity [51]. To manage changing needs, the dose and timing of drug delivery can be programmed over the 24-hour period. It has the beneficial effect in the autonomic storming in people with brain and spinal cord injury [39]. The risk of infection and the need to attend clinics every 3 months or so to have the pump refilled are its significant disadvantages.
The pump is recommended in children with severe motor function impairment (GMFCS level 3, 4, and 5) and bilateral spasticity affecting upper and lower limbs [27].
An intrathecal baclofen test to assess the therapeutic effect and adverse events is necessary before making the decision for intrathecal pump implantation. For evaluation of response, assessing the patient is necessary within 3–5 hours after sedation and recovery. Before pump implantation, written information is necessary including possible adverse effects, signs and symptoms suggesting the dose is too low or high, complications and follow-up appointments [27].
Implantation of the infusion pump can occur within 3 months of satisfactory response to intrathecal baclofen test [39].
Using intrathecal phenol injections is suggested in some studies too [52]. Compared with the intrathecal phenol, baclofen pump has complication of surgical procedure for implantation of pump, malfunction of pump, needing for dose adjustment and refilling the pump [52]. The advantages of intrathecal phenol include: less individual responsibility, low cost, no requirement of special equipment, and avoiding the regular clinical visits for refills. But the complications of this procedure are bladder and bowel incontinence, limb weakness, and paraesthesia, which are the reasons for intrathecal phenol not being considered for spasticity management routinely [52].
The most famous treatments that are used in this category are phenol neurolysis and botulinum toxin.
Phenol nerve block has been used for the treatment of spasticity since the 1960s and it has advantages in comparison with botulinum toxin including: faster onset of spasticity relief and greater degree of muscle relaxation for much longer and at much less expense [27, 39]. But it has disadvantages including, neurogenic pain or paraesthesia (if applied to a mixed motor/sensory nerve) and careful localization (needing for experienced hand), so some specialist prefer Botulinum toxin. However, it is appropriate for patients with troublesome spasticity and dystonia of hip adductors and calf muscles, especially for non-ambulant patients or “walkers” who are already dependent on an ankle-foot orthosis (AFO) [27, 39].
Botulinum toxin use has shown significant effects on improving the symptoms of patients with focal spasticity or dystonia [27, 39, 43]. The method of use and injection is discussed in detail in chapter x. Here is a brief explanation of its indications and contraindications.
There is more interest in botulinum toxin injection. This procedure for patients with focal spasticity in upper limb should be considered in the following cases [27]:
Impeding fine motor function
Compromising care and hygiene
Causing pain
Impeding tolerance of other treatments, such as orthoses
Causing cosmetic concern to the child and young person
Botulinum toxin injection for patients with focal spasticity in lower limb should be considered in the following cases [27]:
Impeding gross motor function
Compromising care and hygiene
Causing pain
Disturbing sleep
Impeding tolerance of other treatments, such as orthoses and use of equipment to support posture
Causing cosmetic concern to the child and young person
Botulinum toxin is not recommended in the following cases [27]:
Has severe muscle weakness
Had previous adverse reaction or allergy to the botulinum toxin type A
Is receiving aminoglycoside treatment
Administration of botulinum toxin should be done with caution in the following cases [27]:
The person has any of the following:
Bleeding disorders for example due to anticoagulant therapy
Generalized spasticity
Fixed muscle contracture
Marked bone deformity
There are concerns about people likelihood of engaging in post treatment adapted physical therapy treatment.
Setting up a spasticity clinic or service depends on the local conditions and available resources. Setting up a clinic needs a team in which every member has certain tasks. Undoubtedly, the roles and duties will overlap, but it is important to understand the abilities and skills of each professional to evaluate what they can offer for the treatment process [2]. Thus, outlining the key skills and roles of each team member and providing a competency framework can help in making an efficient team.
In general, four professionals have roles in a spasticity clinic team including a physician (a pediatric or adult neurologist or a physical medicine and rehabilitation specialist), nurse, occupational therapist, and physiotherapist [2]. In the following, the tasks of each professional are briefly discussed.
Physician:
Understanding the underlying condition, prognosis, natural history, associated features, and possible complications. Identifying the abnormal features or unexpected changes that may be caused by a secondary cause.
Being experienced in neuromuscular history-taking and physical examination.
Being able to perform necessary interventions including administering oral medications, botulinum toxin injection, intrathecal drug, and splint.
Nurse:
Educating the patient and his/her caregivers to manage spasticity.
Managing cutaneous and visceral triggers.
Advising the patient on posture, moving, and handling.
Managing psychosocial issues and considering the impact of spasticity on employment and social activities of the patient and managing it.
Monitoring the patient’s and caregiver’s adaptations with the treatments and ensuring that they follow the protocols and guidelines properly.
Physiotherapist:
Identifying the potential for movement patterns and functional ability to be improved.
Identifying trigger factors of spasticity related to posture and movement.
Identifying muscle weakness underlying the spasticity.
Occupational therapist:
Assessing the patient for proper use of splints.
Assessing the patient for posture and siting especially in a wheelchair.
Assessing the impact of spasticity on the patient’s performance.
Evaluating the patient’s access to work, home, and community environments.
Permanent presences of other specialists in the team are not necessarily needed, but they can be helpful in the treatment process. These specialists include orthopedics, neurosurgeons, speech therapists, orthotists, social workers, continence advisors, and psychologists.
One of the valuable points in setting up such services is their growth and development to provide better services. This goal is achieved through data collection, organization, and extraction so that effective and useful proposals will be presented. The development of these services based on this information results in optimizing the services as much as possible and targeted funding for treating these patients.
Spasticity is one of the common symptoms in a wide range of neurological conditions and it needs a multidisciplinary approach for best management. This chapter provided an excellent paradigm to incorporate many of the key elements that are fundamental, including: assessment of the individual with spasticity, provision of education and promoting self-management, physical management of spasticity (physiotherapy or occupational therapy), orthoses, pharmacological intervention, and setting up a service.
The authors certify that there is no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed in this chapter.
Demographic data and checklist for impact of the spasticity on the patient’s communications and interactions with the environment.
Patient’s name: | Date of birth: | Date: | Diagnosis: |
---|---|---|---|
Current medication | Please comment on dose, route, times, and any side effects experienced | ||
Other medication used in the past for spasticity: Why did they stop taking it (ineffective, not tolerated, other reason?) | |||
Primary difficulty: Is it attributed to spasticity: Yes/No | Severity rating out of 10 | ||
Other difficulties related to spasticity: | |||
Spasticity | Please comment on site and severity of spasticity | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Clonus | Please comment whether spontaneous | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Spasms | Please comment on which muscles, extensors or flexors, severity, pain, frequency, and duration | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Pain | Please comment on presence, severity, and management. Indicate if pain has been getting worse, better, or remains the same | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Sleep patterns | Please comment on disturbances, positions, and quality | ||
Bed mobility | Please comment on how much, type of mattress used | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Bladder | Please comment on current management | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Bowel | Please comment on current management | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Skin | Please comment on the presence of pressure ulcers and the ability to relieve pressure, change position and sensation, and any aids used (Waterlow Tool) | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Mobility | Please comment on outdoor, indoor, aids, speed, and distance | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Toilet/bath/shower transfers | Please comment on ability and aids required. Indicate if this has been getting worse, better, or remains the same | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Transfers | Please comment on car, bed, chair, level of independence and assistance required | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Wheelchair | Please comment on posture, position, type, and make of chair and cushion | ||
Not needing to be assessed | |||
Previous therapy and nursing input | Please comment on physiotherapy, OT, seating assessments, and nursing advice. Ensure details of time, date, and location of treatment obtained, including names, addresses, and contact details | ||
Options discussed with patient | |||
Assessment by: | Signature: |
The outcome measures of spasticity
Name: | Data | |
---|---|---|
Hip flexion-extension | ||
Hip abduction-adduction | ||
Knee flexion-extension | ||
Ankle PF-DF | ||
Distance in mm: | ||
Right | Left | |
Resistance to: hip and knee flexion in supine | ||
Resistance to: hip and knee extension in supine | ||
Resistance to: hip abduction in crook lying | ||
Resistance to: ankle dorsiflexion with knee extended | ||
Clonus | ||
Spasms | ||
Are the feet well positioned on the footplates? | ||
Are the knees apart? | ||
Are the hips well aligned? | ||
Is the trunk posture symmetrical? | ||
Total | ||
2 = five to six falls per week, 3 = daily falls, 4 = more than one fall per day) | ||
No. of steps | ||
Time | ||
Aid used | ||
0 = absent; 1 = Provoked by painful stimuli only; 2 = Provoked by touch, light pressure and/or occasionally spontaneous (5/day and/or < 2night); 3 = Provoked by passive movements (during physical therapy or nursing care) and/or frequently spontaneous (>5 day and/or 2/night).
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Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. 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Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"11673",title:"Stem Cell Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11673.jpg",hash:"13092df328080c762dd9157be18ca38c",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12215",title:"Cell Death and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12215.jpg",hash:"dfd456a29478fccf4ebd3294137eb1e3",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 29th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82991",title:"Diseases of the Canine Prostate Gland",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105835",signatures:"Sabine Schäfer-Somi",slug:"diseases-of-the-canine-prostate-gland",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"82956",title:"Potential Substitutes of Antibiotics for Swine and Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106081",signatures:"Ho Trung Thong, Le Nu Anh Thu and Ho Viet Duc",slug:"potential-substitutes-of-antibiotics-for-swine-and-poultry-production",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"82905",title:"A Review of Application Strategies and Efficacy of Probiotics in Pet Food",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105829",signatures:"Heather Acuff and Charles G. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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