Characteristics of the different polymorphisms analyzed associated with diabetic nephropathy.
\r\n\tIn fact, the engineering covers the design, construction, and maintenance of vessels and their associated equipment. Moreover, it also allows the performance by the naval engineer. So, it designs the structure, engines and other components of the ships. In this regard, it must consider the use given to the vessel, the amount of passengers cargo to be transported, the distance to be traveled as well as the place of operation - i.e. rivers, lakes, seas or oceans. On the other hand, the construction is supervised by the technicians and the workers who will verify the raw material quality and the work methodologies accompanied by manufacturers. With these aspects in mind there is also a third one and that is managing the sea and inland waterway transport by controlling the vessel traffic and communication services. To summarize, all these topics are of great importance to naval engineering and are welcome as chapters for this book.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f15deeb6884e8eaeca5e687cd1d30e85",bookSignature:"Dr. Sérgio António Neves Lousada",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7425.jpg",keywords:"Applied Mechanics, Control Systems, Automation, Monitoring, Fluid Mechanics, Naval Architecture, Naval Engineering, Structural Mechanics, Finite Element Method, Solids Mechanics, Structural Dynamics, Thermodynamics",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 20th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 11th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 10th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 28th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 29th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio António",middleName:null,surname:"Neves Lousada",slug:"sergio-antonio-neves-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248645/images/system/248645.jpg",biography:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada has an international Ph.D. in Civil Engineering (Hydraulics). 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An estimation of seven million people develop the disease each year, which is equivalent to a person acquiring the disease every 5 s worldwide [1]. Clearly, diabetes is a disease in remarkable growth and is expected that by 2025 about 350 million people will have the disease, equivalent to 7.1% of the world population [2, 3]. The United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution which recognizes diabetes as a threat and global epidemic due to its a chronic, debilitating, and costly nature associated with severe complications, which poses severe risks for families, member states, and the world [4].
\nDiabetes mellitus (DM) is one of the most common causes of morbidity and medical consultation in Mexico, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua [5]. DM patients, in Costa Rica, consume an enormous amount of medical resources, and their cost occupies the first place in all public hospitals and clinics [5, 6] due to its chronic complications such as lower extremity amputations, blindness, nephropathy, and heart disease, which in turn have devastating and irreversible effects on the health of people. All this has a major economic impact on people and the Health Social Security System [6, 7]. Therefore, with increasing number of diabetic patients, there is an increased demand for services and medical costs.
\nThe DM prevalence reported in Nicaragua and Costa Rica is 11.5% [6, 8]. However, there are still many gaps in knowledge regarding risk factors and epidemiology of DM and the effectiveness of prevention guides which would allow to control this health problem and its complications in both countries.
\nIn a multiregional study of adult populations in urban areas, there was evidence of high DM prevalence in Guatemala (8%) and Nicaragua (9%) [8]. In 2002, DM accounted for 24% (4273) of all hospital charges for chronic diseases (CDs) in Nicaragua. During the period between 1993 and 2002, mortality from diabetes increased rapidly, especially, in people aged above 50 years. The described Nicaraguan trend for DM is that the disease is affecting younger ages (15–34 years) and productive ages (35–49 years), which will result in lost life-years, as well as business days. The lack of optimal diabetes care favors the development of complications.
\nThe estimated prevalence of DM in 1998 in Costa Rica was 4.8% in those aged 20 years and above. In 2006, the percentage of diabetic patients raised to 5.3% in the same age range population [6]. If the population is divided by age groups, the prevalence for people above 40 years is 9.4% and for older adults is 23.4% [6]. In Mexico, chronic disease (CDs) is a public health problem, as well as in other Latin American countries, which is the result of change in the epidemiological behavior and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). They are conditions that prevail among adults and constitute the main causes of overall mortality [9, 10]. Heart disease, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and hypertension stand among these conditions because of their high prevalence and serious complications, such as neoplasms, cerebrovascular disease, and renal disease. DM, as part of cardiovascular risk factors, is one of the most important points of the health agenda of Mexico, because of the increased prevalence and complications in addition to high costs (direct and indirect) for Mexican society. The prevalence of DM in Mexico, according to ENSANUT 2012, is 9.2% in individuals aged 20 years or more [11]. This prevalence varied with the age of the individuals. The highest prevalence is found in subjects between 60 and 69 years (25.3%). DM prevalence in Yucatan reported in ENSANUT 2012 is 9.2%, ranking eighth nationally [11].
\nThe ADVANCE study showed that in people with DM after eight years of evolution, when hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) level was reduced from 7.3 to 6.5, it decreased the development of nephropathy in 20–30% of microvascular complications [12]. However, even with metabolic control, there are still environmental factors that enhance the progression of organ damage; in many cases, renal deterioration is inevitable, demonstrating the involvement of genetic factors. Participation of these factors is evident in the results of family studies, linkage, and association with genetic variants in populations unrelated, conducted in different regions of the world [13]. The genesis and progression of early stages of the latest clinical stages of nephropathy are influenced by own genetic variation, age, sex, metabolic factors, such as hyperglycemia, elevated levels of triglycerides and cholesterol, high body mass index, high blood pressure (HBP), and metabolic control [10, 14].
\nDiabetic nephropathy (DN) is a complex multifactorial disease; the development of this complication depends on the additive effect of the variation in the genes and the interaction with environmental factors, such that it may have mutations or genetic variants that predispose to the progression to the disease.
\nGenetic susceptibility plays an important role in the pathogenesis of DN, and several genetic approaches, including association studies of candidate genes and genomics, have identified susceptibility genes for DN [15]. In addition, it has been reported that the inflammatory mechanisms contribute to the development and progression of DN. However, these mechanisms underlying the regulation of cytokines in the kidneys of patients with DM remain unclear. Genetic variations in genes encoding inflammatory cytokines can confer susceptibility to DN by altering functions or expressions [16]. Polymorphisms in the CCR5 receptor and MMP9 have also been associated with increased risk of nephropathy following these mechanisms [15, 17]. Another gene associated with risk of DN is the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene (ACE). This gene modulates the generation of angiotensin II, which increases intraglomerular pressure, leading to glomerulopathy. The course of DN can be considerably improved by treatment with ACE inhibitors, in patients with type 1 diabetes [18].
\nThe DN is considered a complex polygenic disorder in some studies, in which the association of polymorphisms in individual genes can be small and sometimes not informative, while specific combinations of specific genotypes may generate significant changes [15, 19, 20].
\nCharacteristics of the different polymorphisms analyzed associated with diabetic nephropathy.
This chapter presented the results about the prevalence of known risk factors and some genetic variants, such as ACE I/D (Rs1799752), MTHFRC677T (Rs1801133) and CCR5 D32 (Rs333), see Table 1, associated with DN in DM patients belonging to urban areas of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Mexico.
\nACE gene is located on chromosome 17q23.3, and one molecular variant contains an insert (I) or a deletion (D) of 287 bp in intron 16 [21]. The DD genotype has been associated with higher levels of ACE and an activity four times higher than the II genotype, in addition to higher levels of blood pressure, obesity, and increased cardiovascular risk [21, 22]. Other studies suggest that polymorphism ID is an aggressive factor for developing kidney damage in type 1 diabetes [22, 23].
\nThe renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is a cascade of interactions culminating in the production of angiotensin II (Ang II), which is the peptide responsible for the effects of this physiological axis. ACE is a protein that may have pleiotropic effects and play a role in various diseases and not just in hypertension [24]. ACE is a regulatory enzyme in RAAS. Due to the activation of ACE, conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II is given, which is a vasoconstrictor. ACE is also known to inactivate bradykinin, and kallikrein, vasodilator molecules. For this purpose, ACE is an enzyme that increases blood pressure [22, 23]. It is considered one of hemodynamic and vascular factors like other genes such as AGT1q42-q43, NOS37q36, NPR11q21-q22, among others [19].
\nRecently, there have been identified variants in CC chemokine receptor (CCR) and its importance in infectious and autoimmune disorders, which are significantly linked to diabetes and its complications. These variants interact with other genes associated with the inflammatory cascade, including CCR5 3p21.31, CCR2 3p21.31, IL6 7p21, TNF 6p21.3, and SELL 1q23-q25 [16, 17, 19].
\nThe CCR5 variant, in particular, is a CC, which recruits immune receptor sites of infection, inflammation, and injury including renal disease cells. CCR5 is expressed on dendritic cells derived from peripheral blood, macrophages, lymphocytes, and vascular endothelial cells and its activity average ligands RANTES, eotaxin smooth muscle, and macrophage inflammatory proteins (MIP-1, MIP-1) [19]. Moreover, CCR5 and their ligands, for example, MIP-1 and RANTES [25, 26], have been detected in muscle cells smooth and macrophages of the atherosclerotic plaque.
\nThe CCR5 gene is located on chromosome 3p21.31 [19]. Previous studies have shown that a 32-bp deletion leads to loss of CCR5 expression and function, resulting in a truncated protein, which is not expressed on the cell surface. CCR5 mediates monocyte recruitment and differentiation of macrophages in the glomerulus and intestine. It has been associated to have a role in the development of fibrosis and glomerulosclerosis in DN [26]. The CCR5 D32 variant has been associated with low levels of CRP, decreased intima media thickness, and risk of cardiovascular disease [26].
\nFurthermore, it has been reported an association of this mutation with risk of myocardial infarction [26]. These studies are consistent with the hypothesis that CCR5 receptor is involved in mediating systemic low-grade inflammation and can participate in diabetes, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disease (CVD).
\nMethylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) is an enzyme encoded by a gene located on chromosome 1p36.3 in position. This sequence has a size of 2.2 kilobases (kb) and consists of 11 exons [27]. In humans, the product of this gene is a protein of 77 kilodaltons (kDa) that catalyses the irreversible conversion of 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate to 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, the major circulating form of folate [28, 29]. This form of folate participates in the transfer of one carbon atom during the nucleotide synthesis, the synthesis of S-adenosylmethionine and methylation of DNA, proteins, neurotransmitters, and phospholipids [28]. Furthermore, it also acts as a donor of methyl groups on primary methylation of homocysteine to methionine, catalyzed by the enzyme methionine synthase (MS) [28].
\nThe MTHFR enzyme activity helps maintain reserves of 5-methyltetrahydrofolate and methionine and negatively regulates circulating plasma homocysteine concentration [28]. Homocysteine levels can increase due to environmental factors such as smoking, low intake of folate, and vitamin B12 and related genetic polymorphisms in genes encoding enzymes or transport proteins [30].
\nDefects in the MTHFR enzyme have also been linked to venous thrombosis [29], Alzheimer’s disease [31], some types of cancer [32], pregnancy complications [33], and neural tube defects (NTDs) [34]. The latter condition has been one of the most studied [28] and is one of the most common birth defects worldwide [35].
\nThe C677T allele is in a 23.7–37% of the Caucasian population in Europe, 30.5–47.5% of the Hispanic population, 8.3–14.6% of African American population, in a homozygous state in 11% of the Australian population [36], and 26.8% in a Costa Rican population [37].
\nThe main aim of this research was to determine the prevalence of some polymorphisms as ACE (I/D) Rs1799752; CCR5 D32 Rs333, and MTHFR (C677T) Rs1801133 and known risk factors associated with DN in DM patients belonging to urban areas of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Mexico.
\nThis research is descriptive and transversal, held from September to December 2012 in San Jose, Costa Rica; Leon, Nicaragua; and Yucatan, Mexico. The samples were from individuals who attended clinic centers from urban areas of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Mexico.
\nThe Costa Rican samples were obtained from the DNA bank Research Center in Hematology and related disorders (CIHATA) of the University of Costa Rica. These samples were from DM patients who live in the areas covered by the basic care teams (EBAIS) within the program of comprehensive health care (PAIS)-CCSS-UCR region of Montes de Oca, Curridabat, and Tres Rios.
\nDNA samples were obtained from diabetic patients from Leon, Nicaragua, attending an attention program at different health territories, which are as follows: Maria Perla Health Center Norori, Sutiava, and Mantica. In the case of the Regional Research Center in Yucatan, Mexico, the samples were taken from patients attending consultation at the University Social Integration Unit of San José Tecoh. The samples were recollected anonymously with main clinical information and personal history of the individuals with the diagnosis. All participants gave informed consent according to a protocol approved by Bioethics on Human Subjects Research Committee and participating Universities.
\nAdults between ages 20 and 80 years.
Any gender.
DM diagnosis, according to the criteria of the American Diabetes Association (ADA ) or as directed by the attending physician on the ballot application of clinical laboratory diagnostic tests.
Clinical data, including cardiovascular and DN disease history.
Agreement to participate with signed written consent.
DNA isolation was obtained following the standard NaCl precipitation method [38].
\nMutation study I/D ACE gene developed by polymerase chain (PCR) of intron 16 of the ACE gene, as primers the following sequence: 5′-3′-CTGGAGACCACTCCCATCCTTTCT 3′-5′-GATGTGGCCATCACATTCGTCAGAT [21], obtaining a 190 bp for DD genotype and a fragment of 490 bp in the presence of the corresponding insertion genotype II; heterozygous individuals have both bands (I/D). To avoid false-positive DD genotype, a second amplification [39] was performed, attempting to obtain a band of 300 bp for the heterozygous genotype (I/D) and the homozygous deletion allele (D/D) a band of 200 bp. The bands obtained were analyzed in agarose gels by electrophoresis.
\nCCR5 gene was performed by PCR with oligonucleotides 5′-CTTCATTACACCTGCAGCTCTC CCR5 F-3′ and CCR5 R 5′-CTCACAGCCCAGTGCGACTTCTTCT-3′, which flank the deletion of 32 bp [40]. The reaction conditions were as follows: 10 mM Tris, 2.5 mM MgCl2, dNTPs 0.2 mm c/u, 0.25 μM oligonucleotide c/u, 1.5 GoTaq U (Promega). Amplification was performed with the following program: 94°C 2 min (1 cycle); 94°C 20 s, 55°C 20 s, 72 s 30 (35 cycles); 72°C 7 min (1 cycle). The products were detected by gel electrophoresis 8% polyacrylamide, stained with silver nitrate. The genotyping was performed according to the size of the amplification products (CCR5 wt/wt) a band of 184 bp was observed for the homozygous, deletion of 32 bp (D32/D32); the expected product was 152 bp and heterozygotes (wt/D32) 2 bands:184 and 152 bp.
\nRFLP-PCR method [41] was used. The region of interest was amplified with the following oligonucleotides: 5′-AGGACGGTGCGGTGAGAGTG 1F-3′ and 2R-5′-TGAAGGAGAAGGTGTCTGCGGGA-3′ (37). Amplification after digestion proceeded to the post-separation by agarose gel electrophoresis amplicon and 175-pb fragments which were obtained 23 pb and mutant homozygotes (T/T), a single fragment of 198 pb in wild homozygotes (CC) and the three fragments in heterozygous (C/T).
\nStatistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 16.1 program (SPSS Inc., USA). To determine the association between participating countries were compared, Pearson χ2 value. The associations were tested for statistical significance; qualitative variables were assessed by OR, equivalent to relative risk, confidence interval, χ2 value, and a value of p < 0.05 was considered. Yates correction for values in cells smaller than 5 was used. Later, analyses were performed to assess the possible association between the risk factors and the presence or absence of nephropathy or some of the complications listed in the questionnaire.
\nThe association for quantitative variables was evaluated by Student’s t-test for parametric data, previously applying the Levene’s test of homogeneity of variances. Data were captured and analyzed in a database in Excel created for the case for each country and then were analyzed together and separately. Finally, allele frequencies of each polymorphism were determined according to the Hardy-Weinberg law, with χ2-test. Statistically significant differences were set as p < 0.05.
\nA total of 521 DNA samples from DM patients were selected, 132 from San Jose, Costa Rica; 192 from Leon, Nicaragua; and 197 from Yucatan, Mexico. Demographic and clinical characteristics and the prevalence of risk factors are summarized in Table 2. The average age of the total group studied was 58.4 years, and it was not found a significant difference (p > 0.05), in terms of age distribution. Gender was a variant with statistically significant between the DM patients, there were more women (68.2%) than men (31.8%), p = 0.005, and the presence of DN was found with statistical significance, p = 0.021. The presence of HTA among all the studied patients was found as a risk factor with significant difference (OR of 25.1; p < 0.000). The same result was observed in the presence (+)/absence of dyslipidemia and history of CVD. The prevalence of DN is present in a 33.9% of the total 501 DM patient group studied (Table 2).
\nThe prevalence of polymorphisms and their distribution can be seen in Table 3. All polymorphisms were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, to give an adequate composition and distribution of the polymorphisms analyzed in the populations remain in balance and natural selection.
\nThe results of comparison of prevalence of genetic variants in the populations studied can be seen in Table 3, wherein the ACE I/D (p < 0.001) and CCR5 (p < 0.001) show differences between countries. Genotype I/I ACE is less prevalent in the Mexican population, compared to others (p = 0.01). A difference was also found in one homozygote Costa Rican patient in the CCR5 D32 polymorphism, which was not found in the other groups (p = 0.001). MTHFR C677T polymorphism, in the total group studied showed a higher frequency of the 677TT phenotype, but there was no significant difference (p = 0.146) between any of the groups.
\nThe ACE polymorphism had a significance in the total group of DM patients with a history of CVD, p = 0.02, CCR5 with a history of dyslipidemia (p = 0.008) and presence of the HTA (p = 0.022).
\nAnother analysis was performed between the presence of DN in patients with a history of CVD, and it was found a statistical association, p < 0.001 OR 3.1 (CI, 1.6–5.8).
\nThe presence or absence of HTA with any of the polymorphisms analyzed was compared, obtaining statistical significance (p = 0.042) for Nicaraguan DM patients. In the presence or absence of dyslipidemia, there was a significant difference (p = 0.031) in the group of Nicaraguan patients and I/D polymorphism of the ACE gene.
\nThe presence or absence of CVD in DM patients between the countries was compared, a significant difference (p = 0.030) was obtained in the group of Nicaraguan patients with CVD and MTHFR C677T gene, and also statistical difference was obtained (p < 0.001).
\nIn the results of the interpopulation comparison, a significant difference (p = 0.000) between the onset of HTA in DM patients against Nicaraguans and similar behavior was found in the DM patients in Costa Rica (p < 0.001).
\nVariable/risk factor n (%) | \nCosta Rican (n = 132) | \nNicaraguan (n = 192) | \nMexican (n = 197) | \np | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Age, years | \n60.8 + 5.6 | \n58.8 + 11.9 | \n57.7 + 11.9 | \n– | \n
Gender | \n132 | \n192 | \n197 | \n0.439 | \n
Male | \n38 (28.8) | \n61 (31.8) | \n69 (35.0) | \n|
Female | \n94 (71.2) | \n131 (68.2) | \n128 (65.0) | \n|
DN | \n132 | \n192 | \n197 | \n0.009 | \n
DN+ | \n54 (40.9) | \n71 (37.0) | \n50 (25.4) | \n|
DN− | \n78 (59.1) | \n121 (63.0) | \n147 (74.6) | \n|
Hypertension (HTA) (%) | \n132 | \n192 | \n104* | \n0.000 | \n
HTA+ | \n104 (78.8) | \n106 (55.2) | \n37 (35.6) | \n|
HTA− | \n28 (21.2) | \n86 (44.8) | \n67 (64.4) | \n|
Dyslipidemia | \n132 | \n192 | \n101* | \n0.000 | \n
Yes | \n54 (40.9) | \n165 (85.9) | \n24 (23.8) | \n|
No | \n78 (59.1) | \n27 (14.1) | \n77 (76.2) | \n|
Cardiovascular disease | \n132 | \n192 | \n102* | \n0.000 | \n
Yes | \n45 (34.1) | \n187 (97.4) | \n06 (5.9) | \n|
No | \n87 (65.9) | \n05 (2.6) | \n96 (94.1) | \n
Demographic and clinical characteristics of the study cohort.
DN, Diabetes nephropathy.
*Some data were not available in the Mexican cases. Age, mean + standard deviation. In the other rows, the values denote numbers of cases followed by percentage of the total group; p is significant <0.05
The CR cases reported the use of glycemic control of DM, 10.9% of Nicaraguan cases reported that are not using any anti-glycemic drug, which is a significant difference (p < 0.05) between these Costa Rican and Nicaraguan populations. It was not possible obtain this information for the Mexican group.
\nThe comparison was done according to genetic polymorphism and cases of each country. The following results were obtained: in the I/D ACE gene, there is a greater number of Nicaraguan cases with the heterozygous genotype ACE I/D, without this becomes significant, while a DM patient of Costa Rican cases showed a similar behavior. In relation to MTHFR C677T polymorphism, both Costa Rican and Nicaraguan DM patients showed a higher frequency of the C677T polymorphism, showing no significant difference (p > 0.05) between any of the groups. The CCR5 D32/D32 had very few cases with homozygous, and only one case was found in the Costa Rican group.
\nPolymorphisms | \nCosta Rica | \nNicaragua | \nMéxico | \np** | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | \n132 | \n192 | \n128* | \n\n |
II (%) | \n41 (31.0) | \n39 (20.3) | \n12 (9.4) | \n0.000 | \n
ID (%) | \n55 (41.7) | \n97 (50.5) | \n80 (62.5) | \n|
DD (%) | \n36 (27.3) | \n56 (29.2) | \n36 (28.1) | \n|
\n | \n||||
I | \n137 (0.52) | \n175 (0.46) | \n104 (0.41) | \n0.000 | \n
D | \n127 (0.48) | \n209 (0.54) | \n152 (0.59) | \n|
\n | \n132 | \n192 | \n197 | \n\n |
CC677 (%) | \n40 (30.3) | \n53 (27.6) | \n53 (26.9) | \n0.146 | \n
C677T (%) | \n67 (50.8) | \n83 (43.2) | \n82 (41.6) | \n|
677TT (%) | \n25 (18.9) | \n56 (29.2) | \n62 (31.5) | \n|
\n | \n||||
C | \n147 (0.56) | \n189 (0.49) | \n188 (0.48) | \n0.122 | \n
T | \n117 (0.44) | \n195 (0.51) | \n206 (0.52) | \n|
\n | \n132 | \n192 | \n197 | \n\n |
wt/wt (%) | \n\n | 183 (95.3) | \n161 (81) | \n_ | \n
\n | 123 (93.2) | \n\n | \n | \n |
wt/D32 (%) | \n8 (6.0) | \n9 (4.7) | \n36 (18.3) | \n0.000 | \n
D32/D32(%) | \n1 (0.8) | \n0 | \n0 | \n|
\n | \n||||
wt | \n254 (0.96) | \n375 (0.98) | \n358 (0.91) | \n_ | \n
D32 | \n10 (0.04) | \n9 (0.002) | \n\n | 36 (0.09) | \n
Prevalence of genotypes and allele frequency of the polymorphisms studied in type 2 DM patients from urban areas of San José, Costa Rica; León, Nicaragua; and Yucatán, Mexico.
*Some Mexican DNA samples were without results for this polymorphism.
**p values were calculated by χ2-test, p significant <0.05.
– Data not applicable.
In this multicenter study from three Mesoamerican populations, we combined a metabolic disease as DM and a three genetic variants analysis to study their prevalence with the presence of DN. We found that DN in T2-DM patients was associated with the studied polymorphisms principally with ACE I/D and CCR5 d32 as well with HTA and dyslipidemia as risk factors. Our results related to I/D polymorphism are consistent with those reported in other studies [18], one meta-analysis [42], and with prospective follow-up studies [43]. We found that both, the
In an analysis of the total studied population, according to sex distribution, there was a prevalence of 67.6% (n = 339) females. This is a finding that could be explained given that in women, especially those who are near to menopausal age or those who live than this period, aging processes are complicated by hormonal, metabolic, and psychological changes that accompany them [44]. The fact that women are the majority population who assists to a primary health center in these countries; after menopause, pancreatic insulin secretion decreases and insulin resistance increases, and a further estrogen deficiency occurs. This deficiency also affects blood flow to the muscles, limiting the already reduced glucose uptake.
\nIn the case of HTA variable, a significant difference (p < 0.001) with an OR of 25.1 was detected, demonstrating a strong association between the Costa Rican and Nicaraguan DM. It is clear that altering blood pressure contributes to the development and progression of chronic complications of this disease. In individuals with DM, HTA may be present in elemental diagnosis even before developing hyperglycemia and is often part of a syndrome that includes glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, obesity, dyslipidemia and coronary artery disease, constituting metabolic syndrome [45]. It is known that a strict control of blood pressure of 130/80 mmHg reduces cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and renal complications than the control of other complications, hence the importance of maintaining strict control over the value of hypertension in DM patients [46].
\nOn the other hand, 34.1% of Costa Ricans and 97.1% Nicaraguan had a history of some type of CVD, compared with 59% of Mexican patients, a difference that was statistically significant (p = 0.001), Table 2. These latter variables show similar behavior in other studies since it is known that the higher the value of blood pressure, the greater the probability of having a heart attack, heart failure, stroke, and/or kidney disease [47]. This applies especially for individuals aged between 40 and 70 years, since each increase of 20 mmHg in systolic blood pressure or 10 mmHg in diastolic in this population doubles in the risk of CVD over the range from 115/75 to 185/115 mmHg [48].
\nThe 85.9% of DM Nicaraguan patients had dyslipidemia, it is also statistically significant (p < 0.05) compared with the full studied group, and this proportion is maintained by the value obtained for the OR of this study (OR = 9.54). This finding is consistent with other studies and is the association between DM and the presence of dyslipidemia [49]. The vasodilator action of insulin would frequently alter in the presence of insulin resistance; in these situations, by capillary recruitment, typical insulin target tissues (skeletal muscle) would be decreased. Insulin has different effects on the vascular tissues because it stimulates the activity of nitric oxide synthase enzyme endothelial and the endothelium-dependent vasodilatation. In theory, the alteration of the latter mechanism, insulin resistance as in the DM, contributes to endothelial vasomotor dysfunction and would lead to hypertension and atherogenesis [50]. All these variables, including the presence or absence of DM, tend to operate as a single entity, referred to as metabolic syndrome (MS), which is a complex entity, including risk factors predictors of CVD.
\nThese associations found between hypertension, CVD, and dyslipidemia with DM confirm that the most important element in a strict treatment and followed program for DM patients is to avoid the complications as DN and CVD. If we discard the genetic components and rather focus solely on traditional risk factors, which can be prevented or improved, such as healthy lifestyle, together with existing drug therapy, they positively affect the quality of life of patients [51].
\nHowever, we found a higher prevalence of I/D ACE polymorphism in our DM patients and some association with DN, Table 3. It is important to know that DN is considered as a multicausal complication. Renal complications due to T2 DM owing to the multifactorial causes are a comprehensive expression of conditioning phenotype with the additive effect of multiple loci, and several environmental factors inherent to each population. More genetic regions are associated through sequencing techniques with the predisposition of developing diabetic complications. Around 69 genetic loci are described now, whereas binding studies have described more than 24 genes; therefore, more reports are required, given the genetic heterogeneity influences nephropathy, studies with more population are necessary to assume with greater relevance the interaction between multiple genetic loci and to get an association with a particular phenotype [19].
\nComparing Costa Ricans against Nicaraguan and Mexican patients, a significant difference in some of the polymorphisms between these populations was found. One of those differences was CCR5 D32, with a significant difference (p = 0.042). This observation is consistent with that described in the literature where it is stated that there is an interaction in pathological states, including some classic risk factors (such as DM and overall metabolic syndrome) and some immunomodulatory factors (such as CCR5). However, the mechanism by which this process occurs had not been well described. An explanation is related to the obesity-associated insulin resistance, which is characterized by a chronic inflammation of tissues, including visceral adipose tissue, which recruits a large number of macrophages, T lymphocytes, and B lymphocytes; the interaction of these cells generates multiple cytokines secretions and autoantigens that predispose to the development of diabetic complications mainly of cardiometabolic type. The exact mechanism of how these interactions occur has not yet been elucidated nor the effects that are associated with this interaction [52].
\nFor the variable of DN presence or absence of disease in Nicaraguan DM patients, two of the three polymorphisms showed statistical significance: MTHFR gene C677T genotype (p = 0.030) and genotype I/D ACE gene (p < 0.001). MTHFR C677T genotype literature does not describe associations between disease and this genotype, but rather a protective 677TT genotype of MTHFR gene [53] was documented effect. The differences obtained could be due to a small sample size or bias on the part of the information provided by the patient.
\nThe genotype I/D ACE gene was found with significant difference in the distribution among Costa Rican and Nicaraguan populations and in association with the presence of DN. This finding is novel, because even that greater presence of individuals with the D/D genotype is described in the literature, the found difference is significant, therefore, and to confirm this finding, it is necessary to increase the sample size [24, 54].
\nA significant difference (p = 0.031) in the genotype I/D ACE gene was found among Nicaraguan patients with and without dyslipidemia. Similar to the comments on this genotype and an association with this risk factor was also found in the Nicaraguan population. This is an unreported (with statistical significance) finding; however, it had higher frequency of individuals with this polymorphism described in the studies [24].
\nAnother important finding was the significant difference (p < 0.001) between the use or not of DM medicament by Nicaraguan patients, since 10.9% of the Nicaraguan population reported not using such medications to control serum glucose level. This finding is explained by a deficiency in the coverage of the Nicaraguan health system, which is a risk factor to take into account in the development of complications in the diabetic population.
\nIn summary, the HTA and dyslipidemia are classic risk factors strongly linked to the DN disease to the T2 DM of the urban areas of San José, Costa Rica; Leon, Nicaragua; and Yucatan, Mexico. The molecular analysis of the genotype I/D ACE was the most important in T2 DM between the patients, principally in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. The polymorphism of the gene CCR5 was significant, with differences in its prevalence between the analyzed countries.
\nThe highlights of the present study are that this is the first report of DN risk factors and three molecular variants in Mesoamerican T2 DM patients. Further studies are necessary to determine the exact impact of the genetics and environment on the risk and to define possible interaction with other candidates involved in the pathogenesis of DN in type 2 DM. These data prove the importance of continuation of this kind of research in order to consider the possibility of offering molecular analysis to type 2 DM population as a potential preventive diagnosis for DM patients with risk of DN.
\nThis work was made possible by the support from Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores de Mexico a través del Academic Exchange program ANUIES_CSUCA 2012, (Sa-2) and by Vicerrectoría de Investigación, University of Costa Rica (project No. 807-A5-311).
\nThe rapid progress in communication technology in recent years has been noted by scientists and engineers working in this field. These technological advances have motivated people to utilize them with the purpose to improve their quality of life. A good level of life always strives for ease of communication, among others, by the presence of cellphone abbreviated as hand phone, a type of wireless telephone that is easy to carry everywhere and practical because of its small size so that it is easily inserted into a pocket. A cellular telephone or hand phone is a device that can make and receive phone calls transmitted via electromagnetic waves and can be used around a large geographical area. Because communication using this cellphone uses electromagnetic waves in the microwave frequency range, the microwave radiating out of the mobile emitter will theoretically affect the human body, especially the head around the ear as shown in Figure 1.
Use of microwave absorbers for shielding radiation.
Radiation emitted can also affect the function of enzymes and proteins, which is a change in albumin protein that functions in supplying blood flow to the brain. For this reason, we need a microwave absorbent material that can reduce and even eliminate the effect of microwave radiation on human health [1, 2].
In the electronics field, microwave absorbers are used to reduce the presence of electromagnetic wave interference (EMI) [3, 4]. In general, electronic components that work at high frequencies often experience problems such as frequency signal leakage. EMI will not be present if the electronic device is in an open condition or is not in a closed medium. However, signals travelling in a closed medium will be reflected back to the device. This will cause the energy to increase in phase at certain frequencies due to the appearance of EMI emitted in the form of noise, which then interferes with the performance of these electronic devices. But after the closed media are protected by microwave absorbers, the effect of EMI can be avoided. An illustration of this phenomenon is shown in Figure 2.
Use of microwave absorbers to reduce EMI.
In the field of defense (military) [5, 6], this microwave absorber is used for coating or painting on defense equipment and facilities such as stealth aircraft, warships (war ship), and for army clothing, especially troops in the guard front. as shown in Figure 3.
Use of microwave absorbers in the defense sector.
In a radar system, microwaves are transmitted continuously in all directions by the transmitter. If there is an object affected by this wave, the signal will be reflected by the object and received back by the recipient. This reflection signal will provide information that there is a close object that will be displayed by the radar screen. Radar (radio detection and ranging) is a microwave system that is useful for detecting and measuring distances and making maps of an object. The radar waves emitted are able to detect the presence of an object. The radar concept is measuring the distance from the sensor to the target. The measure of distance is obtained by measuring the time needed by the radar wave during its propagation from the sensor to the target and back to the sensor again. The measured distance based on the time needed by the electromagnetic waves emanating from the target is then reflected back to the radar sensor. The target is able to reflect electromagnetic waves, so that the radar is able to detect the existence of these objects. However, the case is different if the object cannot reflect radar waves, so that the radar is not able to detect the existence of the object. This phenomenon is then developed for certain interests related to the defense system.
Because of the vast utilization of these microwave absorbent materials, it is generally accepted, recognizing that microwave absorbent material is a material that can weaken the energy of electromagnetic waves. These microwave absorbent materials can externally reduce or even eliminate reflections or transmissions from certain objects and can be used internally to reduce oscillations caused by resonance cavities. Besides that, this microwave absorbent can be used to create a reflection free space or anechoic space.
Metamaterial is one of the solutions for the development of microwave absorbent materials. Metamaterials that are developing rapidly are smart magnetic-based materials. Smart magnetics are modified magnetic materials so these materials have a single-phase frequency-dependent permeability and permittivity depending on the type of magnetic material used. Smart magnetic is an advanced magnetic material in the future in the form of new inorganic crystalline materials with permeability and permittivity made from interpenetrating lattices with magnetic field and electric field responses.
Electromagnetic waves are a form of energy emitted and absorbed by charged particles, which shows wavelike behavior because it travels through space [7]. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that oscillate and consist of electric field and magnetic field vector components as shown in Figure 4.
Schematic propagation of electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic energy propagates in waves with several parameters that can be measured, namely, wavelength, frequency, amplitude (amplitude), and speed. Amplitude is the wave height, while the wavelength is the distance between two peaks. Frequency is the number of waves that pass through a point in a unit of time. The frequency depends on the speed of the wave climbed. Because the speed of electromagnetic energy is constant (the speed of light), the wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional. The longer the wave, the lower the frequency, and the shorter the wave, the higher the frequency.
The general characteristics of electromagnetic waves are that changes in the electric and magnetic fields occur at the same time, so that both fields have maximum and minimum values at the same time and at the same place. The direction of the electric field and magnetic field is perpendicular to each other, and both are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, and electromagnetic waves experience events of reflection, refraction, interference, polarization, and diffraction. Fast propagation of electromagnetic waves depends only on the electrical and magnetic properties of the medium that it passes through.
The arrangement of all forms of electromagnetic waves based on their wavelengths and frequencies covers a very low range of energy to very high energy called the electromagnetic wave spectrum, as shown in Figure 5.
Spectrum of electromagnetic waves and microwaves.
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves which have a frequency range of about 0.3–300 GHz with wavelengths of around 1–1 mm. The microwave frequency range consists of several bandwidths, namely, L band to D band [8].
Coherent and polarized microwaves obey the optical law; this wave can be reflected, transmitted, and absorbed, depending on the type of material it passes. In general, the use of microwaves is based on the phenomenon of reflection and transmission only (Figure 6).
Rules of optical law in microwaves.
But in the last few decades, the phenomenon of microwave absorption has also become very popular as the core concept in the development of rapidly advancing electronic and telecommunications technology as shown in core (Figure 7) [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. The main requirement that is needed as microwave absorbing material is that this material has a value of permeability (magnetic loss properties) and permittivity (dielectric loss properties) material [16].
Microwave absorption mechanism for materials.
In general the electrical and magnetic properties of a microwave absorbent material are characterized by complex permittivity and complex permeability, as shown by the following equations [17, 18, 19]:
The real part of permittivity (ε′) states the measure of the amount of energy from the external electric field stored in the material, while the imaginary part (ε″) states the measure of energy lost due to the external electric field. If the imaginary part is zero then the material is a lossless material and is called a loss factor. The same for permeability, the real part (μ′) expresses a measure of the amount of energy from the external magnetic field stored in the material, while the imaginary part (μ″) shows the amount of energy dissipated due to the magnetic field.
Permittivity is present from material dielectric polarization. The quantity ε′ can also be referred to as the dielectric constant of a material. The quantity ε″ is a measure of attenuation from the electric field caused by material. Loss of tangent permittivity of a material is defined as follows:
The greater the loss tangent of a material, the greater the attenuation when the wave moves through the material. The same applies to magnetic fields, namely:
Both components contribute to the compression of wavelengths in the material. Because electromagnetic waves (EM) are a combination of two waves between electric and magnetic waves, loss of both magnetic and electric fields will weaken the energy in waves. In most dampers, both permittivity and permeability are functions of frequency and can vary significantly even in small frequency ranges. If permittivity and complex permeability are known in a certain frequency range, the material effect on the wave will be known.
It is well known that dielectric and magnetic parameters include electric field vectors
where Zin is the impedance of material, (
This impedance adjustment is important in the microwave frequency range. A transmission line that is given the same load as the characteristic impedance has a standing wave ratio (SWR) equal to one and transmits a certain amount of power without wave reflection. Also the absorption efficiency is optimum if there is no reflected power. Matching means giving the same impedance as the characteristic impedance of electromagnetic waves. Measured parameters are reflection loss (RL), if there is a matching impedance Zin = Zo, meaning that RL will be infinite or all waves have been absorbed perfectly.
This chapter focuses specifically on microwave absorbent materials from smart magnet materials which have been thoroughly studied by the authors, which include perovskite, ferrite, hexagonal ferrite, and composite systems. The results have all been reported and published in several globally indexed journals.
Perovskite systems have an empirical formula ABO3. In this research, the authors have focused on the LaMnO3-based system. An LaMnO3 is a magnetic material that has high permittivity but low permeability because it is paramagnetic at room temperature [20]. In a previous study [21], after LaMnO3 was substituted with barium atoms forming the compound La0.8Ba0.2MnO3, this material was ferromagnetic where the permeability of the material increased. However, the results of testing microwave absorption are still relatively low, only in the range of ~6.5 to ~3 dB at a frequency of 14.2 GHz. In this chapter book, we will also present the results of advanced material engineering based on the results obtained previously, namely, manganite-based materials with a composition of La0.8Ba0.2FexMn½(1-x)Ti½(1-x)O3 (x = 0.1–0.8) [22]. A designed La0.8Ba0.2FexMn½(1-x)Ti½(1-x)O3 composition was prepared using a conventional milling technique. Stoichiometric quantities of analytical grade BaCO3, Fe2O3, MnCO3, TiO2, and La2O3 precursors with a purity of greater than 99% were mixed and milled using a planetary ball mill to powder weight ratio of 10:1 for up to 10 h. The quasicrystalline powders were then compacted into pellets and sintered in the electric chamber furnace at 1000°C for 5 h to obtain crystalline materials and confirmed using an X-ray diffractometer (XRD). The results of XRD analysis show that the highest fraction of the LaMnO3 phase was found in the sample with composition x < 0.3 to 99%, while the LaMnO3 phase mass fraction decreased for composition x > 0.3 as illustrated in Figure 8.
X-ray diffraction pattern of La0.8Ba0.2FexMn½(1-x)Ti½(1-x)O3 (x = 0.1–0.8) [
The results of magnetic properties analysis were measured using vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). The results of the VSM analysis show that in all samples, La0.8Ba0.2FexMn½(1-x)Ti½(1-x)O3 (x = 0.1–0.8) contains a BaFe12O19-based hard magnetic phase. This magnetic phase increases with increasing composition of x as shown in Figure 9.
The hysteresis curve of La0.8Ba0.2FexMn½(1-x)Ti½(1-x)O3 (x = 0.1–0.8) [
The characteristic of microwave absorption is measured using vector network analyzer (VNA) in the frequency range 9–15 GHz as illustrated in Figure 10. The results of the VNA analysis show that the highest reflection loss is found to be three absorption peaks of ~9, ~8, and ~23.5 dB which is located at 9.9, 12.0, and 14.1 GHz frequency, respectively. Based on the calculation of the reflection value obtained, microwave absorption reaches 95% with a sample thickness of 1.5 mm.
Reflection loss (RL) of La0.8Ba0.2FexMn½(1-x)Ti½(1-x)O3 [
Investigation on this perovskite system has also been carried out by previous researchers. Zhang and Cao [23] succeeded in synthesizing transition metal (TM)-doped La0.7Sr0.3Mn1−xTMxO3±δ (TM: Fe, Co, or Ni) for microwave absorbing materials. La0.7Sr0.3Mn1−xTMxO3±δ has shown good properties for microwave absorption. The maximum reflection loss was 27.67 dB at a 10.97 GHz frequency, which was obtained from a sample thickness of 2 mm. Zhou et al. [24] reported the successful synthesis of a modified of manganite-based compound La0.8Sr0.2Mn1-yFeyO3 (0 < y < 0.2). They showed that the absorption bandwidth reached 8.5 GHz above 8 dB and 6.2 GHz above 10 dB; the highest absorption peak reached 34 dB.
For the ferrite system, we have conducted research on nickel ferrite-based microwave absorbers [25]. A research to study the microwave absorption properties of nickel ferrite in the X-band range has been conducted by using high energy milling technique. The synthesis of nickel ferrite (NixFe3-xO4) was performed using solid-state reaction method with the material composition (2x)NiO: (3-x)Fe2O3 (x = 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0) according to the molar ratio. This powder mixture was being milled for 10 hours then sintered at 1000°C temperature for 3 hours. Diffraction patterns of all varied NixFe3-xO4 (x = 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0) which have been synthesized by using milling technique are shown in Figure 11. It can be noticed that a single phase of all varied NixFe3-xO4 (x = 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0), which had spinel structure with lattice parameters a = b = c (space group Fd3m), has successfully formed.
X-ray diffraction patterns of NixFe3-xO4 of (x = 0.5–2.0) [
The magnetic properties were measured by using vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) as shown in Figure 12. To study the effects of Ni2+ doping on saturation magnetization (Ms), coercivity (Hc), and remanent magnetization (Mr) of NixFe3-xO4 of (x = 0.5–2.0), M-H hysteresis loops were recorded using VSM under the applied magnetic field in the range of −10 up to 10 kOe at room temperature. The VSM result shows that all the samples exhibited a ferromagnetic behavior and fine hysteresis loops with a decrease in magnetization (Ms and Mr) but coercivity (Hc) with increase in Ni2+ concentration. Its coercivity value is in the range of 164–217 Oe, and the maximum value is found at x =1.5 composition.
Hysteresis curve of NixFe3-xO4 (x = 0.5–2.0) [
The microwave absorption measurement was carried out by Vector Network Analyzer (VNA). The VNA characterization shows the ability of microwave absorption with a parameter of RL (reflection loss) value. Figure 13 shows that the highest RL peak reached −28 dB at frequency of 10.98 GHz. It means that the Ni1.5Fe1.5O4 sample can absorb microwave about ~96% at 10.98 GHz.
Reflection loss (RL) curve of NixFe3-xO4 (x = 0.5–2.0) [
Other ferrite materials, such as barium mono-ferrite-based microwave absorbers, have also been studied by Ade Mulyawan et al. [26]. Barium mono-ferrite (BaFe2O4) has a more complex structure that exhibits orthorhombic structure. In this study, barium strontium mono-ferrite has been successfully synthesized using mechanical milling technique. BaCO3, SrCO3, and Fe2O3 powders are each weighed in accordance with the mole ratio of a total weight of 10 g. The chemical composition for the Ba(1-x)SrxFe2O4 samples was in the range of 0 < x < 0.5. X-ray diffraction patterns of all varied Ba(1-x)SrxFe2O4 (0 < x < 0.5) show a single phase of all composition.
Figure 14 shows the RL result of Ba(1-x)SrxFe2O4 (0 < x < 0.5). The results of VNA analysis show that the highest reflection loss of the Ba(1-x)SrxFe2O4 (0 < x < 0.5) was found in the sample with composition x = 0.1, while the reflection loss of the Ba(1-x)SrxFe2O4 (0 < x < 0.5) decreased for composition x > 0.1. A significant property of microwave absorption has also been displayed for the composition of x = 0.1, in which the value of −38.25 dB (~99.9%) for the reflection loss in the frequency range of 11.2 GHz was achieved.
Reflection loss (RL) curve of Ba(1-x)SrxFe2O4 (0 < x < 0.5) [
The M-type hexagonal ferrite system (BaFe12O19) is generally an oxide permanent magnet. The hexagonal ferrite is one of the hard magnetic materials that is widely used in many applications. Apart from being applied to electric motors, they can be used for electronic devices because they have good phase stability at high temperatures and very high frequency responses and as switching with narrow field distribution. Material engineering for this application requires material that has magnetic and electrical specifications, and to obtain it, system modification is needed through a substitution process where trivalent iron ions Fe3+ will be replaced in part by M2+ divalent and M4+ tetravalent metal ions; using a material processing route can vary. We have succeeded in modifying this material into a microwave absorbent material. Ba0.6Sr0.4Fe12-zMnzO19 (z = 0, 1, 2, and 3) was successfully synthesized by solid-state reaction through a mechanical milling method [27]. The raw materials of MnCO3, BaCO3, Fe2O3, and SrCO3 pro-analytic with purity > 99% were mixed according to stoichiometry composition of Ba0.6Sr0.4Fe12-zMnzO19 (z = 0, 1, 2, and 3). Based on the results of quantitative analysis using XRD, it shows that the best phase composition was found in the composition z = 1, namely, Ba0.6Sr0.4Fe11MnO19 as shown in Figure 15. Refinement of X-ray diffraction patterns reveals that Ba0.6Sr0.4Fe11MnO19 is a single phase and has a hexagonal structure with space group P63/mmc.
X-ray diffraction patterns of Ba0.6Sr0.4Fe12-zMnzO19 (z = 0, 1, 2, and 3) [
Powder Ba0.6Sr0.4Fe11MnO19 has an average particle size of 850 nm. Magnetic properties of Ba0.6Sr0.4Fe11MnO19 have a relatively low coercivity field and high remanent magnetization as shown in Figure 16.
Hysteresis curve of Ba0.6Sr0.4Fe12-zMnzO19 (z = 0, 1, 2, and 3) [
The results of the microwave absorption test in the sample Ba0.6Sr0.4Fe11MnO19 in the frequency range 8–14 GHz show that the absorption peak values were −8 and −10 dB at 8.5 and 12.5 GHz, respectively (Figure 17). When compared with the results of the study by Azwar Manaf et al. [28], they have conducted research on the Ti2+-Mn4+ ions which substituted BaFe12-2xTixMnxO19 samples with x = 0.0–0.8 through a mechanical alloying process and have studied the effect of ion substitution on microstructure, magnetic, and microwave absorption characteristics. They obtained the results of reflection loss (RL) on series of Ti2+-Mn4+ ions substituted BaFe12-2xTixMnxO19 samples with x = 0.0–0.8 samples which could be increased from 2.5 dB in composition x = 0 to −22 dB in composition x = 0.6 in the 8–12 GHz frequency range.
Reflection loss curve (RL) of Ba0.6Sr0.4Fe12-zMnzO19 (z = 0, 1, 2, and 3) [
The results of this study can be concluded that the modified hexagonal ferrite system is also a good candidate for microwave absorbing material.
At present there have been many materials developed from other types of polymer-based composite materials, because application requires that these materials should be easy to form and easy to apply to other media such as electronic devices. For composite systems we have conducted research on microwave absorber sheets that are a composite of silicon rubber—iron oxide [29]. In this study, composites from the raw materials of silicone rubber, toluene, and iron oxide magnet powder have been made. The three raw materials are blended in a beaker and stirred for 60 min. The mixture is then printed on a media at 70°C and left for 15 min. The results of elemental analysis using energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) show that the sample contained carbon, oxygen, sulfur, copper, and iron. While the results of the analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns show that the sample was classified as semi-crystalline with a crystallinity of 46%. So the composite consists of an amorphous matrix and a crystalline filler (namely, the phases of CuFeS2, FeS, FeO2, and Fe). Based on the results of functional group analysis using Fourier transformation infrared (FTIR), it shows that the sulfur addition modifies the polymer by forming a cross bond (bridge) between the individual polymer chain and the bond between the magnetic filler and the rubber matrix. Figure 18 represents the FTIR spectrum between 4000 and 600 cm−1 from the composite sample. The peak transmittance of the FTIR spectrum in the composite sample shows the vibrations of O▬H, C▬H, Si▬C, Si▬O, and Fe▬O bond. Natural rubber consists of suitable polymers of isoprene organic compounds with minor impurities from organic compounds and other water. The transmittance peaks of silicone rubber appear at wave numbers around 3000, 1250, and 1050–750 cm−1 which indicate the presence of successive functional groups C▬H, Si▬C, and Si▬O bonds. Peak transmittance oxide iron was also observed at wave numbers around 3700 and 600 cm−1, each of which indicated a vibration of H▬O and Fe▬O bonds. From the results of FTIR analysis, it is suspected that there is a bond between iron oxide as a filler and silicone rubber as a matrix.
The transmittance spectrum (FTIR) of the composite sample of silicon rubber—iron oxide [
The results of magnetic property analysis on absorber sheets were carried out using a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) which produced magnetic particle hysteresis curves as shown in Figure 19.
Hysteresis curve of composite silicon rubber—iron oxide samples [
The reflection loss value which is a microwave absorbent indicator from the absorber sheet is shown in Figure 20 where each profile for sheet-1, sheet-2, and sheet-3 has been compared. Figure 20 shows the relationship between reflection loss (RL) of the absorber sheet and the X-band microwave frequency in the range 10–15 GHz which was measured at a sample thickness of 1.5 mm. There were two observed absorption peaks and high RL in the high frequency range for all samples. The RL value increases with the addition of filler composition in the matrix. It seems that the RL value increases with the same sample thickness and the absorption frequency slightly shifts. This can be explained by the effects of electromagnetic properties on attenuation characteristics in each sample. Thus according to the results of this study, it was found that the best composite sample was sheet-3 with an absorption peak value of −15 dB at a frequency of 12 GHz.
Reflection loss curve (RL) of composition of silicone rubber—iron oxide [
Based on the results of this study, we conclude that all microwave absorbent materials can be made in the form of silicon rubber-based composite sheets as a composite matrix.
Based on the above explanation, wave absorbing materials are composed of materials that have magnetic and electrical properties which are shown by intrinsic parameters in the form of complex permittivity (
This work is supported by the program for research and development of smart magnetic material, Center for Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, National Nuclear Energy Agency. The authors are thankful to Prof. Dr. Ridwan and Dr. Abu Khalid Rivai, M.Eng., for their permission to publish this book chapter. Many thanks to Dra. Mujamilah, M.Sc., and Drs. Bambang Sugeng for their kind help to characterize using VSM and XRD, respectively.
The Edited Volume, also known as the IntechOpen Book, is an IntechOpen pioneered publishing product. Edited Volumes make up the core of our business - and as pioneers and developers of this Open Access book publishing format, we have helped change the way scholars and scientists publish their scientific papers - as scientific chapters.
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