Numerical experiments with regional and global climate models used to assess the influence of climate change on the future evolution of water cycle components in the selected basins.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-460-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-459-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-232-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"babca2dea1c80719111734cc57a21a4c",bookSignature:"Dr. Amin Talei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10404.jpg",keywords:"Water Budget, Ground Measurement, Satellite Data, Empirical Models, Physical Models, Data-Driven Models, Artificial Neural Network, Neuro-Fuzzy Systems, Genetic Programming, Irrigation Management, Drought, Aquifer Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in developing hydrological models using adaptive neuro-fuzzy systems, a pioneering researcher in tropical biofiltration systems, appointed head of the Civil Engineering Discipline in Monash University Malaysia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"335732",title:"Dr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Talei",slug:"amin-talei",fullName:"Amin Talei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/335732/images/system/335732.jpg",biography:"Associate Professor Amin Talei joined Monash University Malaysia in January 2013 and currently is the head of Civil Engineering discipline. His previous appointment was as researcher in School of Civil & Environmental Engineering of Nanyang Technological University of Singapore where he studied for his PhD during 2008-2011. His research is predominantly focused on hydrological modeling and flood forecasting using artificial intelligence techniques. Most recently, he has been also involved in research projects dealing with sustainable urban water management. To date, he has published over 50 articles in reputable journals and international conference proceedings. He has supervised several PhD and Master students and won the Supervisor of the Year Award in Monash University Malaysia in 2017. He has absorbed over AUD370,000 research funding from industry and international/national funding agencies since 2014 and is a chartered professional engineer of the Engineers Australia.",institutionString:"Monash University Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"59527",title:"Variability and Change in Water Cycle at the Catchment Level",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74047",slug:"variability-and-change-in-water-cycle-at-the-catchment-level",body:'\nThe Fifth Assessment Reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [1] indicates that climate change is unequivocal, and this fact is clear from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and the rising global sea level. Global warming leads to warmer lower atmosphere and increased evaporation rates, resulting in an enhancement in the amount of moisture transport in the troposphere. An observed effect of higher water vapor concentrations is the increased frequency of extreme precipitation events over land areas. Warmer temperatures have led to increased drying of the land surface in some areas, with the effect of an increased incidence and severity of drought. Climate change is affecting the water cycle, enhancing droughts in some areas and wet conditions in others [1]. In parts of the Northern Hemisphere, spring conditions have the tendency to develop earlier, leading to a shift in peaks in snowmelt and river streamflow. As a consequence, summers tend to experience reduced water availability. Furthermore, these changes are likely to intensify in future under higher greenhouse gas (GHG) global concentrations.
\nEven though the broad picture of climate-induced changes in water cycle is relatively clear, there are regional details that locally impact the water cycle, and this is the level where the adaptation measures have to be implemented for a sustainable development of the society. Climate impact assessments and local adaptation strategies require analysis based on numerical experiments using climate models with very high spatial resolution under scenarios of global climate change and robust evaluation of the results within the limits of reasonable uncertainty. However, few studies have documented water cycle-related changes at the river basin level based on the new regional climate modeling results in South Eastern Europe. A detailed analysis of future climate change projections exists for the Bârlad basin [2], considering the scenarios elaborated within the Fifth Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [1]. The results presented in [2] show that, under the climate change, the tendency toward more severe summer droughts is a significant feature of the Bârlad basin in the long run, despite the uncertainties related to global and regional models, parametrization of potential evapotranspiration in the Palmer model, and the soil data. This tendency seems to be a result of a basin-wide decrease in the precipitation and increase in the potential evaporation, which have been also identified as causes for the summer time drying in mid-latitudes in the CMIP 3 model results [3]. However, it is still an open question if these results apply for other river catchments, too.
\nThe main objective of this study is to propose a robust methodology for assessing the present and future-projected evolution of local water cycle components and their impacts on drought conditions at the basin level in mid-latitude areas, using results of regional climate experiments under the representative concentration pathway (RCP) scenarios [4]. The catchments selected as case studies are located in the mid- and low-Danube basin (Figure 1). In this area, usually, snow melting and rain provide the main supply for surface waters [5]; thus, they are relevant for climate-induced changes in water cycle at catchments level, in mid-latitudes.
\nLocation of the selected catchments (light blue area, dark blue edges). Shaded colors illustrate the topography. Blue lines represent the rivers. Hydrometric stations for each selected catchment are represented by black circles.
We extracted daily and monthly data from observations and model results covering the selected river basins. The time slices of simulated and observed available data are included in the interval 1951–2015. The future projections used here are computed under the representative concentration pathway (RCP) scenarios. The RCP scenarios describe the temporal evolution of the global greenhouse gas concentrations in the period 2006–2100. They illustrate the radiative forcing due to increased concentration of greenhouse gases. In 2100, the radiative forcing caused by increased levels of greenhouse gases reaches a value around 4.5 (8.5) W/m2 above the pre-industrial level in the RCP 4.5 (RCP 8.5) scenario [4].
\nThe CMIP5 results have a global coverage with a spatial resolution suitable for large-scale analysis. However, this resolution is not quite appropriate for a detailed description of local processes like those taking place in river catchments. That is why we used regional climate models from COordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) [6] driven by global models from the CMIP5. As part of CORDEX framework, EURO-CORDEX initiative provides regional climate projections for Europe at resolutions of 50 km (EUR-44) and 12.5 km (EUR-11). In this study, we use the available EURO-CORDEX results with very high resolution (EUR-11). The regional and global climate models used for numerical experiments analyzed in this study are presented in Table 1.
\nNo. | \nRegional climatic modeling center | \nRegional climate model (RCM) | \nGlobal climate model (GCM) | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nDMI (Danish Meteorological Institute) | \nHIRHAM5 | \nICHEC-EC-EARTH | \n
2 | \nKNMI (Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute) | \nRACMO22E | \nICHEC-EC-EARTH | \n
3 | \nSMHI (Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute) | \nRCA4 | \nICHEC-EC-EARTH | \n
4 | \nSMHI (Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute) | \nRCA4 | \nMPI-ESM-LR | \n
5 | \nSMHI (Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute) | \nRCA4 | \nIPSL-CM5A-MR | \n
Numerical experiments with regional and global climate models used to assess the influence of climate change on the future evolution of water cycle components in the selected basins.
We used observation-derived gridded data in comparison with model results to see how the regional climate models simulate the present climate. Observed data were extracted from the ROCADA data set for the period 1970–2005. The ROCADA data set contains daily values and has a spatial resolution of 10 km × 10 km [7, 8]. We have also extracted gridded temperature, precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (resolution 0.5° x 0.5°) from the global data set developed at Climate Research Unit (CRU) [9]. The CRU potential evapotranspiration follows the Penman-Monteith approach [10]. A gridded precipitation data covering the entire transboundary basin of Prut river at the spatial resolution of 10 km × 10 km was built in the framework of IMDROFLOOD project, using observations from Romania, Republic of Moldova and data extracted from the Global Historical Climatology Network-Daily (GHCND-D) [11]. Monthly values of streamflow at stations from Romania and Republic and Moldova were also used in the case of the Prut transboundary basin.
\nIn addition, we used available water capacities (AWCs) of soils. The AWC dataset consists of estimated topsoil and subsoil AWC values extracted from the European Soil Database (ESDB) [12, 13] for the studied areas.
\nIn this study, we averaged the sum of topsoil and subsoil AWCs from the ESDB on the 12.5 km × 12.5 km (50 km × 50 km) square cells centered in the climate model (CRU data) grids to provide the soil constants used as input data for PDSI calculation in each EURO-CORDEX (CRU) grid point of the selected basins. For example, the AWC data averaged at the EURO-CORDEX resolution are illustrated in Figure 2.
\nAvailable water capacities (AWCs) (in mm water column/1 m soil) computed in the 12.5 km EURO-CORDEX grids (black circles) obtained as the sum of topsoil and subsoil AWCs (at 1 km × 1 km resolution) extracted from the European Soil Database (ESDB) and averaged over the 12.5 km × 12.5 km grid cells centered in the model grids for the areas of interest.
In our approach, we define the local water cycle components (precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, and potential runoff) based on the two-level model of the soil exploit by the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) [14], like in the approach presented in [2]. The top layer of soil is assumed to hold 25.4 mm of moisture. The amount of moisture that can be held by the two-layered soil is a soil-dependent value—available water capacity (AWC)—which must be provided as an input parameter [14].
\nThe PDSI measures the cumulative effect of monthly precipitation deficit/surplus with respect to a value that is climatologically appropriate for existing conditions (CAFECs) in a given region [14]. The computation of the PDSI requires precipitation, air temperature, soil characteristics (i.e., available water capacity—AWC), and the latitude of the location to estimate the length of day over which the solar radiation is received (for deriving potential evapotranspiration). In order to calculate the PDSI for a certain month (i), one has first to determine the moisture anomaly index ZINDi for that month (i):
\nwhere k is an empirical weighting factor, specific for each region; α, β, γ, and δ are coefficients for evapotranspiration, soil water recharge, runoff and water loss from the soil, computed to link the potential quantities and real ones; and P, PET, PR, PRO, and PL represent the observed precipitation, Thornthwaite potential evapotranspiration [15], potential recharge, potential runoff and potential water loss from the soil. Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is the maximum evapotranspiration in the given environmental conditions, when soil moisture is not a limiting factor. Potential recharge (PR) is the amount of moisture required to bring the soil to its AWC from the available moisture at the beginning of the month. Potential run-off (PRO) is defined as the difference between the potential precipitation and the potential recharge. Runoff is assumed to occur if the Palmer soil model reaches its available moisture capacity, AWC. Potential loss (PL) is the amount of moisture that could be lost from the soil provided that the monthly precipitation is zero [14].
\nPalmer [14] built the index based on the simple representation of the components shaping the hydrological balance in a given area from the United States of America. We used the self-calibrated version of the PDSI [16] that automatically calibrates the behavior of the index at any location by replacing empirical constants in the index computation with dynamically calculated values.
\nThe water balance model proposed by Palmer uses the Thornthwaite parametrization for potential evapotranspiration [15], which is solely based on the air temperature, and the solar radiation contribution is empirically derived under the current climate conditions. Under the climate change, the Thornthwaite empirical approach seems to overestimate the upward trends in potential evapotranspiration [4, 17, 18]. The Penman-Monteith method uses a more physically oriented parametrization to estimate the potential evapotranspiration explicitly based on temperature, net radiation, air pressure, air humidity and wind data [10]. Thus, we have extracted and/or computed the Penman-Monteith version of potential evapotranspiration from the EURO-CORDEX archive [10, 19] and observed CRU data. We replaced Thornthwaite’s potential evapotranspiration with the Penman-Monteith one by modifying accordingly the C++ code presented in [16]. We selected as a baseline for the PDSI computation the reference periods included in the interval 1951–2015, depending on the available data from numerical experiments and/or observations.
\nIn our approach, the observed and simulated components of water cycle (precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, and potential runoff) and the PDSI values were spatially averaged across the studied basins, having in mind that the catchment level is a natural unit. On the other hand, the spatial averaging increases the signal-to-noise ratio while still providing useful information for water resource assessment and management.
\nThe modeling results regarding future evolution of PDSI and its components under RCP scenarios are further used to assess their impact on drought over the catchments under climate change conditions. Usually, there are differences in the climate projections due to model-related biases and natural climate variability. To address this issue, we used the available results from the five-member ensemble taken from EURO-CORDEX archive (Table 1) to compute PDSI components and related indices in the selected case studies. In this context, we analyzed the linear trends of basin-averaged PDSI and potential runoff up to 2100 to assess the impact of climate change on meteorological drought under moderate and worst-case RCP scenarios.
\nFigure 3 presents the correlation coefficients linking observation-derived components of the Palmer water balance and mean monthly streamflow (Qmed) at the gauging stations for each selected basin (Arges, Mures, Prut, Siret, and Somes). Due to data availability constraints, monthly values of ZIND, PRO, and the difference between precipitation and evapotranspiration (P-PE) are spatially averaged over the Romanian area of each river catchment, except the Prut basin where the spatial means cover the whole transboundary catchment. The monthly streamflow values are taken from available observations recorded at stations as close as possible to the river outlet. The selection of catchments and stations for streamflow observations was constrained by the data availability—they are mostly over the Romanian territory. In the case of Prut transboundary catchment, we used observations from two hydrometric stations: Dranceni in Romania and Brinza in Republic of Moldova. In general, there are quite large correlation coefficients illustrated in Figure 9 showing that the PDSI represents reasonably well the local process taking place in the analyzed catchments.
\nCorrelation between monthly components of Palmer Drought Severity Index—soil moisture index ZIND (dotted line) and potential runoff PRO (black line) computed from CRU observations and observed mean monthly streamflow (Qmed) at the gauging stations associated for the basins of rivers Arges, Mures, Prut, Siret, and Somes over the Romanian territory. The analyzed intervals with available data are specified in brackets. Gray line illustrates the correlation linking the difference between precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (P-PE) and Qmed.
An interesting feature is the fact that ZIND correlations with Qmed are systematically larger than the correlation of P-PE with the Qmed, which implies that the Palmer model brings added value in assessing anomalies of the water deficit or surplus (ZIND) compared with the simple difference between precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (P-PE). Also, PRO correlations with Qmed are, in general, larger in cold season months compared to ZIND correlations with Qmed. This can be explained by the fact that the Palmer model does not take snow, frozen soil, and related processes into consideration—the precipitation is immediately transferred into the soil. That is why in winter months, any simultaneously precipitation-related correlations with Qmed are low. On the other hand, PRO depends on soil recharge linked to soil available capacity. Remarkably high correlations all over the year link basin-averaged PRO with Qmed at the Brinza station in the Prut catchment. An explanation could be that Brinza station is very close to the Prut outlet. Streamflows recorded at the Brinza station are integrating the runoff from the whole basin which is not the case for the streamflows recorded at the Dranceni station. However, the time interval used to compute these correlations at the Brinza station is shorter (1985–2015), implying lesser statistical significance. The results presented in Figure 3 suggest that ZIND and PRO values could be used, at least for certain months and catchments, as simple and robust indicators of anomalies in water cycle components (such as soil moisture and runoff) at the basin level.
\nAnalyzing together the multiannual averages obtained from observed data and those resulted from the five EURO-CORDEX models (Table 1), one can notice that, generally, the seasonal cycles of observed precipitation and potential evapotranspiration are captured by the ensemble of numerical experiments for the present climate (1970–2005). We illustrate here the results for the Prut basin (Figures 4 and 5) but the abovementioned conclusion stands for the other basins, too.
\nObserved and simulated multiannual means (1970–2005) of monthly evapotranspiration (in mm/month) averaged over the Prut basin. The shaded band illustrates the simulated values from the five-member ensemble of regional climate experiments taken from the EURO-CORDEX archive (see Table 1). The black line represents the observation-derived values of potential evapotranspiration based on CRU data.
Observed and simulated multiannual means (1970–2005) of monthly precipitation (in mm/month) averaged over the Prut basin. The shaded band illustrates the simulated values from the five-member ensemble of regional climate experiments taken from the EURO-CORDEX archive (see Table 1). The black line represents the observation-derived values of potential evapotranspiration based on IMDROFLOOD gridded precipitation data.
In general, the multimodel average simulates very well the observed potential evapotranspiration even though there are some underestimations, especially in spring months.
\nThe results for model-simulated precipitation over the interval 1970–2005 do not reproduce the observed annual cycle as well as in the case of potential evapotranspiration. Even though the simulated annual cycle of precipitation generally resembles the observed one, the monthly values are generally overestimated. Underestimated monthly values are found in some summer months (July and August for the Prut basin).
\nHowever, the fact that the multiannual pattern of the two water cycle components (precipitation and potential evapotranspiration) is reproduced, to some extent, by the regional climate models provides a certain level of confidence when analyzing their future evolution and related drought indices in the area of interests under climate change scenarios.
\nThe main input data for computing the PDSI future projections are from the five-member EURO-CORDEX ensemble presented in Table 1.
\nThe linear trend analysis of basin-averaged PDSI computed using the multimodel mean ensemble shows tendencies toward drought conditions over all basins, for both concentration scenarios, more pronounced in the summer months (Table 2). Also, as we expected, the trends are larger for higher concentration scenario (RCP 8.5). For instance, in summer months (June to August), the basin-averaged PDSI values are reduced in Arges and Siret basins with 2.98 and 2.67, respectively, over the interval 1970–2100 under RCP 8.5 (Table 2). A two-unit decrease in PDSI is consistent with the transition from normal conditions to moderate drought or from moderate to extreme drought. Pronounced decadal variability is also present in the future projections of PDSI under both RCP scenarios (e.g. Figure 6). In the Palmer classification [14], depending on the specific climate scenario and catchment, droughts that were deemed as incipient, mild or severe toward the end of the twentieth century will become a normal summer feature toward the end of the twenty-first century. The tendencies for meteorological droughts in summer are coming along with the downward trends of basin-averaged precipitation, potential runoff (and streamflow), and upward trend in potential evapotranspiration. For instance, the largest mean reduction in potential runoff in summer months is for Arges and Siret basins with 36 and 35%, respectively, over the interval 1970–2100 under RCP 8.5 (Table 2).
\nRiver basin | \nClimate scenario | \nPDSI change in 131 years (1970–2100) | \nPRO change in 131 years (1970–2100) (% of mean PRO computed from 1970 to 2005) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Arges | \nRCP 4.5 | \n−1.45 | \n−24 | \n
RCP 8.5 | \n−2.98 | \n−36 | \n|
Mures | \nRCP 4.5 | \n−0.35 | \n−12 | \n
RCP 8.5 | \n−1.10 | \n−19 | \n|
Prut | \nRCP 4.5 | \n−1.45 | \n−23 | \n
RCP 8.5 | \n−1.81 | \n−30 | \n|
Siret | \nRCP 4.5 | \n−1.69 | \n−22 | \n
RCP 8.5 | \n−2.67 | \n−35 | \n|
Somes | \nRCP 4.5 | \n−0.35 | \n−12 | \n
RCP 8.5 | \n−0.75 | \n−18 | \n
PDSI mean change (in standardized units) and PRO mean change (in % relative to the mean of the interval 1970–2005) for summer months (June–August) in the interval 1970–2100. Mean values of the five-member ensemble are used.
However, when individual evolutions of PDSI values for each numerical experiment are analyzed, the intermodel and internal variability show up revealing cases in which the climate- related signal of drought tendencies is not always present as for the ensemble mean. In Table 3, the PDSI changes for the interval 1970–2100 are presented for each numerical experiment listed in Table 1 and for each river basin. This table illustrates the uncertainty associated with the signal revealed by the ensemble mean. The level of uncertainty related to the summer drought signal seems to be lowest for the Arges river basin if we count, from Table 3, the number of experiments for which there are higher PDSI changes in magnitude under the RCP 8.5 than those under the RCP 4.5 (four from five experiments). In this context, the level of uncertainty is highest for the Somes river basin (one from five experiments).
\nRiver basin | \nClimate scenario | \nNumerical experiments | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \n2 | \n3 | \n4 | \n5 | \n||
Arges | \nRCP 4.5 | \n−0.75 | \n−2.87 | \n0.20 | \n−2.28 | \n−1.57 | \n
RCP 8.5 | \n0.00 | \n−3.81 | \n−1.85 | \n−4.01 | \n−5.34 | \n|
Mures | \nRCP 4.5 | \n1.85 | \n−1.81 | \n0.98 | \n−0.94 | \n−1.89 | \n
RCP 8.5 | \n1.80 | \n−0.31 | \n−2.24 | \n−1.22 | \n−3.58 | \n|
Prut | \nRCP 4.5 | \n−2.24 | \n−1.10 | \n−0.43 | \n−1.81 | \n−1.65 | \n
RCP 8.5 | \n−1.14 | \n0.39 | \n−1.89 | \n−2.83 | \n−3.62 | \n|
Siret | \nRCP 4.5 | \n−1.69 | \n−1.18 | \n−0.39 | \n−2.75 | \n−2.40 | \n
RCP 8.5 | \n−0.79 | \n−0.55 | \n−1.85 | \n−4.87 | \n−5.27 | \n|
Somes | \nRCP 4.5 | \n2.12 | \n−1.93 | \n0.20 | \n−0.75 | \n−1.30 | \n
RCP 8.5 | \n0.83 | \n−0.39 | \n−2.95 | \n0.02 | \n−1.14 | \n
PDSI change (in standardized units) for summer months (June–August) in the interval 1970–2100.
Simulated monthly values (1970–2100) of basin-averaged PDSI over the Prut catchment. The shaded band illustrates the simulated values from the five-member ensemble of regional climate experiments taken from the EURO-CORDEX archive (see Table 1). The black line represents the multimodel ensemble mean.
Data are from multimodel means of a five-member ensemble consisting of five numerical experiments (see Table 1).
\nData are from the five numerical experiments (see Table 1).
\nThe regional modeling approach we have proposed here provides a base for exploiting simple models such as Palmer water balance in a physical consistent manner: (1) without the need to apply bias corrections and (2) reducing uncertainty by eliminating additional sources of errors which are brought through coupling RCMs with complex hydrological models. Of course, these advantages come with a cost: information provided by our proposed methodology is basin-averaged and cannot account for details at the sub-basin level which could be essential for some specific application.
\nOur methodological approach is based on two pillars: the Palmer water balance model validated and applied at catchment level and the multimodel ensemble of regional climate experiments (which provides physically consistent information under climate change scenarios). The RCM ensemble analyzed in this chapter manages to reproduce relatively well the observed components of water cycle such as potential evapotranspiration and precipitation when multimodel averages of regional climate results are used over the river basins. These results provide a certain level of confidence when analyzing future evolution of precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, potential runoff and related indices in the area of interests under climate change scenarios.
\nThe correlations between observed streamflow at the observation stations in each basin and PDSI-related indices show that the PDSI represents reasonably well the local water balance and drought-related processes taking place in the catchments (Figure 3). This allows us to use the basin-averaged PDSI computed with multimodel ensemble data for the assessment of the climate change impact on drought over the selected basins under the moderate and worst-case concentration scenarios. Spatial average procedure applied here to gridded PDSI provides robust results.
\nThe results from the case studies based on the ensemble means of PDSI suggest that depending on the specific climate scenario and catchment, droughts that in the Palmer classification were deemed as incipient, mild or severe toward the end of the twentieth century, will become a normal summer feature toward the end of the twenty-first century in the mid and lower Danube basin. The tendency toward drought is present under the conditions of a reduction of runoff, mostly in summer, revealing the important role of potential evapotranspiration increase and precipitation decrease in the drought-related processes over the mid-latitude areas. However, the analysis of individual evolution of PDSI in the five numerical experiments, under both climate scenarios, reveals uncertainties associated with the identified signal of enhanced aridity at the basin level. The largest (lowest) uncertainty is found for the Somes (Arges) river basin. More studies that couple local climatic information with their hydrologic impact are needed to provide the background for the assessment of water resources under climate change conditions in terms of adaptation planning and sustainable development.
\nThis chapter was supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation, CCCDI—UEFISCDI, project number 81/2016 within PNCDI III”(“Improving Drought and Flood Early Warning, Forecasting and Mitigation using real-time hydroclimatic indicators”—IMDROFLOOD) and by the European Commission financed under the ERA-NET Cofund WaterWorks2014 Call. This ERA-NET is an integral part of the 2015 Joint Activities developed by the Water Challenges for a Changing World Joint Programme Initiative (Water JPI). The description of Palmer Drought Severity Index presented in the first part of the Methodology section is taken from our work published in the reference [2]. We acknowledge the World Climate Research Programme’s Working Group on Regional Climate, and the Working Group on Coupled Modeling, former coordinating body of CORDEX and responsible panel for CMIP5. We thank the climate modeling groups mentioned in Table 1 for producing and making available their model output. Also, we acknowledge the Earth System Grid Federation infrastructure, an international effort led by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison, the European Network for Earth System Modeling and the partners in the Global Organization for Earth System Science Portals (GO-ESSP).
\nNo conflict of interest is implied in this work.
The term nanotechnology is the creation of functional material devices and systems through the control of matter in the range of 1–100 nm and the ability to work at the molecular level, atom by atom to create large structures with fundamentally new molecular organization. Nanotechnology is the design, fabrication, and application of nanostructures or nanomaterials and the fundamental understanding of the relationships between physical properties, or phenomena, and material dimensions. It is a new field or a new scientific domain. Nanometer (nm) is one billionth of a meter (10−9 m). About 10 hydrogen or fife silicon atoms are arranged in a straight line approximately representing 1 nm in length, and these materials are characterized by at least one dimension in the nanometer range.
Nanomaterials are of interest because at this scale unique optical, magnetic, electrical, and other properties emerge. These emergent properties have great potential applications in electronics, medicine, and other fields. Nanomaterials are classified into nanostructured and nanophase/nanoparticle materials. The former refer to condensed bulk materials that are made of grains with grain sizes in the nanometer size range, while the latter are usually the dispersive nanoparticles [1]. According to this definition, a nanoparticle is considered to have zero dimensions (the dimensions’ length is less than 100 nm). For example, wires, rods, and nanofibers are objects with one dimension, while thin films, plates, multilayers, and network nanostructures express two dimensions. And more clearly, a sphere or cluster of nanophase materials of zero dimension is represented as a point-like particle that is determined by three dimensions of nanomaterials, as demonstrated in Figure 1 [2]. There are several important applications of nanomaterials such as aviation and space, chemical industry, optics, solar hydrogen, fuel cell, batteries, sensors, power generation, aeronautic industry, building/construction industry, automotive engineering, consumer electronics, thermoelectric devices, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic industry [3]. One of the most pressing challenges of our time is to find alternative energy sources which are environmentally friendly which is depending on used of nanomaterial’s in different applications such as solar cell [4], paints [5] and other applications in the field of green chemistry [6].
Types of nanomaterials (0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D).
Chemical and physical properties of a material, such as bulk or nanoscale, depend on its surface properties. But the volume of bulk materials remains unchanged when it is subdivided into an ensemble of individual nanomaterials, and the collective surface area is greatly increased [7]. Figure 2 describes stages of surface to volume increase for bulk materials.
Schematic drawing showing how surface to volume increases with decreased size.
Melting temperature of nanomaterials depends on the number of surface atoms and the increases of surface to volume ratio (S/V) lead to decreases in particle size and melting point because of surface atoms that have a much greater effect on chemical and physical properties of nanoparticle [8]. The surface to volume ratio for a material or substance made of nanoparticles has a significant effect on the properties of the material, when materials made up of nanoparticles have a relative larger surface area and compared to the same volume of material made up of bigger particles. For example, the surface area of a sphere,
Or nearly equal to:
The two basic approaches to creating nanomaterials in a controlled and repeatable manner are the “top-down” and “bottom-up” techniques as shown in Figure 3, either for atoms to assemble together (break) or disassemble (dissociate) bulk solids into small pieces or to get on a few atoms from them. This is very important to use at different application fields, for example, in engineering, chemistry, physics, and even medicine. Former approaches play a very important role in modern industry and most likely in nanotechnology as well. In general, nanomaterials can be produced by different methods: mechanical, chemical, hydrothermal, sol-gel, chemical deposition in vacuum, pyrolysis, combustion, chemical co-precipitation, etc. According to these methods, particles are defined by a certain dimensional morphology and distribution can be obtained.
The scheme to prepare nanomaterial.
In the physical methods, mechanical methods offer the least expensive ways to produce nanomaterials in bulk (break the particles into nanostructures). But chemical fabrication methods are always easy to upscale and many, such as anodizing, are widespread industrial processes [10]. Top-down approach is the process of making nanostructures that start with larger structures and break away to nanosize to form nanomaterials. To obtain nanoscale structures in this method, first, a large object that is (2–3) orders larger in one or two dimensions than the nanoscale desired is fabricated and then nanopatterning techniques are utilized to achieve smaller features. Top-down methods actually was developed firstly by and has been widely used in microelectronics industry. Methods of deposition and nanopatterning of thin films are more advanced, and this approach has been pushed further into the regime of nanofabrication [11]. Also, applying the top-down assembly process of nanocomponents over large areas is difficult and expensive.
The building of nanostructures starting with small components such as atoms or molecules is called bottom-up approach. The bottom-up techniques make use of self-processes for ordering of supramolecular or solid-state architectures from the atomic to the mesoscopic scale. The methods of bottom-up include gas-phase and liquid-phase methods. For two methods, fabrication of nanomaterials was controlled when starting from the single atom or molecule. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and plasma arcing are called gas-phase methods, whereas liquid-phase (LP) represented by the most established method is sol-gel synthesis. Also, a new method called molecular self-assembly emerged. The areas of application for nanotechnology have different fields such as photonics, electronics, chemical sensors, biological sensors, and energy storage, and catalysis nanomaterial requires the manipulation into functional materials and devices. Self-assembly is the method important for designing and controlling the bottom-up assembly of the materials in the nanoscale range into structures of sheets, tubes, wires, nanoelectronic devices and drug delivery systems [12].
In this section, a mechanism for preparing nanomaterials such as TiO2, Al2O3, and TiO2/α-Al2O3 will be explained according to the method of preparation by using sol-gel methods. The sol-gel method was developed in the 1960s mainly due to the need of new synthesis methods in the nuclear industry. The sol-gel process is defined as a gelation means that changes materials by polycondensation reactions from liquid state to gel state. If the dispersion of colloidal particles or polymers is stable in a solvent, it is called a sol, but particles can be amorphous or crystalline in the size of few nanometers. And on the other side, the gel consists of sol particles as continuous network in 3D, enclosed in a liquid phase [13]. There are several methods to prepare TiO2 nanoparticles using different materials such as tetraisopropyl orthotitanate (TIPT), titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), ethanol (EtOH), methanol (MeOH), n-hexane, hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC), 1,4-cyclohexanediol (CHD), triethanolamine (TEA), and TiO2-P25. In general, it is obtained on gel solution; the gel was filtered and washed subsequently by water and ethanol and then dried at room temperature to get on TiO2 nanoparticles [14]. Nanocomposites of TiO2 can be used at different applications in a heterogeneous catalysis, in application of photocatalyst, to produce a hydrogen and electric energy by using a solar cells, gas sensor, white pigment for a paints and cosmetic products, corrosion-protective coating, optical coating, and in electric devices varistors and etc.
On the other hand, Al2O3 nanoparticles are prepared by ethanol solution of aluminum nitrate Al (NO3)3.9H2O dissolved in pure water and then added to the solution ethanol from time to time until the color changes. The potential of hydrogen or acidic function (pH) was maintained between 2 and 3 during the synthesis. The white product was evaporated and the result was cooled to room temperature and then finally calcined at high temperature to get on nanoparticles [15]. For TiO2/α-Al2O3, nanocomposite was prepared by adding TTIP to isopropyl alcohol under constant stirring and at room temperature (RT = 27°C) and then dispersed of nano-alumina in TTIP solution to form white suspension. Under vigorous stirring, the white gel was formed. Then, this gel was heated at high temperature in a Teflon-lined autoclave. Finally, the collection powder of nanocomposite was yields by during the gel [16].
The nature of all materials in bulk has different properties, which are depended on their structural properties (metals, semiconductors, and insulators), such as electrical, optical, and mechanical properties. Nanoparticles have properties that are different from small molecules; in this case, their chemistry and synthesis can be considered like complex mixtures.
The ability of the molecules to contact of nanoparticles on the surface and exchange with other molecules leads to the indicates that will be careful consideration of the chemistry of nanoparticles and how it relates to their fate in surface waters and sediments, this is a key to predicting their final fate [17]. When one of the three spatial dimensions is of a size comparable or smaller to wave length of de Broglie
The mechanical properties of materials depend essentially on the nature of bonding that holds their constituent atoms and their microstructures in a variety of length scales. Mechanical deformation can be either elastic (reversible) or plastic (irreversible) [19]. Elastic materials respond to stress fields via strain fields; liquids respond via viscous strain rates; and complex fluids are often describable via frequency-dependent viscoelastic responses. Many properties of crystals, magnets, liquid crystals, superconductors, superfluids, and field theories of the early universe can be described by focusing on long length scales, assuming that the materials are close in equilibrium. On the other hand, plastic materials can be defined as irreversible deformation, and different mechanisms may be responsible: dislocation motion, vacancy motion, twinning, phase transformation, or viscous flow of amorphous materials [20]. The proportional relation between the stress and the elastic strain is given by Hooke’s law, which can be written as follows:
where
The size of grain for polycrystalline materials, depending on strength and hardness, is well established as Hall-Petch relationship, which indicates that the yield stress and hardness are inverse to the square root of the grain size. This strengthening at reduced grain sizes is attributed to the pile-up of dislocations at grain boundaries. However, when it comes to Nanocrystalline regime, the conventional Frank-Read dislocation sources ceases to control the deformation due to the stress to bow out a dislocation approaches the theoretical shear strength [21]. The relation between yield stress and grain size is described mathematically by:
where Eq. (5) is called Hall-Petch relationship, and ky is the strengthening coefficient, σo is a materials constant for the starting stress for dislocation movement, d is the grain diameter, and σy is the yield stress.
The electrical conductivity, DC, for nanoparticle materials (or metals) is affected by the microstructure. The value of conductivity (DC) appears by grain boundary contribution, which depends on DC bias voltages but grain contribution does not depend on it. The grain boundaries in nanocrystalline materials often have significant influence on the flow of electronic current. The microstructure at scale of length is smaller or similar to the mean free path of conduction electrons, this produced a grain boundaries a main source of eight conduction electrons scattering [22]. The measurement of the electrical properties is also important because the connectivity of a composite system from SEM and TEM micrographs cannot be deduced alone. The DC electrical conductivity (σdc) of the crystal was calculated using the relation:
where R is the measured resistance, t is the thickness of the sample, and A is the area of the face in contact with the electrode. The temperature variation of conductivity is given by using Stuke’s Equation [23]:
where
On the other hand, the AC conductivity of the media (composites) (σm) is the sum of the real and imaginary conductivities, which are given by:
The conductivity of the more conducting component is given by:
For ideal conductivity where (σcr >> σci) Eq. (9) read as:
For the insulating component, the conductivity is given by:
where σii = ωε0εir.
Eq. (11) can be approximated when (σr < <iσii) as:
In practice, σir incorporates both, a usually very small, DC conductivity and the dielectric polarization loss term (ωε0εii). The expressions for σc and σi can be dispersive and/or temperature-dependent. [24].
When light incidents from one medium into another, several things are happened see Figure 4. Some of the light radiation may be transmitted through the medium, some will be absorbed, and some will be reflected at the interface between the two media. The total intensity
Diagram of the interaction of light with matter.
where T, A, R are transmissivity, absorptivity, and reflectivity, respectively.
And
So Eq. (13) becomes:
One can estimate the absorption coefficient (α) of thin films after the correction of reflectivity as:
where t is the thickness of the material.
It is very important to study α in order to define types of the electron transition, such as allowed direct, forbidden direct, allowed indirect, and forbidden indirect. The transition is allowed if α > 104, when α < 104 the transition is forbidden direct. From the absorption coefficient data, one can calculate the extinction coefficient (K) as [25]:
where λ is the wavelength of the incident light.
An alternative way to boost optical absorption is to use nanostructure-based devices to attain multiple band gaps based on the size of the quantum dots or quantum wells (based on quantum mechanics, the size of the dot or well determines the band gap of the material). For silicon as an example, the nanostructure results in direct band gap material, and the optical absorption is enhanced due to an increase of oscillator strength. The value of the oscillator strength was one of silicon nanostructures and the reduced mass is taken as a half mass of electron rest mass. For a cluster of 18 atoms, the band gap energy is taken as (1.82) eV with radius 1 nm. The absorption coefficient for nanostructure is given as [26]:
where λ, is measured in μm and
In recent years, it was found that the nanomaterials are very important, and they keep growing in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The researchers used various nanomaterials in the synthesis and application process, due to their potential in the application of science and industry. For example, biocomposite nanomaterials are applied directly and used to replace natural materials to work or to be in contact with the living systems. There are several methods to determine the type of material in the range of nanoscale [27]. Nanoparticle formation is analyzed by using UV-visible spectroscopy and characterization of nanoparticles by SEM, TEM, XRD, FTIR, and EXD. Each method is based on measurements that differ from the other and can be carefully compared. Many of these methods focus on examining particle size at the nanoscale to determine the average particle size of a sample. The role properties of nanoparticles depend on the size and shape, and few particle size distributions of commercial products are narrow in range. In this chapter, the focus is on diagnosing nanocomposites using known techniques that are as follows:
A microscopy technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted through an ultra-thin specimen, and the interaction with the specimen as it passes through it is called transmission electron microscopy (TEM). When the electron beams are transmitted through the specimen as shown in Figure 5, the strong interaction between the specimen (atoms) and the electrons duo helps form an image. The image detected by a sensor such as a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera or focused on the device to be an image, such as a fluorescent screen, on a layer of photographic film [28]. Specimens are needed to be very thin, usually below 100 nm in thickness, to achieve good signal-to-noise ratio and sufficient contrast in transmission. Transmission electron microscopy techniques provide two-dimensional images of nanoparticles; these images can be used to produce number-based size distributions, but nanoparticles have all three external dimensions on the nanoscale, and performance properties often depend on their physical-chemical characteristics, that is, size, shape, surface structure, and texture [29]. The perfect sample of transmission electron microscopy for nanoparticle size analysis is one with a large number of individual particles in nanoscale within the desired TEM micrograph field of view, but without excessive agglomeration or bunching of nanoparticles. There are two factors that may have an effect on the TEM grid of the nanoparticle number density: the derivatization efficiency process and the concentration of nanoparticles in solution [30]. Typically, the calculated sizes are expressed as a sphere diameter that the particle has the same projected area as the projected image. Particle size analysis was done using manual or automatic techniques. The first analysis used to get a mean result by obtain a linear dimensional measure of the particle divided by the number of particles, it’s usually based on the marking device. To get a clear image, the preparation was elaborated and is slow with few particles being examined [31]. The resolution of image is related to the amplitude and phase alterations in the electron beams that are determined by the contrast transfer function (CTF) as:
Schematic form of transmission electron microscopy.
where A (q) describes the diffraction diagram truncation by the aperture of the objective lens and
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is an electron microscope that creates images for the sample surface by scanning it with a high energy stream of electrons [32]. The scheme of SEM is illustrated in Figure 6.
Schematic form of SEM.
The surface morphology of the materials was investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technique. This technique is different from transmission electron microscopy at site of specimen and intensity of electron beams. For TEM, the electron beam penetrates the sample, but for SEM, the electron beam is incident on the surface of the sample. SEM provides information about surface morphology and composition of materials. There are several advantages for SEM technique in morphological and sizing analysis, but the information is limited for distribution size and true average population. The investigate of solution of nanoparticles with SEM needed to drying to get on a powder from it before mounted on a sample holder and coating a conductive metal on the surface of sample, such as gold, using a sputter coater. The surface sample is scanned when a high energy stream of electrons is incident on it [33]. The high-resolution magnified images produced when the revealing details about less than 1–5 nm in size and for narrow electron beam yields a characteristic three-dimensional for understanding the surface sample structure.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is defined as the nondestructive technique that provides detailed information about the crystallographic structure, chemical composition, and physical properties of materials. When the beam of monochromatic incident on the target materials the interaction between them is happened and the scattering of those X-rays from atoms within the target material can be illustrated in Figure 7. Bragg’s law was used to explain the interference pattern of X-rays scattered by crystals structure the diffraction of
Schematic diagram of the interaction of the X-ray with mater.
X-rays described by [34]:
where n is an integer, λ is the wavelength of the X-rays, d is the interplanar spacing generating the diffraction, and θ is the diffraction angle.
X-Ray diffraction (XRD) can be considered as a good technique for analyzing the nanostructures, because the width and shape of reflections yield information about the substructure of the materials (sizes of microcrystallites, microdistortions of a lattice, dislocation structures, etc.). There are several approaches to analyze the X-ray diffraction line profiles, with the Scherrer, Williamson-Hall, and Warren-Averbach methods being most widely applied [35].
The Scherrer formula was used by most material scientists as the simplest method of particle size determination. The formula proposed by P. Scherrer in 1918 describes the broadening of diffraction reflection peaks as a function of the average particle size D [16]:
where k is equal to:
and k is the shape factor, λ is the incident x-ray wavelength (0.15040 nm for CuK), β is full width at half maximum (FWHM), and
XRD pattern of Al2O3 and TiO2/Al2O3 nanocomposite is shown in Figure 8. The diffraction Al2O3 peaks can be well indexed to pure α-Al2O3 (JCPDS Card no. 880826). The appearance of diffraction peaks in TiO2/Al2O3 XRD pattern corresponding to (101) and other planes is in good agreement with the standard XRD peaks of Anatase TiO2 (JCPDS Card No. 040477). The average crystal sizes of nanocomposite materials for TiO2/α-Al2O3 (21.4 nm) are larger than Al2O3 (8.1 nm), which leads to get a good mix of NPS.
XRD pattern of Al2O3 and TiO2/Al2O3 nanocomposite.
Nanoparticles that are produced deliberately using specific processes are called engineered or manufactured nanoparticles, for example, fullerenes and CNTs. With regard to environmental issues, the system of one dimensional (1D), thin films, or surfaces of two dimensional (2D), this can be used in applications of electronics, chemistry, and engineering as thin films at the range of sizes (1–100 nm) or monolayer in the field of solar cells or catalysis. These thin films are inserted in different technological applications, including development of a new generation of environmental sensing systems, chemical and biological sensors, fiber-optic systems, and magneto-optic and optical device.
The sun sends an infinite light free from environmental pollution and noise is a renewable source of energy. The energy drawn from the sun can easily compensate for nonrenewable sources of energy such as fossil fuels and petroleum deposits on the earth. The solar cells have passed through a large number of improvement steps from one generation to another, because of their importance for the generation of alternative energy [36].
Photovoltaic (PV) is related to the devices such as solar cell that directly converts sunlight into electricity. The solar cell is the elementary building block of the photovoltaic technology. Silicon is one of the most common semiconductor materials that is used to make solar cells. One of the most common properties of semiconductors that makes them most useful is that their conductivity may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their crystal lattice. There are several types of solar cells, and they are either cut from a single crystal rod or from a block composed of many crystals and are correspondingly called monocrystalline or multicrystalline silicon solar cells and nanocrystal-based solar cells [37]. Most solar cells are fundamentally large areas of p-n junctions. When light shines on them, they can generate current and voltage, the photons produce electron-hole (e–h) pairs, and the dipole electric field provides for a separation of these charges. The reason this can happen is because of the “built-in” electric field at the junction of the p-type and n-type material [36]. The junction between them creates a charge separation region with a strong dipole electric field.
The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of photovoltaic cell are illustrated in Figure 9, which operates under normal conditions. The power curve is obtained when a solar cell produced power and then the current and voltage
(I-V) Characteristics of a typical PV cell.
where Jo is a constant. Thus, the net current flowing in a circuit powered by a solar cell is:
where
The maximum power is obtained when (V=Vm and I=Im) and the fill factor (FF) is defined by the ratio [38]:
where Vm, Im is the maximum voltage and current, respectively.
Quantum efficiency (QE) is the ratio of the number of charge carriers collected by the solar cell to the number of photons of a given energy incident on the PV device [39]:
Where is the maximum power and Pm = VmIm,Ps is incident light power.
Coating is defined as a coherent layer formed from a single or multiple applications of coating materials to a substrate. According to the existing standard, coating material is a material in liquid, paste, or powder form that, when applied, forms a protective and decorative coating. Some nanomaterials are suitable for use in transparent coating systems. In addition, the transparency of these nanomaterials such as TiO2 nanoparticle in visible light makes it possible to create novel additives introducing new properties to otherwise nontransparent coatings. The choice of the manufacturing process depends on the specific application and the specific application requirements of the coating. The sol-gel process may offer several advantages to manufacturers: the manufacturing process is shorter, runs at lower temperatures, and consumes less energy.
The properties of Titanium dioxide (such as high photocatalytic efficiency, chemical stability, low toxicity, and low cost) made it most thoroughly used from other materials. Also, self-cleaning paints with other metal oxides like ZnO have been reported [40]. The self-cleaning researchers are mostly about air pollution and environmental contamination in buildings especially on indoor and outdoor building surfaces. The wide range of applications of self-cleaning was necessary to focus on various materials for different purposes [41]. Although the properties of surfaces of self-cleaning are complex, however, it is related to several of their surface characteristics. At the beginning, the surfaces are superhydrophilic and water droplets are spread across the surface making it easier to wash off solid material. Then any organic material coating on solid particles will react with these surfaces by photocatalytic reactions to allow them to fall or wash off more readily. The surfaces of TiO2 have very high electroconductivity. A surface with high electroconductivity provides antistatic properties repelling charged particles and preventing their accumulation on the surface. In addition, the waterborne paint is prepared by the mill base for the pigment dispersion in water, auxiliary solvents, etc. Then the mill base is blended with the binder (polymer latex) and the paint is obtained [40].
The chemical effects of ultrasound are not derived from a direct coupling of the acoustic field with chemical species on a molecular level. Instead, sonochemistry and sonoluminescence derive principally from acoustic cavitation [42]. In the past decade, the expansion of the sonoelectrochemistry has become increasingly important. The variety of induced effects on electrochemistry processes by ultrasound waves can be attributed to the generation, growth, and collapse of microbubbles in the electrolyte. There is a growing interest of the application of the sonoelectrochemistry in environmental remediation and in the preparation of nanopowders [43]. Ultrasounds have a wide range of uses in the development of applications of nanoparticle solutions for different chemical compounds. The effect of ultrasonic energy breaks the chemical bonds of compounds [44]. The ultrasonic catalytic degradation method has been widely used in wastewater treatment because of its many excellent properties; these are simple equipment, have high efficiency and stable operation, are safe, and cause no secondary pollution. Improvement of ultrasonic catalysis process is known as a sonocatalyst [45]. It has received great attention as a useful and promising method for mineralizing organic pollutants, for example, synthetic dyes in aqueous media. In this process, water molecules are used to produce hydroxyl radicals, which are very reactive and non-selective oxidants and are capable of decolorizing and mineralizing dyes to CO2 and H2O. The oxidation processes of a metal oxide semiconductor are advanced through ultrasonic treatment on surface [46]. The presence of semiconductor particles (i.e., TiO2, ZnO) enhanced the process of breaking up the microbubbles created by the ultrasound irradiation into smaller bubbles, and these proses will be increasing the quantity of high of high temperatures and pressures, this leads to produce additionally amount of hydroxyl radicals which will attack the pollutant and resulting in degradation of the pollutant. Sonochemical decolorization of dyes under initial concentrations using ultrasonic processor represented by the effect of nanocomposite of Al2O3, TiO2, and TiO2/Al2O3 on the decolorization of methylene blue dye was clear as shown in Figure 10. The increase in the decolorization of dye in the presence of nanoparticles due to these nanoparticles act as catalysts that increase the number of nucleation of the cavity and improve the rate of dissociation of water into highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (·OH). TiO2/Al2O3 nanocomposites show highly removal of Methylene blue dye than other Sonocatalysts due to highly dissociation rates H2O molecules that yields more free radical generated, thereby increasing the rate of degradation of the organic compounds [16].
The sonocatalysis effect on MB decolorization.
Nanomaterials can be used in different applications such as in medicine, electronic device, sunscreens, military applications, photovoltaic cells, paints, catalysts, etc. Some of these do not have an effect on the environment, while others have an effect on it. In this chapter, the focus of our attention was on the applications that do not affect the environment and improve it, so the important property that surface to volume ratio of nanomaterials increases with decreases particle size. To do that, the processes of preparing nanoparticles are physical and chemical methods, and the sol-gel process is basic to prepare nanomaterials in chemical methods such as TiO2, Al2O3, and TiO2/α-Al2O3 because it can be used at low temperature and short time. These can be used in solar cells to produce clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes.
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\\n\\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\\n\\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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