\r\n\tRisk management aims to develop an efficient organizational development environment through risk planning, assessment, analysis, and control. This process will apply in all areas of activity, and the evaluation framework is the same regardless of the field. This volume will aim to appeal to chapters that address methods, models, evaluation frameworks, benefits, barriers, and other dimensions of risk management. \r\n\tSustainability and the circular economy are approaches approached by many companies and have become activities of global interest. Protecting the environment, streamlining the consumption of organizational resources, reducing the amount of waste generated, and other activities are objectives of these efforts. The circular economy contributes to the sustainable development of the company or country and the achievement of the global objectives of sustainable development. This book will aim to collect various studies for organizational and global sustainability. \r\n\tLeadership has become a globally desirable approach that can help improve organizational competitiveness and reduce organizational risks. Risks and barriers in risk-free management can be well managed through effective organizational leadership. This book will aim to bring together chapters that explore different areas of leadership.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-218-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83769-991-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-219-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5d9c14d51cb7e214a9093c454eab1404",bookSignature:"Dr. Larisa Ivascu, Dr. Ben-Oni Ardelean and Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11937.jpg",keywords:"Technical Risk, Occupational Risk, Operational Risk Management, Economic Risk, Financial Risk, Thematic Mapping, Global Sustainability, Sustainability Models, Life Cycle Assessment, Critical Raw Materials, Global Leadership, Risks",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ivascu obtained Ph.D. in Management and graduated with an MBA in Production and Transportation from the Faculty of Management, Politehnica University of Timisoara. 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1. Introduction
Fibromyalgia has been considered a rheumatologic disease, also known as fibrositis and myofascial pain syndrome. Fibromyalgia affects the muscles, ligaments & tendons, and bones with no signs of inflammation of the tissue [1]. The origin of fibromyalgia is still not clear, although several hypotheses stated fibromyalgia condition associated with depression and brain-based neuronal dysfunctions i.e. coaxially linked with non-uniform signal transduction mechanism. Preclinical studies addressing the symptoms of fibromyalgia are increased levels of substance P (SP) in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of the individuals. SP is a peptide which is composed of 11 amino acids and acts as a neurotransmitter. It plays a significant role in pain stimulations from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system [2]. Fibromyalgia patients showed a 3-fold increase in the levels of substance P in CSF which possibly activates neurokinin (NK) receptors that induce chronic pain [3, 4]. Moreover, besides NK receptors, the excitation of amino acid receptors such as N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors also leads to hyperalgesia in fibromyalgia [5]. This is associated with the deficiency of Dopamine during chronic pain in fibromyalgia [6]. It is a neurotransmitter of the Central nervous system (CNS) and regulates the pain processing of CNS. On the other hand, several studies indicating that macrophages, cytokines/chemokines, and oxidative stress are the key mediator of immune activation and inflammation in fibromyalgia condition [7].
Nitric oxide (NO), is a principal determinant of normal endothelial and vascular function. During inflammatory reactions, NO production increases considerably and, contributes to oxidative stress together with other reactive oxygen species (ROS) [8]. Macrophages that have a pro-inflammatory role are called classically-activated (M1) macrophages. Classically-activated (M1) macrophages are activated by Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). The role of activated M1 macrophages is to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines and present antigens [9, 10]. Cytokines produced by T helper type 1 (Th1) cells, induce the differentiation of classically activated (M1) macrophages [11, 12]. Some of the pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8 have been reportedly linked with the immunopathology of fibromyalgia. Prolonged activation of M1 macrophages has been reported to encourage neuro-inflammation which may responsible for the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain among the fibromyalgia patients [13, 14, 15]. There is no successful medication yet that has been proven to treat fibromyalgia completely.
1.1 Epidemiology
Fibromyalgia prevalence is more common among women as compared to men and risk increases significantly after growing age [16]. Apparently, in population studies indicate that there is a need for a standardized gender-based diagnostic approach that can allow for more reliable diagnosis and some of the gender biases that relate to women suffering the most. It is estimated globally that there is about 6% of the patient that suffers from this chronic disease out of which 68 percent are females [17]. Patients who need tertiary care pain clinic help, more than 40% outcome measure is a resolution of symptoms of fibromyalgia [18]. Patients with existent chronic rheumatic diseases are having high risk of fibromyalgia (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Reason of high prevalence rate of fibromyalgia among women.
1.2 Etiology and pathophysiology
Fibromyalgia is a chronic pain disorder but the etiology of the disease still not clear [19, 20]. Fibromyalgia is triggered by multiple physical and/or emotional stress factors. There is increasing evidence that revealed the role of macrophages including activated M1 macrophages, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in pain conditions in fibromyalgia [21]. Significantly, macrophages can mediate microglial activation through the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α [22]. In addition, levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines are enhanced in serum and could contribute to inflammation at the systemic level. On the other hand, alteration of central nervous system (CNS) cells occurs in fibromyalgia cause discomfort and sensory perception [5]. The functional neuroimaging technique rests crucially on the identification of pain-sensitive areas in regions of the Brain. Furthermore, differences in activation of pain-sensitive areas of the brain by functional neuroimaging techniques have been revealed in fibromyalgia condition. Several pharmacological studies have shown a genetic predisposition for fibromyalgia though there is no documentation of a definitive candidate gene [23]. About one-third of fibromyalgia patients have a close relative with rheumatic disease/fibromyalgia history (Figure 2) [24].
Figure 2.
Progression and diagnosis process of fibromyalgia.
1.2.1 Psychological stress and trauma
Research has also shown that stress is linked with the increasing risk of developing fibromyalgia [25]. Psychologic factors including stress, trauma, anxiety, and depression have been shown their role in pain severity in fibromyalgia patients [26, 27]. Corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), is a well-known hormone for stress response mediators, was found high in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) among fibromyalgia patients and was linked with pain [28]. Fibromyalgiais quite common in individuals with mastocytosis [29] where mast cells influence the infiltration, in situ differentiation and inflammatory response of macrophages and neutrophils; in various organs. This type of rapid proliferation of mast cells causes itchy bumps on the skin, diarrhea, and bone pain. Emotional stress is the primary symptom among the individuals suffering from mastocytosis and reportedly found high serum levels of CRH in mastocytosis patients [30]. CRH, nerve growth factor, neurotensin and substance P are known as stress peptides which released in peripheral tissues like blood vessels, muscles, and skin during allergic, immune, and stress reaction in the body. In another study, upregulation of nerve growth factor in the CSF among the patients suffering from fibromyalgia [31] and has been considered as a target for analgesic therapy [32].
1.2.2 Neuro-inflammation
A correlation between macrophages and mast cells (MCs) has been revealed in fibromyalgia [33, 34]. Numerous studies suggested macrophages and MCs play a key role during the pain and inflammation [35, 36, 37, 38]. Macrophages and MCs also release pro-inflammatory and neuro-sensitizing molecules such as cytokines and chemokines which act as modulators of nociception, and elevated pain sensitivity through their receptors [39, 40, 41]. In addition, a growing body of evidence indicated the increased levels of the pro-inflammatory chemokines in both serum and CSF of fibromyalgia patients [42, 43, 44]. CSF and IL-17 are also associated with pain, depression, and anxiety which are the key symptoms among the individuals suffering from fibromyalgia [45, 46].
1.2.3 Central sensitization
By far the most important thing to understand about the pain and fatigue induced by fibromyalgia is central pain sensitization. Many nociceptive dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons express pro-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine receptors that are upregulated after nerve injury [47]. Long-lasting neuro-inflammation through the upregulation of inflammatory molecules can contribute to the ectopic discharge of sensory neurons, resulting in peripheral sensitization. Prolonged abnormal transmission of pain signaling due to peripheral sensitization triggers central sensitization [48, 49, 50], mediated by pain-processing neurons and activation of glial cells (Figure 3) [51, 52, 53, 54]. Glial cells are activated by various neurotransmitters, such as cytokines, chemokines, and nucleotides and these activated glial cells directly or indirectly involved in central sensitization [10, 55, 56, 57, 58]. Moreover, these cells can contribute to brain inflammation and pathogenesis of different brain disorders [59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65].
Figure 3.
Contribution of macrophage derived inflammatory response in neuropathic pain in peripheral nervous system.
1.2.4 Fascia
It has been hypothesized that inflammation of fascia is a secondary source of the increased pain transmitting to the spinal cord. Fascia is the thick connective tissue surrounding the cells of the muscles etc. The fascial system covers every part of a muscle and is a thick gel of ground material that suspends muscle cells and fibers [66]. Additionally, muscle innervation is found primarily in the fascia, hence the fascia is highly susceptible. Muscle biopsy, cell studies of FM patients result in higher levels of collagen and symptoms of oxidative stress and tissue damage, indicating fascial inflammation. Although findings were not consistent in considering the hypothesis of fascial inflammation as the fibromyalgia etiology [67]. Conversely, these inflammations may be due to low growth hormone production and HPA axis dysfunction, resulting in increased nociception, central sensitization, and chronic pain [68].
1.2.5 Altered biochemistry
Substance P (SP) is an 11-amino acid peptide IS primarily responsible in the neurotransmission of pain to the central nervous system (CNS). Substance P (SP) is associated with chronic pain found to be elevated with fibromyalgia in the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) compared to controls [4, 5]. However, the diagnostic study also revealed low neurotransmitter levels involved in regulating sensory perception and also inhibit pain transmission, such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, etc.
1.2.6 Nitric oxide synthase (NOS)
Fibromyalgia patients have higher oxidative stress index and lower total nitrite levels than healthy controls [69, 70]. NO plays a crucial role in chronic pain states with cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) as termed in central sensitization [71]. Numerous studies considered NO as an important neurotransmitter involved in the pain and sensitization pathways related to NOS activation. Therefore, the NO can actively participate in the hyper sensitization in patients with fibromyalgia. The NO is synthesized by the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzyme which has four isoforms i.e. neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), mitochondrial nitric oxide synthase (mtNOS), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) [72, 73]. The nNOS, eNOS, and mtNOS are expressed in the majority of the cells. The nNOS and eNOS are regulated by Ca2+ fluxes, whereas iNOS is regulated by cytokines. iNOS is expressed only in response to some pathological stimuli typically bypro-inflammatory cytokines and/or bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) [74, 75]. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) together with oxidative stress plays an important role in the development of vascular dysfunction in sepsis. In fibromyalgia, a key mediator of immune activation and inflammation is inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), which produces nitric oxide (NO) [8]. Various studies have revealed the iNOS role in the development of inflammatory and neuropathic pain including fibromyalgia. Nitric oxide (NO) has various physiological functions such as vasodilation, muscle relaxation, learning, memory, neurotransmission, several degenerative processes and inflammation [8]. Copious amount of NO production is critical for the inflammatory response and the innate immune system. Overexpression or dysregulation of iNOS is linked with local inflammatory reactions and contributed to various human diseases [75, 76]. Considering this, iNOS inhibitory therapeutics could be promising for the treatment of neurodegenerative pain including fibromyalgia.
2. Role of activated macrophages/myeloid cells in the neuromyalgia
In turn, mast cells interplay with microglia, which are the resident macrophages of the central nervous system that may contribute to increased inflammation through the secretion of cytokines [59, 77]. The cytoplasmic receptor Nod-like receptor-2 (NOD2), and its adaptor-signaling molecule RIPK2, have been shown to be involved in the development of neuropathic pain after peripheral nerve injury. The activation of NOD2 signaling in peripheral macrophage mediates the development of neuropathic pain through the production of a wide of pro-nociceptive cytokines. The studies strongly suggest the undetermined significance of NOD2 signaling in the development of neuropathic pain and to highlight potential new means of the target for preventing neuropathic pain [78]. Macrophages are important participants in regulating neuro- inflammation (Figure 4); consequently, they are considered to be a common peripheral regulator of neuropathic pain [79, 80, 81].
Figure 4.
Pathogenic role of Th1 primed (iNOS+) macrophages and mast cells during progression of fibromyalgia.
3. Current therapies
There is no effective therapeutic approach available for fibromyalgia, but many drugs have been available to reduce its symptoms and pain. Patients suffering from fibromyalgia should integrate pharmacologic therapy with non-pharmacologic therapies [82]. In a study, it has been revealed that multi-component treatment could be effective in the short term for improving key symptoms of fibromyalgia including pain, fatigue, depression, and quality of life [83]. Modern medicine has most certainly come a long way in providing relief from the conditions and diseases of the day, sometimes other options can be just as helpful, if not more beneficial, in providing relief of fibromyalgia symptoms. Moreover, the prescription medications that are commonly used for the treatment of fibromyalgia symptoms can cause negative side effects that the individual must then deal with in addition to the problems along with symptoms of fibromyalgia. In order to regulate inflammation, role of macrophages is very crucial. As we described previously also, macrophages are important to sense damage to the tissue and initiate the recruitment of circulating leukocytes through triggering the chemokines secretion. The direct physical interaction stimulates production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) at the site of the injury. At the late stages of muscle regeneration, macrophages refrain the expression of both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines and turned to a silenced mode. Conversely, interleukin 4 (IL-4) actions are considered to be regulated by the inhibition of pro inflammatory mediators. In a study, IL-4 blood levels were found reduced among the patients suffering with chronic widespread pain including fibromyalgia when compared with controls [84, 85]. Several study indicating that the endogenous opioid system is essential to the actions of IL-4 and M2 macrophages in pain control [21]. Concluding this, macrophages play a central role in the regulation of inflammation from the beginning to the end. This is a timely area of research to explore the role of macrophages particularly M2 macrophages which sounds more promising for tackling pathological pain.
However, there are some alternative therapeutic approaches to fibromyalgia that have been proven by research to aid in providing relief from its symptoms (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Effective alternative therapeutic approaches suggested for fibromyalgia patients.
3.1 Non-pharmacologic therapy
Patients diagnosed with fibromyalgia must know their illness before starting their medications [86, 87, 88]. It was found that educational intervention had significantly better improvement among fibromyalgia patients [82]. In another study, fibromyalgia patients reduce the fear of pain and fear of disease complications using cognitive behavioral therapy [83]. Cardio exercise is suggested for fibromyalgia patients as it helps to improve the sleep and reduce the pain as well [89, 90]. In a study, they uses Chinese stress reduction exercise programs and improvement reported among the fibromyalgia patients to reduce the key symptoms of fibromyalgia [91, 92]. Nutritional supplementation is often used in fibromyalgia, but the objective findings are limited [93, 94]. Coenzyme Q₁₀supplementation in fibromyalgia patients improved the disease symptoms as it reduces the oxidative damage that leads to muscle fatigue [95, 96]. Another study revealed that500mg L-carnitine for 20 days has significant benefits to fibromyalgia patients which lasts up to 10 weeks [97]. Natural flavonoids like quercetin and luteolin giving promising results to reduce the key symptoms of fibromyalgia due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-allergic property [98, 99, 100, 101]. Moreover, flavonoids have been discussed as a possible treatment of central nervous system disorders [102, 103].
3.2 Pharmacologic therapy
There’s no complete cure available for fibromyalgia, but there are many medicines available to treat fibromyalgia symptoms. Some drugs ease aches, fatigue, and pains, while others may boost your energy or improve your sleep. Fibromyalgia drugs mainly target pain modulatory mechanisms. There is an urgent need to develop new drugs targeting the fibromyalgia mechanism and treat its symptoms (Table 1).
Available pharmacological interventions for fibromyalgia.
4. Immune mediated therapeutic interventions
It is a well-established concept that the immune system plays a crucial role in various chronic pain conditions including fibromyalgia. The immune system involves the release of autoantibodies, pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, substance P, histamine, tumor necrosis factor, interleukins, and prostaglandins [9]. In a study, IL-8 level elevated in the serum of patients suffering from fibromyalgia confirming the relation between fibromyalgia and higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines [136]. In another study, the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in fibromyalgia patients along with animal models was investigated. In the outcome of the same study, it has been revealed that increased levels of IL-1b were positively linked with pain in both mice and fibromyalgia patients [137]. This was the first of its kind study to show the relation between inflammasome and increased pro-inflammatory cytokines among the fibromyalgia patients which confirm the direct link between inflammation and pain. Naltrexone and naloxoneisan antagonist of mu-opioid receptors and both were effective to inhibit cytokine expression [138, 139]. Using neuron–glia co-cultures pre-treated with naloxone and subsequently treated with LPS, it was demonstrated that naloxone protects against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neurotoxicity through the inhibition of the proinflammatory factors and free radicals [139]. Similarly, naltrexone also blocked LPS-induced inflammation and microglial activity and inhibited TNF-α production [139, 140]. Due to the promising preclinical data, clinical trial was conducted for the naltrexone and it has been found that it effectively reduced the key disease symptoms among the fibromyalgia patients [141]. Observational studies provide evidence that vagus nerve activation can down-regulated inflammation through nAChR-mediated inhibition of macrophage function [142, 143, 144, 145]. Treatment with nicotine can inhibit the development of inflammatory cytokines release by LPS-stimulated macrophages through the activation of α7 nAChR signaling [143, 144, 146, 147, 148]. Following this, anti-inflammatory treatments could be promising in the therapeutics in fibromyalgia condition.
5. Conclusion
Fibromyalgia condition is defined by widespread musculoskeletal pain followed by fatigue, sleep, depression, and anxiety. The available allopathic medicines have their limitations and side effects and to date no permanent treatment of fibromyalgia is available. However, research is going on to find out more alternative options that can be used for treating various chronic conditions. Hence the need of the hour is to explore various alternative therapies for this condition. Despite various research and findings on fibromyalgia, it is found by most of the scientist that this disease is characterized by the abnormal nerve to signal transduction thus “the hypothesis of pain in the brain” is proven here and therefore effective neuronal diagnosis should be conducted before designing the treatment protocols. Thus, the emphasis of treatment must be in-combat with the brain to muscle co-ordinations. It has been well established that the immune system is an important part and plays a key role in the complex pathogenesis of fibromyalgia. Macrophages, inflammatory cytokines, and reactive oxygen species play distinct roles in the inflammatory response. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) dysregulation is implicated in a variety of chronic and acute diseases and inhibitors of iNOS show noteworthy results in animal models for septic shock, pain, and other conditions, but failed in clinical trials. Conversely, macrophages play a crucial role to regulate peripheral sensitization, cytokines, and chemokines derived from these cells and are potential novel therapeutic targets. Few studies were conducted in order to explore macrophage therapeutics in the animal model and have been shown to prevent/relieve neuropathic pain, but their efficacy has not yet been evaluated in clinical trials. To move evidence-based interventions into practice, pharmacotherapies that target macrophage-driven neuro-inflammation will undoubtedly open up new avenues for beneficial treatment of intractable neuropathic pain.
Concluding this, further research is required to clarify the role of inflammation and the mechanisms that regulate neuropathic pain in fibromyalgia as well as to shed light on potential therapeutic options.
\n',keywords:"fibromyalgia, Th1/Th2 immune response, M1/M2 macrophages, neurodegeneration",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73850.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73850.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73850",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73850",totalDownloads:784,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:40,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"August 14th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 14th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 30th 2020",datePublished:"February 24th 2021",dateFinished:"October 30th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Fibromyalgia (FM) or Fibromyalgia Syndrome (FMS) is a neurodegenerative disorder causing musculoskeletal pain, tenderness, stiffness, fatigue, and sleep disorder in the body. It is one of the most common chronic pain conditions, affecting about 6% of the world population. Being refractory, till date, no specific treatment of this disease is available. Accumulating evidences over the last few decades indicate that proinflammatory macrophages, cytokines, & chemokines as the key players in this disease. Recent findings suggest activation of Microglial cells and associated pro-inflammatory signals as one of the major causes of chronic pain in patients suffering from fibromyalgia. Increased density of iNOs/CD68+ M1 effector macrophages has been associated with neuropathic pain models. In light of this, depletion of these pro-inflammatory macrophages has been shown to reduce sensitivity to neuropathic pain. On the other hand, modulating pattern of AGEs (Advanced Glycation End-Products) can also contribute to inactivation of macrophages. These findings strongly suggest that macrophages are critical in both inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Therefore, this chapter highlights the impact of macrophage plasticity in various immunopathological aspects of fibromyalgia.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73850",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73850",book:{id:"9671",slug:"macrophages"},signatures:"Vishwas Tripathi, Amaresh Mishra, Yamini Pathak, Aklank Jain and Hridayesh Prakash",authors:[{id:"287184",title:"Prof.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",email:"hprakash@amity.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287184/images/system/287184.jpg",institution:null},{id:"329322",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vishwas",middleName:null,surname:"Tripathi",fullName:"Vishwas Tripathi",slug:"vishwas-tripathi",email:"vishwas@gbu.ac.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Gautam Buddha University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329323",title:"Dr.",name:"Aklank",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",fullName:"Aklank Jain",slug:"aklank-jain",email:"aklankjain@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"329335",title:"Mr.",name:"Amaresh",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",fullName:"Amaresh Mishra",slug:"amaresh-mishra",email:"amaresh.mishra007@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"329336",title:"Dr.",name:"Yamini",middleName:null,surname:"Pathak",fullName:"Yamini Pathak",slug:"yamini-pathak",email:"pathakyamini06@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Epidemiology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Etiology and pathophysiology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.2.1 Psychological stress and trauma",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.2.2 Neuro-inflammation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.2.3 Central sensitization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"1.2.4 Fascia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"1.2.5 Altered biochemistry",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"1.2.6 Nitric oxide synthase (NOS)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10",title:"2. Role of activated macrophages/myeloid cells in the neuromyalgia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Current therapies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.1 Non-pharmacologic therapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.2 Pharmacologic therapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Immune mediated therapeutic interventions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Fischer AA. 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Anesth Analg. 2010;'},{id:"B127",body:'Walitt B, Klose P, Fitzcharles MA, Phillips T, Häuser W. Cannabinoids for fibromyalgia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016'},{id:"B128",body:'Konrad C, Weber J, Schley M, Casutt M, Gerber H, Schuepfer G, et al. Tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta 9-THC) treatment in chronic central neuropathic pain and fibromyalgia patients: Results of a multicenter survey. Anesthesiology Research and Practice. 2009'},{id:"B129",body:'Cohen SP, Verdolin MH, Chang AS, Kurihara C, Morlando BJ, Mao J. The Intravenous Ketamine Test Predicts Subsequent Response to an Oral Dextromethorphan Treatment Regimen in Fibromyalgia Patients. J Pain. 2006;'},{id:"B130",body:'Johnson JW, Kotermanski SE. Mechanism of action of memantine. Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 2006'},{id:"B131",body:'Harris RE, Sundgren PC, Craig AD, Kirshenbaum E, Sen A, Napadow V, et al. Elevated insular glutamate in fibromyalgia is associated with experimental pain. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;'},{id:"B132",body:'Olivan-Blázquez B, Herrera-Mercadal P, Puebla-Guedea M, Pérez-Yus MC, Andrés E, Fayed N, et al. Efficacy of memantine in the treatment of fibromyalgia: A double-blind, randomised, controlled trial with 6-month follow-up. Pain. 2014;'},{id:"B133",body:'Akinkunle Fadare SO. Relief and Resolution of Fibromyalgia Symptoms with Low Dose Methotrexate – The Origin of Pain is Inflammation and the Inflammatory Response. Rheumatol Curr Res. 2014;'},{id:"B134",body:'Chakr RM da S, Brenol C, Ranzolin A, Bernardes A, Dalosto AP, Ferrari G, et al. Rheumatoid arthritis seems to have DMARD treatment decision influenced by fibromyalgia. Rev Bras Reumatol (English Ed. 2017;'},{id:"B135",body:'Salaffi F, Gerardi MC, Atzeni F, Batticciotto A, Talotta R, Draghessi A, et al. The influence of fibromyalgia on achieving remission in patients with long-standing rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatol Int. 2017;'},{id:"B136",body:'Wang H, Buchner M, Moser MT, Daniel V, Schiltenwolf M. The role of IL-8 in patients with fibromyalgia: A prospective longitudinal study of 6 months. Clin J Pain. 2009;'},{id:"B137",body:'Cordero MD, Alcocer-Gómez E, Culic O, Carrión AM, De Miguel M, Díaz-Parrado E, et al. NLRP3 inflammasome is activated in fibromyalgia: The effect of coenzyme Q10. Antioxidants and Redox Signaling. 2014'},{id:"B138",body:'Tsai RY, Jang FL, Tai YH, Lin SL, Shen CH, Wong CS. Ultra-low-dose naloxone restores the antinociceptive effect of morphine and suppresses spinal neuroinflammation in PTX-treated rats. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008;'},{id:"B139",body:'Liu B, Jiang JW, Wilson BC, Du L, Yang SN, Wang JY, et al. Systemic infusion of naloxone reduces degeneration of rat substantia nigral dopaminergic neurons induced by intranigral injection of lipopolysaccharide. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2000;'},{id:"B140",body:'Greeneltch KM, Haudenschild CC, Keegan AD, Shi Y. The opioid antagonist naltrexone blocks acute endotoxic shock by inhibiting tumor necrosis factor-α production. Brain Behav Immun. 2004;'},{id:"B141",body:'Younger J, Mackey S. Fibromyalgia symptoms are reduced by low-dose naltrexone: A pilot study. Pain Med. 2009;'},{id:"B142",body:'Wang H, Yu M, Ochani M, Amelia CA, Tanovic M, Susarla S, et al. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α7 subunit is an essential regulator of inflammation. Nature. 2003;'},{id:"B143",body:'de Jonge WJ, van der Zanden EP, The FO, Bijlsma MF, van Westerloo DJ, Bennink RJ, et al. Stimulation of the vagus nerve attenuates macrophage activation by activating the Jak2-STAT3 signaling pathway. Nat Immunol. 2005;'},{id:"B144",body:'Tracey KJ. Physiology and immunology of the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway. Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2007'},{id:"B145",body:'Borovikova L V., Ivanova S, Zhang M, Yang H, Botchkina GI, Watkins LR, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin. Nature. 2000;'},{id:"B146",body:'Ulloa L. The vagus nerve and the nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathway. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 2005'},{id:"B147",body:'Wang H, Liao H, Ochani M, Justiniani M, Lin X, Yang L, et al. Cholinergic agonists inhibit HMGB1 release and improve survival in experimental sepsis. Nat Med. 2004;'},{id:"B148",body:'Saeed RW, Varma S, Peng-Nemeroff T, Sherry B, Balakhaneh D, Huston J, et al. Cholinergic stimulation blocks endothelial cell activation and leukocyte recruitment during inflammation. J Exp Med. 2005;'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Vishwas Tripathi",address:null,affiliation:'
School of Biotechnology, Gautam Buddha University, India
Amity Institute of Virology and Immunology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, India
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1. Introduction
Vitamins are a category of chemical substances that are not synthesized naturally by the body and therefore must be supplied in small amounts from food. The B-vitamins are a group of eight water-soluble vitamins that play important, interconnected functions in cellular activity, acting as co-enzymes in a wide range of catabolic and anabolic enzymatic processes [1]. Thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3, also known as nicotinamide or nicotinic acid amide), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), biotin (B7), folic acid or folate (B9), and cobalamin are the B vitamins (B12) [2]. Their combined effects are especially significant in many areas of brain function, including energy generation, DNA/RNA synthesis/repair, genomic and non-genomic methylation, and the formation of various neurochemicals and signaling molecules [3]. B-complex vitamins are known as energy vitamins and stress fighters. Furthermore, the B-Complex vitamins are usually referred to as “beauty vitamins” since they are necessary for healthy hair, skin, and nails.
Polymeric materials have been regarded as the most effective drug delivery vehicles due to their superior pharmacokinetic characteristics. Several new drug delivery methods have been suggested with the rapid advances of nanotechnology. Polymeric drug delivery is described as a formulation or a technology that allows a therapeutic material to be introduced into the body. The nano-sized drug delivery system, in particular, can be built to overcome the current limitations of some drugs, such as poor bioavailability and significant cytotoxic side effects.
Polymers combined with B-complex vitamins can be bioactive to offer therapeutic effect on their own, or biodegradable, to enhance release kinetics and reduce carrier aggregation. Thus, B-vitamins encapsulated with polymer are protected from degradation caused by environmental effects. Several natural polymers, such as chitosan, starch, dextran, albumin, gelatin, alginate, gums, and also synthetic polymers, such as polylactic acid (PLA), poly-(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), polyanhydrides, and polycaprolactone (PCL), have been utilized in the therapeutic delivery systems [4]. The majority of vitamin B-complex delivery of polymers can be broadly classified as hydrogels, films, nanofibers, beads or micro/nanoparticles, and polymer-drug conjugates, which are discussed in further detail in later sections.
This chapter explains polymer-based materials containing B-complex vitamins briefly and reviews studies in food, biomedical, drug delivery, tissue engineering, wound dressing, cosmetics, and other applications. The importance of vitamin-loaded polymers with unique features in different forms such as outstanding, pH and thermal sensitivity, bioactivity, swelling character, controlled release behavior, biodegradability, good in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility, and so on is discussed in detail. Finally, future problems and several ideas regarding the production of vitamin-loaded polymers as well as commercial applications have been highlighted (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Chemical structure of the B-complex vitamins.
2. Vitamin-loaded polymers
Liposomes, sponges, foams, micro/nanoparticles, fibers, hydrogels, and emulsions have been developed to increase pharmaceutical absorption, stability, penetration, half-life, and bioavailability [5, 6]. From this point, vitamin-loaded polymers have been encapsulated via different techniques such as layer by layer, solvent casting, spray drying, electrospinning/electrospraying, freeze-drying, emulsion polymerization, and complex coacervation. In this regard, vitamin B-complex is encapsulated in different forms with various polymer combinations, enhancing their controlled release and bioavailability. The following sections describe the many applications of vitamin B-complex-releasing polymer forms.
2.1 Hydrogels
Superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) or hydrogels are three-dimensional cross-linked networks of hydrophilic polymers (3D) that can absorb and retain a substantial proportion of liquid (>20%) within their weight [7, 8]. Hydrogels can be used to encapsulate medicines while still preserving bioactivity during gelation and release. Injectable methods can ensure that these medicines are administered locally to the location of the lesion in a continuous and controlled approach.
Natural polymers (e.g., sodium alginate, carboxymethyl cellulose, cellulose, chitosan, gelatin, pectin, starch), synthetic polymers (polyacrylamide, polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol), and different acrylates can all be utilized to construct 3D networks [9]. The main factors involved in reversible swelling are based on chemical interactions and physical contact.
There have been several attempts to mix B-complex vitamins with hydrogels for use in medical applications. In this scope, Liu et al. [10] prepared B12 vitamin-loaded smart magnetic hydrogels to be utilized in bio-separation, and drug carrier applications. In their study, gelatin has been used as a matrix and Fe3O4 nanoparticles are used as magnetic agents. In vitro test results showed the crosslinked density of the hybrid gel affected porosity, pore size, and B12 release profile, as well. According to UV–VIS analysis, the increased crosslinking of the gelatin matrix via genipin crosslinker led to more vitamin B12 absorption at 361 nm [10].
Bajpai and Dubey [11] synthesized VB12-loaded poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidoneco-acrylic acid) hydrogels and evaluated swelling and in vitro release behavior. It has been reported pH conditions influence the gel swelling and controlled release profile of vitamins. The gels exhibited nearly 47.8 ± 4.9% swelling in the medium of pH 1.2, while nearly 2164.6 ± 21.8% swelling was observed in the phosphate buffer medium of pH 6.8 due to the functional COO− groups in acrylic acid [11].
Gong et al. [12] engineered poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(e-caprolactone)-poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG-PCL-PEG) and Pluronic F127 copolymer via sol–gel transition to utilized in biomedical applications as injectable in situ gel-forming drug carrier. Because of its high water solubility, VB12 was rapidly released from the composite hydrogel. The release results showed that VB12 release slowed down due to an increased amount of hydrogel, and there was a 10% decrease in total release with an increased amount of VB12 in the hydrogel. The higher Pluronic F127 content caused the higher VB12 release amount. Furthermore, cell viability tests revealed that the obtained composite hydrogel copolymers were biocompatible and had low cell cytotoxicity [12].
Ozey [13] synthesized the biocompatible poly(2-hydroxylethyl methacrylate-co-N-allylsuccinamic acid)/B12 vitamin hydrogels. In-vitro release study indicated around the total release of B12 vitamin has 96.9%, 95.8%, and 93.7% release amount in three different media (pH 1.2, PBS and NaCl isotonic serum). As a result, different release media have been found to partially effect the B12 release profile. However, it has not seriously affected the total release amount [13].
In a similar study, Maheswari et al. [14] synthesized poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidionone) with B12 vitamin via radical polymerization. In this study, increased N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidionone (NVP) concentration had led to an increase in pore structure and interconnectivity with pores. The swelling ratio changed with temperature due to using thermo-responsive N-isopropyl-acrylamide (NIPA) monomer. The composite hydrogel had 85% VB12 release at 30°C for 10 h. In last, the kinetic results showed the VB12−loaded polymer templates had a non-Fickian diffusion mechanism [14].
Nath et al. [15] developed gelatin-g-poly(acrylic acid-co-acrylamide)/montmorillonite (MMT) clay composite hydrogel containing B12 vitamin and they investigated the utility of these materials in pH-responsive drug delivery systems. It was observed that the vitamin B12 released from the hybrid hydrogels with 40% (in pH 1.2) and 80% (in pH 7.4) of release amount over 6 h, respectively. Moreover, in comparison to the neat hydrogel, the biodegradability of the vitamin-loaded increased. All samples had no cyctotoxicity effects [15]. Another study of the same research group is about pH- responsive controlled VB12 release. It was found almost 50% and 70% VB12 were released in two different pH media (1.2 and 7.4) from the hydrogels for 48 h [16]. Fast VB12 diffusion was reported in artificial intestinal fluid (AIF, pH 1.2) indicating the pH-dependent cumulative release percentage of VB12. This phenomenon is due to the protonation of a higher number of carboxylic acid (-COOH) groups in VB12at a pH of 7.4. It was revealed to influence the degree of gel swelling, which enhances VB12 release, as well as an increase in electrostatic repulsion between the increased amount of ionized -COOH and -OH groups, which leads to increased space expansion inside the network structure.
CMC-xylan/VB12hydrogels had been prepared in different molar ratios by Kundu and Banerjee [17]. According to in-vitro studies, the composite gels indicated a minimum cumulative VB12 release of 28% in pH 1.2. Moreover, 88% in pH 6.8 and 98 in pH 7.4 media, respectively.
Another study contributed to the development of VB12 loaded-alginate (Alg) scaffolds by the microfluidic method [18]. In this study, alginate and CaCl2 are used as a template of vitamin, and crosslinker, respectively. The vitamin-loaded hydrogel scaffolds in various alginate concentrations indicated a zero-order kinetic model with more than 80% drug release in 4.5 h.
Gum arabic cross-linked PVA/FA hydrogels were also reported to be a drug delivery carrier with high blood compatibility, good porosity, pH sensitivity and high mechanical properties [19]. The crosslinked hydrogels had a higher swelling ratio at higher pH. Further, in vitro release tests indicated the optimized hydrogel had the release FA amount of 78% and 32% at pH 7.4 and 2.1, respectively. It was found the PVA-based hydrogels prevent FA from UV degradation, and therefore, researchers evaluated the hydrogels could be UV-photoprotect material.
In topical/transdermal drug release, active substances have advantages such as localized at the site of infection and reducing their systemic effects [20]. Jung et al. [21] reported that liposomal hydrogels containing VB12 could be a candidate for the treatment of atopic dermatitis. VB12 derivative adenosyl cobalamin (AdCbl) was loaded into liposomes via a filmhydration method. The results showed the liposomal hydrogels have between 11.5–38.8% loading efficiency of AdCbl. The permeability tests also demonstrated liposomal gel form of AdCblhad 17 times more permeability than in only gel form of AdCbl after 24 h. Consequently, as AdCbl-loaded liposome structures were used, the release amount significantly increased [21].
Folic acid (C19H19N7O6) is an important member of the B-complex vitamin which also known as vitamin B9. It consists of the conjugation of one or more L-glutamate units of 4-((pteridine-6-methyl)-amino) benzoic acid [22]. Besides, folic acid is an important factor in the physiological processes of cell metabolism; it is a coenzyme involved in cell growth and development, DNA synthesis and repair, and many metabolic reactions [23].
Folates in their reduced state (without glutamic acid) are chemically unstable and expose oxidatively breakdown at the C-9 and N-10 bonds, resulting in substituted pteridine and p-amino benzoyl glutamate (PABA) moieties. Camacho et al. [24] studied encapsulation of folic acid in copper-alginate hydrogels. This organometalic hydrogels performed as a gastro-resistant material, and slow folic acid release occurred only at pH > 5, particularly under simulated intestinal media (pH 8.2). Besides, the successful materials showed more release in alkaline media (>80 ppm) compared to acidic media (pH 5.4) ( ̴ 8 ppm) with a zero-order kinetic model [24].
Moreover, in certain commercially available compounds, such as Fruit & Passion Boutiques Inc.’s Hydro Gel Face Masks, the moisturizing effect of these organic polymeric gels is combined with more complex drug-delivery systems designed to release biomolecules such as vitamin C or B3 [25].
2.2 Films
The film is commonly used in food packaging applications. The edible films and edible coatings are usually used similarly in this field, however, they differ in preparation form [26]. Edible films are formed initially like a solid sheet and then applied to the product surface or between food components, whereas edible coatings are produced directly onto food surfaces once the product makes contact with them. These films and coatings are usually utilized to provide extra barrier protection to increase the shelf life of the food product [27]. Meanwhile, they can also be engineered as vitamin carriers. In this regard to biomaterials, where biopolymers are important due to their biodegradability and biocompatibility, particularly with free-standing devices for wound dressing applications. Coating and film coating are frequently used in applications involving bone implants, cardiovascular devices, wound control and treatment, and oral dissolving strips, as well.
van Dijkhuizen-Radersma et al. [28] have reported polymer composition and crystallinity directly affect the drug release behavior. In the study, VB12-loaded poly(ethylene glycol)/poly(butylene terephthalate) films were synthesized by emulsion polymerization. The release rates and amounts of the resulting films vary between 20% and 100% depending on the copolymer ratios used. Moreover, they determined the total release of VB12from the films with 50–100 μm in one day and a sustained release for more than 12 weeks [28].
In recent decades, the importance of thin films in biology and biomaterials research has increased rapidly. Thin films can be coated on a variety of surfaces depends on their physicochemical properties such as wettability, reactivity, conductivity, and corrosion resistance. Thin films are currently being used in the fields of tissue engineering and biomedical industries for osseointegration in dental and orthopedic implants, biodegradable/biobased scaffolds, and biomimetic materials [29]. In this context, Mallakpour and Hatami [30] prepared chitosan nanocomposite films containing folic acid to utilize in tissue engineering as bone and teeth additives. Contact angle measurements showed that the produced films had improved wettability and were more hydrophilic. Furthermore, the bioactivity of these NC films by soaking them in simulated bodily fluid (SBF, pH 7.4), and the pH changes for this solution were observed for 1 month [30].
Banerjee and Ganguly [31] studied on encapsulation of VB12 in layered biocomposite films to use in drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue repair applications [31]. In this study, alginate and chitosan was prepared by freeze-dry method as inner and outer layers, respectively. The macrovoids were formed by gas bubbles. Although lyophilized composite films have a high absorption capacity, this form of structure dissolves fast in releasing media. SEM images exhibited the bubbles were homogeneous, having a diameter of almost 0.5 mm, and bubbles were also obtained in multiple layers. Two polymer gel substrates were thought to be different, but the release test showed the diffusivity of biocomposite solute is much lower in crosslinked chitosan than in calcium alginate. In addition, the voids in films did not affect drug release behavior but affect the release amount of drug. Films with void have been found to release more drugs than non-void films.
Orodispersible Film (ODF) is a new progressive dosage form that can provide patients with excellent drug delivery benefits. They are the most revolutionary alternative to conventional dosage forms like pills and capsules [32]. Among all oral drug delivery methods, Oral Film Technology (OFT) has attracted a lot of interest. This dosage form is also known as rapid dissolving film, fast-dissolving film, and orodispersible film [33]. In this scope, Suryawanshi et al. [34] fabricated cyanocobalamin-loaded orodispersible films via a hot-melt extrusion process [34]. The choice of polymer for this process is an important step in the development of ODFs. In this study, Soluplus® (polyvinyl caprolactam-polyvinyl acetate-polyethylene glycol graft copolymer) was utilized as a solvent for drugs that were insoluble in water. Morphological analysis showed the surface of the cyanocobalamin-loaded films was smooth and homogeneous. Besides, 3D micrographs of the film surfaces had a uniform structure. The resulting VB12 loaded-films have thickness values varied from 0.21 ± 0.02 to 0.33 ± 0.03 mm. However, the thicknesses of optimized film 0.24 ± 0.02. The average tensile strength of VB12 films ranged from 1.53 ± 0.84 to 15.75 ± 0.47 N/cm2, The optimized film’s tensile strength was measured 15.45 ± 0.32 N/cm2. Contact angle measurement confirmed the optimized films had superior wettability with 24.21°. Moreover, the optimized films have the amount of 99% cyanocobalamin release for 10 hour period.
PVA is a hydrophilic-based synthetic polymer [35]. It includes a carbon chain backbone with hydroxyl groups (-OH); these OH groups can act as a source of hydrogen bonding and therefore assist in the production of polymer composites [36]. Because of its biodegradability, non-toxicity, good film-forming ability, water processability, quick availability, and low cost, PVA is one of the most commonly biodegradable polymers used for different fields of industry [37]. Furthermore, the fabrication of inorganic nanoparticles in polymer matrices has attracted a great deal of interest. Especially, vitamins are used as a biocompatible modifier to form more functional groups on the surfaces of nanoparticles. Many studies on polymer-based metal oxide nanocomposites have been conducted. In this respect, Mallakpour and Shafiee synthesized ZrO2/PVC nanocomposite films via the solvent casting method [38]. Vitamin B1 (thiamin) has been used as a ligand for ZrO2 NPs due to the many functional groups such as amino and hydroxyl groups. The results showed VB1 is an excellent bioactive agent which provides good dispersion and enhances the interface between NPs and polymer matrix. The modification increased both the surface area of NPs and prevent the formation of zirconium aggregates in films. TEM analysis showed the particle size of ZrO2-VB1 NPs has around 36 nm. UV–Vis spectrum revealed that NC films more UV absorption than neat PVC films. The modification did not influence on the crystalline structure of ZrO2, according to the XRD analysis. Moreover, mechanical testing demonstrated that NC films were more flexible than neat PVC ones. As a result, adding these NPs to hydrophobic materials like PVC increases surface free energy while decreasing contact angle.
In a similar study, Mallakpour and Mansourzadeh fabricated PVA films including CuO nanoparticles modified with vitamin B1 (thiamine) [39]. In the study, thiamine improved polymer-metal compatibility by creating active regions on the surfaces of metal particles. FTIR analysis showed the new peaks were formed in CuO NPs. The addition of NPs to the PVA matrix further enhanced the optical and mechanical properties.
Buccal delivery has been studied as an alternative to traditional oral delivery for several drugs with limited oral bioavailability. The buccal route also offers the benefit of low enzymatic activity and acceptability by certain sensitizers [40]. The buccal route for drug delivery has received a lot of attention to solve the problem of pre-systemic metabolism caused by gastrointestinal degradation and first pass metabolism [41]. Buccal mucosa has a higher blood supply and is more permeable than oral mucosa. Mohamad et al. [42] designed chitosan/PVA containing VB12 buccal hydrogel films. Vitamin-polymer interactions are confirmed by FTIR analysis [42]. According to SEM images, all film samples had homogenous structures without drug agglomeration. In general, the obtained film formulations demonstrated fast drug release due to water absorption by the hydrophilic-based polymers, chitosan, and PVA, which improved wetting, swelling, and penetration of water into the matrix of the film, and therefore increasing drug diffusion phenomena. At the end of 40 minutes, the amount of drug released was 98.59%. Consequently, Higuchi kinetic model has been determined to be the best model for drug release kinetics for films.
Thiamine hydrochloride (THCl) and nicotinic acid (NA)-loaded propylene-glycol (PG) buccal films have been developed using a two-dimensional (2D) inkjet printing method [43]. The rough surface and formation of a pore network in the films were revealed by SEM images. The in vitro release tests revealed that both vitamins were released in a burst in 10 minutes. Additionally, 85%, 98%, and 100% THCl and 78%, 85%, and 100% NA are released from the 1, 5, and 9 print film in 7.5 minutes. The profiles of all formulations for both THCL and NA release were better suited to the first-order kinetic model, with the highest R2 values.
Acevedo-Fani et al. developed folic acid/polysaccharide-based nanolaminate films [44]. The topology of the nanolaminates improved as folic acid was added, resulting in a uniform and smooth layers. After 7 hours, only 22% of the FA was released from the films at pH 3, however, almost 100% of FA was released at pH 7. This is related to be entrapped folic acid in nanolaminates due to its poor dissolution in an acidic environment. Although researchers have utilized the highly bio-functional folic acid as a great factor for anticancer drug delivery, antibacterial agents, and fluorescence endoscopic detection, there are also studies for usage in electronic applications. Apart from the studies, folic acid has been used in energy storage applications [45]. It was found that FA as the bio-polymeric ligand which was present in different amounts in PVDF, was an effective modifying agent. The results pointed FA particles increased the interaction of β-phase from PVDF’s energy storage capability.
2.3 Nanofibers
Nanofibers play a significant role in tissue engineering and drug delivery applications due to their unique properties including low density, high specific surface area, high porosity with<1 μm. Many studies on drug delivery systems indicated nanofibers can be a robust carrier system for therapeutics among other types of nanocarrier systems like hydrogels, beads, films, or others owing to high drug-loading ability, high encapsulation efficiency, target-specific, sustained drug delivery, and ease of processing [46].
Drug release systems are mainly concerned with minimizing drug degradation or loss, enhancing drug bioavailability, avoiding adverse effects, and improving drug accumulation in the targeted site [47]. It is expected to improve the drug’s efficacy and treat the damaged site.
A study on increasing the bioavailability of folic acid was conducted by Fonseca et al. [48]. In the study, starch was used as a matrix, and the morphology and release behavior of nanofibers containing varying amounts of FA (5, 10, and 15%) were investigated. Although the diameters of nanofibers formed below 100 nm did not change substantially, it was observed some beads in FA-loaded fibers (5%) higher than in other samples. Moreover, TGA and UV-A radiation results have shown that starch is an effective matrix for FA encapsulation.
Evangelho et al. used an electrospray method to create vitamin B9-loaded zein nanofibers and vitamin B9-loaded zein capsules [49]. In the study, thermal and radiation resistance of the VB9 to determine its availability in food applications. According to SEM micrographs, the addition of VB9 did not affect on the morphology of the nanofibers and capsules; nevertheless, samples were generated at three different amounts (0.5, 1, and 1.5%, w/w) changed the fiber and capsule diameters. VB9-loaded zein nanofibers exposed to UV-A radiation for 1 and 24 hours shown significant resistance compared to non-exposed nanofibers. Zein capsules containing 1% VB9 were also found to be resistant to UV-A. As the mentioned previous section, folic acid is sensitive to UV radiation due to stimulation of the bond between C9 and N10 and this causes the breakdown of the bond and the production of photodegradation products such as P aminobenzoyl-L-glutamic acid, 6-formylpterin, or 6-carboxypterin. It has been presumed that the resistance of VB9 in both zein fibers and capsule structures may be related to the interaction of vitamins with amino acids in the structure of Zein protein, such as Proline, isoleucine, alanine, phenylalanine, methionine, valine, and leucine, and that this interaction makes it difficult to break down the C9-N10 bond of folic acid. Additionally, TGA analysis revealed that pure folic acid in powdered form degrades considerably faster than folic acid in nanofiber and capsule form.
Amaranth protein/pullulan electrospun/VB9 fiber structures were fabricated by Aceituno-Medina et al. [50]. The study aimed encapsulate and photoprotection of VB9, a model bioactive molecule. It has been suggested that the photostability of VB9 in nanofibers may have better than that produced capsules via conventional techniques such as ionic gelation, coacervation, and spray drying. Optical and electron microscope results showed that VB9 causes an increase in viscosity, resulting in thicker fibers. VB9 was extracted from electrospun fibers using PBS for UV–Vis analysis. After UV exposure of non-encapsulated pure VB9, some changes have occurred in the UV–Vis spectrum, and some characteristic UV absorption peaks of VB9 are broken down into shorter peaks. It has been associated with p-aminobenzoyl glutamic acid (PGA) and 6-formylpterine (FPT), which are the degradation products of peaks at 275, 278, 310 and 365 nm, relatively.
Some efforts also performed in the incorporation of VB9 and modified PVA-polyethyleneimine electrospun fibers to use in electronic applications as cancer diagnosis and treatment [51]. The same group prepared polydopamine-VB9 complexes and the morphological structures of the obtained nanofibers due to the interactions between the polymer and bioactive material. The morphological structures of nanofibers produced by preparing polydopamine-folic acid complexes are predicted to use as graphene-like structures in energy applications such as organic semiconductor material due to ¶-¶ interactions formed between the polymer bioactive material [52]. The same research group also developed multifunctional folic acid-functionalized dendrimers onto electrospun cellulose acetate nanofibers for the specific capture of cancer cells [53].
Other nanofibrous structures based on PVP/dextran octadecyl amine/montmorillonite/VB9 conjugates have been fabricated by Şimşek et al. [54]. The cytotoxicity results of nanofibers revealed that VB9 has no negative effect on Vero cells (liver cells), and these fibers could be a pioneer for cancer studies and tissue engineering applications. The electrical properties of the functional nanofibers composed of dextran, PVP, and VB9 were also investigated by the same study group [55]. As a result, amorphous structures of lower crystallinity and colloidal form of polymer mixtures tend to form the intermolecular hydrogen bond.
Hydrophilic drugs might cause a rapid burst release in the PBS buffer or in vivo conditions due to their high solubility [56]. Madhaiyan et al. prepared cyanocobalamine(vitamin B12)-loaded biocompatible PCL nanofibers and carried out plasma treated to nanofibers for periods of 5, 20, 40, and 60 seconds [57]. Contact angle measurements revealed a decrease in surface hydrophilicity from 139° to 108° due to the hydrophilic nature of VB12. Unmodified nanofibers exhibited 18% sudden release in the first 4 hours in the PBS environment and 39% release after 48 hours. Moreover, modified nanofibers with a period of 60 seconds had the highest release value, with a total rate of 95%.
Soy proteins have been used to develop biodegradable and biocompatible nanofibers containing rhodamine B and riboflavin in order to study controlled drug release and desorption processes [58].
Llorens et al. prepared polylactic acid (PLA) nanofibers containing vitamin B6 and evaluated their release in a hydrophilic Sörensen-ethanol release media and a hydrophobic Tris/Borate/EDTA (TBE) release medium [59]. It was found that within the first 8 hours in the TBE environment, the drug was released quickly from nanofibers; however, in the hydrophilic environment, the drug was released slowly and sustain behavior for several days. From the SEM micrographs, some aggregates formed in PLA nanofibers were related to the presence of vitamin B6 crystals. As vitamin loading increases, nanofiber diameters increase from 921 nm to 1013 nm, and porosity increases from 69–85%. Cell proliferation results have also shown that these nanofibers have a high antioxidant activity which were produced against free radicals that cause cell damage.
Agarwal et al. produced films with cellulose acetate nanofibers containing nano-ZnO, vitamins B2 and C for use in oral applications [60]. According to UV–Vis analysis, the release amount of vitamins B2 and C from nanofibers were measured to be 25% and 95%, respectively. It has been observed that vitamin B2 is stable in the environment, while vitamin C has a reversible reaction to dehydroascorbic acid and then oxidized to 2,3-diketo-L-gulonic acid via irreversible reaction. Consequently, the study pointed out that cellulose acetate can be used as a carrier in the use of vitamin B2, which is important for skin disorders, and vitamin C, which supports collagen formation.
Solar UV radiation is the major cause of skin damage owing to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which causes skin collagen imperfection, roughness, allergies, and, therefore, premature aging [61]. Topical formulations have lately attracted great attention as a drug delivery system to the human skin. One approach to combating skin aging is to apply herbal phenolics and antioxidants to the skin. Folic acid (FA) is a significant antioxidant-rich B-complex vitamin that aids in the formation of healthy skin cells [62]. The utilization of folic acid as a beauty patch has been investigated by spraying it onto nanofiber surfaces. However, PVA-based polymers reduced the slow release of folic acid, allowing the process to be completed in a short time. In addition, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and neutral red uptake (NRU) assays in L929 have indicated that FA has 120% and 109% cell growth [63]. In a similar study, FA has been directly blended with hydrophilic polymers (PVA, PVP, and gelatin). Micron-seized VB9 combinations have been created by the electrospraying method for topical applications. The total vitamin release percentages in different polymer matrix including PVA/FA, gelatin/FA, and PVP/FA fibers were 86.88%, 80.20%, and 76.66%, respectively [64].
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is essential for normal reproduction, cell growth and repair, and tissue formation. Furthermore, the vitamin is used by the body to maintain tissues healthy and to repair wounds. The VB2 (riboflavin)-loaded PCL/gelatin-loaded electrospun fibers have been fabricated to use in biomedical applications [65]. From the same perspective, Heydari et al. [66] developed hydrophobic peracetyl-cyclodextrin (AcCDP) nanofibers containing Vitamin B2. As expected, the nanofibers exhibited two-phase release profiles involving burst and sustain release in two different release environments (pH 1.2 and pH 7.4). Besides, it was found that they had a 60% and 40% release, respectively, for 170 hours [66].
Vitamins are necessary for cosmetics and other purposes, and transdermal vitamin delivery systems are widely available. Nanoparticulatecombinations offer nearly unlimited delivery possibilities via oral, pulmonary, transdermal, and ocular routes. Vitamins their nano-based combinations would definitely assist in tissue regeneration as well as pharmaceutical delivery [64].
2.4 Beads
Microcapsules or beads produced of biopolymers are of scientific and technical interest, and they have a wide range of potential medical uses, including usage as controlled drug delivery systems. The development of stimuli-responsive microcapsules, especially those composed of biopolymers, is still in its early stages [67].
With relation to hydrogel studies, Bajpai and Tankhiwale [68] prepared vitamin-loaded multilayered polymeric beads using the complex coacervation method. Chitosan and calcium alginate was used as matrix, and VB2 was used as a model drug, as well. It was found that the beads released around 54% of the drug in the first 3 hours in the artificial gastric fluid (AGF) (pH 1.0), while the remaining drug was released in the mimicking intestinal fluid of pH 7.4 in 6 hours. At last, the concentration of alginate solution used to form the outer layer, as well as the concentration of the ionic crosslinker CaCl2, affects the release profile [68].
Puguan et al. [69] prepared calcium alginate/VB12 beads using the dripping technique. In the study, VB12 was entrapped in polymers during the gelation process. The in vitro study indicated the total release of VB12 complete within 2 hours, and the vitamin loaded-beads had burst release in 30 min. The authors claimed the amount of calcium (crosslinker) ionic strength, and pH factors influence the kinetics of gel formation, as well as the volume and stability of the beads [69].
Vitamins are extremely sensitive, resulting in losing bioactivity during food processing, and storage. Thus, microencapsulation may be used to reduce vitamin loss, allow for a controlled release procedure, and improve their stability. Spray-drying process is versatile and generates high-quality microparticles, and it is superior to other methods in that the product quality in terms of homogenous and cheap [70]. VB2 has been loaded into 3 different matrix (chitosan, modified chitosan, and sodium alginate) using spray drying method. The total amount of vitamins was released in around 120 min for microparticles produced with chitosan, 15 min for microparticles produced with alginate, and 10 min for microparticles produced with modified chitosan. SEM images and release study showed were associated with a slow release to a rougher surface. For all of the biopolymer-based microparticles with a mean diameter of almost 3 μm were detected [71]. The same group reported to VB12-chitosan microparticles have controlled release behavior in gastric conditions (pH 1.2). The highest release of VB12 reached in 10 min. Microstructure of the materials revealed average diameter of particles vary from 3 to 8 μm with a smooth surface and an uniform round shape [72]. Similar to the spray drying of vitamin B12/alginate beads conducted by Abubakr et al. [73]. In the study, as addition of chitosan into the alginate matrix, the release of VB12 slowed down. Further chitosan effect the alginate stability and decrease bead permeability. Estevinho and Rocha [74] studied the kinetic models of encapsulated VB12 bioactive compounds. Chitosan, modified chitosan, and also sodium alginate were utilized for capsulating matrix [74]. The findings indicated zero-order model was the best fitted for chitosan/VB12 particles. Recently, encapsulated the vitamins B2 and B3 into six different biopolymers performed using the spray drying method by Carlan et al. [75]. Moreover, encapsulation efficiency reached values higher than 99% for all vitamin-based microcapsules. SEM images demonstrated VB2 and VB3 particles had a varying range between 0.10–0.84 mm. Weibull kinetic model was determined suitable model for both vitamin NPs.
The selection of appropriate wall material is critical for achieving the optimum release rate and high encapsulation efficiency of bioactive compounds during the spray drying process. It has been reported that a wall material mixture of polysaccharide-based like gum acacia, cashew nut gum, sodium alginate, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, and Eudragit RS100 has affected the release kinetics of encapsulated vitamin B12 [76]. Bajaj et al. [76] used carbonhydrate-based wall materials to co-encapsulate the vitamin B12 and D3 for the food industry. In the study, the size of smooth microcapsules ranged between 3 and 7 μm without cracking. After the encapsulation process, both vitamins demonstrated higher stability and a change in release rate. Further, the in vivo studies showed the maximum concentration of VB12 was recorded at 240 min [77].
Madziva et al. [70] produced microcapsules containing folic acid varying in size from 300 to 650 m with a shell material composed of alginate and pectin that may be utilized in food. It was observed that these biopolymers encapsulating the core exhibit significant stability and high encapsulation efficiency in food products for folic acid [70].
Azevedo et al. [78] encapsulated vitamin B2 into alginate/chitosan matrix by pre-gelation ionotropic method and investigated release behavior in different conditions. The size of nanoparticles has around 120 nm with 56% encapsulation efficiency. The vitamin B2-loaded nanoparticles are more stable than vitamin B2-free nanoparticles for 5-week periods [78].
Vitamin compounds, including vitamin B1 and B6, have been investigated for controlled drug delivery utilizing various clays to enhance encapsulation efficiency [79, 80, 81]. In recent years, gellan gum/laponite clay beads containing VB12was fabricated by the ionotropic gelation method [82]. The composite beads had a smoother and regular surface with 2.1 mm. The incorporation of laponite in the bead formulation enhanced drug encapsulation efficiency and delayed the kinetics of the drug in the gastric media. It has been suggested that laponite could be a useful addition in the production of gellan gum beads for long-term drug release.
Several VB2delivery systems for oral absorption have been developed to solve health problems [83, 84, 85]. Riboflavin delivery from ethyl-cellulose-coated barium alginate beads was reported by Bajpai and Sharma [86]. In a pH 1.2 media, the uncoated beads released faster than coated one. Stops et al. observed that calcium alginate beads had fast release VB2 profile [87]. In another study, Kaygusuz et al. investigated the release of VB2 from alginate-montmorillonite clay biocomposites [88]. The results showed two different crosslinkers (barium and calcium) utilized had no significant effect on drug release amount, however, barium-alginate beads were more stable than the others. Besides, the in vitro study indicated almost 50% VB2 released from both (barium and calcium) composite beads. In brief, MMT-incorporated calcium and barium alginate beads were appropriate for VB2 oral applications. The novel biomineralized alginate beads were also designed by Yang et al. [89, 100] to release VB2. In the study, aliphatic poly(urethane-amine) (PUA) provides thermal sensitivity. Therefore, the VB2 release was higher at 55°C than at 37°C due to the shrinking of aliphatic PUA at its lower critical solution temperature (LCST) [89].
Carlan et al. [90] researched microencapsulation of VB1 into different polymers such as carrageenan, chitosan, maltodextrin, modified chitosan, modified starch, pectin, sodium alginate, and xanthan gum. The size of beads ranged from 0.11 to 1.32 μm. The modified starch beads had VB1 release in 10 min, while VB1-loaded xanthan gum had in 24 hours. The Weibull kinetic model performed the best on the experimental data [90].
2.5 Others
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are made up of micrometer-scale graphene sheets folded into nanoscale cylinders and topped with spherical fullerene [91]. CNTs have found widespread application from optoelectronics and energy storage to drug delivery and biosensor [92, 93]. In recent years, polymer nanocomposites have a worldwide focus to obtain novel polymer materials for practical applications by improving the properties of neat polymers. To improve the reinforcing effect of CNTs in polymer nanocomposites, good dispersion and effective interfacial adhesion between CNTs and the polymer matrix are required (NCs). However, it takes some effort to disperse effectively the CNTs in the composites due to ¶-¶ interactions and strong van der Waals forces between the tubes that cause CNT aggregation in the composites [94]. Therefore, CNT hybrids are used to aid CNTs in disperse inside polymer matrices [95]. A research group decided to improve CNTs functionality and prevent aggregation in composites by treatment with VB1 [96]. The results showed VB1 is a biosafe molecule for poly(ester-imide) matrix and CNTs, and it enhanced the morphological properties of polymeric composites. Moreover, the diameter of CNTs increased too, when compared to CNTs-COOH, indicating that a thin coating of VB1 was bonded to the CNTs via strong interactions.
Cancer is currently one of the most challenging diseases to treat, and its prevalence is on the increase [97, 98]. Targeted anticancer treatments have been widely developed for the past three decades to eliminate cancer cells. Various colloidal carriers, such as lipid nanoparticles, nanofibers, and nanocapsules, nanogels, and polymer-drug conjugates have been investigated for anti-cancer treatments [99]. The application of specific nanomaterials such as CNTs, gold nanoparticles (GNPs), and graphene nanosheets have been considered in the majority of reviews in this field [100]. Due to its low cost, non-toxic, non-immunogenic, low molecular weight, and ease of modification, folic acid (FA) is one of the most widely acknowledged cancer-targeting agents among the different targeting agents. Folate receptors are commonly utilized in epithelial, ovarian, cervical, breast, lung, kidney, colorectal, and brain cancers compared to other agents and B-complex vitamins. Many approaches have been reported for the chemical conjugation of FA to a variety of therapeutic drugs and imaging agents [101]. Yang et al. [89, 100] prepared a folate-conjugated PCL-PEG copolymer to obtain hydrophobic doxorubicin (DOX)-encapsulated active targeting micelles and they combined these micelles with PVA. In conclusion, core-shell nanofibers are produced for the treatment of solid tumors [100]. A study on liver cancer treatment was conducted by Fan and co-workers (2019) [102]. In the study, doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded folic acid-polyethylene glycol-β-cyclodextrin (FA-PEG-β-CD) nanoparticles (NPs) synthesized and this material showed 11.9% drug loading efficiency and 95.2% encapsulation efficiency with 30–60 nm. In another study, folic acid was conjugated with curcumin-encapsulated gum arabic microcapsules in order to drug delivery it to breast cancer cells [103]. Poltavets et al. [101] synthesized docetaxel-loaded PLGA nanoparticles with a folate modification via an emulsion solvent-evaporation. The in vitro study revealed these nanoparticles performed non-functionalized nanoparticles and free docetaxel in vitro anticancer activities against HeLa cervical carcinoma cells [104].
3. Future insights
The use of vitamin B-loaded polymers presents a serious progress in the above-mentioned applications and ensures a positive advancement in the upcoming years. Treatments will be more effective and safer owing to the design and functionalization of the various polymeric materials. The potential applications show that the polymeric carriers will progress to a specific active substance to the point where it can be customized to best adapt to a specific component or environment. However, it is important to note that vitamin-loaded polymers have some challenges. First, the number of vitamin-loaded polymers presently accessible for use as the industrial scale is still limited, despite the fact that R&D has advanced from the micro to nano-size scale in the previous decade, exceeding expectations. Secondly, the majority of the tests were improved in vitro studies with promising findings, however, the conversion from in vitro outcomes to clinical success have been restricted. More clinical trials and data are required to properly understand the mechanism of these polymer carriers. Further, these polymer-carriers must also be biodegradable or have a high capacity to be removed outside the body to minimize accumulation, as well as being non-toxic and non-immunogenic. It is notable to highlight the effect that copolymers or polymer blends might play in adjusting or modifying interactions with the human body in order to control their in vivo studies.
In sum, various disadvantages or drawbacks must still be overcome by multiple efforts and focused multidisciplinary scientific collaboration in order to achieve the desired results.
4. Conclusion
Since the beginning of the 2000s, B-complex vitamins have been produced in polymeric materials. Vitamin-loaded polymeric materials have been produced in various structures, such as gel, film, bead, liposome, and fiber forms. Each of these materials containing vitamins has become interesting for many industrial applications. Vitamin-loaded polymer materials have been utilized in medical applications such as implants, additives, tissue engineering, drug carriers, wound dressing, cosmetic applications as a skin-care mask, cancer diagnostic agent, and food applications as food supplements, as well. On the other hand, bioactive polymers are available in smart electronic applications. Some studies also pointed that B vitamins are utilized to obtain nanocomposite materials by modification of certain inorganic nanoparticles. In the studies, it was aimed to increase the bioavailability of B-vitamins by incorporating them in polymers and to develop controlled release behaviors. Furthermore, as the vitamin is introduced to polymer, the morphological, biological and thermal properties of polymeric materials have improved.
Conflict of interest
The authordeclare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"encapsulatin, vitamin release, vitamin-loaded polymer, B-complex vitamins, nutrients",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77817.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77817.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77817",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77817",totalDownloads:129,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 4th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 7th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 3rd 2021",datePublished:"February 23rd 2022",dateFinished:"August 3rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Vitamins are regarded as vital nutrients because, when combined, they performed hundreds of functions in the body. They strengthen bones, heal wounds, and boost your immune system. In addition, they transform food into energy and heal cellular damage. In this regard, B-complex vitamins, such as thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin are soluble vitamins that serve as coenzymes in energy metabolism enzymatic activities which building blocks of a healthy body. However, B-complex vitamins are sensitive to light, pH conditions, and temperature. Consequently, they must be encapsulated before they may be used in pharmaceuticals. Recently, it is mainly focused on reducing drug degradation or loss, increase drug bioavailability, limit adverse effects, and improve drug accumulation in the targeted location. To maintain optimum bioavailability during a defined term of therapy, the fraction of drug dosage released from a controlled release product must be significant enough to adjust for the quantity of active drug metabolized and/or eliminated from the body over the same period. Drug release systems also aim to increase the effectiveness of the drug and treat the damaged area. In this chapter, it is aimed to study the production of the vitamin-loaded polymer systems in various forms, such as micro/nanoparticles, micelle, hydrogel, liposome, and nanofiber, as well as release studies in pharmaceutical and biomedical applications.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77817",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77817",signatures:"Fatma Nur Parin",book:{id:"11021",type:"book",title:"B-Complex Vitamins",subtitle:"Sources, Intakes and Novel Applications",fullTitle:"B-Complex Vitamins - Sources, Intakes and Novel Applications",slug:"b-complex-vitamins-sources-intakes-and-novel-applications",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Jean Guy LeBlanc",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11021.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-798-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-797-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-799-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"67023",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean Guy",middleName:null,surname:"LeBlanc",slug:"jean-guy-leblanc",fullName:"Jean Guy LeBlanc"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"419815",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Nur",middleName:null,surname:"Parın",fullName:"Fatma Nur Parın",slug:"fatma-nur-parin",email:"nur.parin@btu.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Bursa Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Vitamin-loaded polymers",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Hydrogels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Films",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Nanofibers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Beads",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Others",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Future insights",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kannan R., Vishnupriya V. Relationshşp Between B-vitamins and Bone Health. In Proceedings. 2021;3(1):20.'},{id:"B2",body:'LeBlanc JG. Introductory chapter: B-group Vitamins. B group Vitamins Current Uses and Perspectives. 2018; 3-5.'},{id:"B3",body:'Herrmann M, Peter Schmidt J, Umanskaya N, Wagner A, Taban-Shomal O, Widmann T, Colaianni G, Wildemann B, Herrmann W. The role of hyperhomocysteinemia as well as folate, vitamin B(6) and B(12) deficiencies in osteoporosis: A systematic review. Clin. Chem. 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Folic acid– Polydopamine Nanofibers Show Enhanced Ordered-stacking via ¶-¶ Interactions, The Royal Society of Chemistry. 2015;11(23):4621-4629.'},{id:"B53",body:'Zhao Y, Zhu X, Liu H, Luo Y, Wang S, Shen M, Shi X. Dendrimer-functionalized electrospun cellulose acetate nanofibers for targeted cancer cell capture applications. Journal of Materials Chemistry B. 2014;2(42):7384-7393.'},{id:"B54",body:'Şimşek M, Rzayev ZMO, Bunyatova U, Khalilova S, TürkM. Multifunctional Electrospun Biocompatible Nanofiber Composites from Water Dispersion Blends of Folic Acid Conjugated PVP/Dextran/ODA-MMT Nanocomposites and Their Responses to Vero cells. Hacettepe Journal of Biology and Chemistry. 2016;44(4):441-450.'},{id:"B55",body:'Rzayev ZMO, Bunyatova U, Şimnullek M. 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Encapsulation and Controlled Release of Vitamin B2 Using Paracetyl-beta-cyclodextrin Polymer-Based Electrospun Nanofiber Scaffold, Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal, 52(1), 19-25.'},{id:"B67",body:'Klinger D, Landfester K. Stimuli-responsive microgels for the loading and release of functional compounds: Fundamental concepts and applications. Polymer. 2012;53(23):5209-5231.'},{id:"B68",body:'BajpaiSK, TankhiwaleR. Investigation of dynamic release of vitamin B2 from calcium alginate/chitosan multilayered beads: Part II. Reactive and Functional Polymers. 2006;66(12):1565-1574.'},{id:"B69",body:'Puguan JMC, Yu X, Kim H. Characterization of structure, physico-chemical properties and diffusion behavior of Ca-Alginate gel beads prepared by different gelation methods. Journal of colloid and interface science. 2014;432:109-116.'},{id:"B70",body:'Madziva H, Kailasapathy K, Phillips M. Alginate–pectin microcapsules as a potential for folic acid delivery in foods. Journal of Microencapsulation. (2005);22(4):343-351.'},{id:"B71",body:'Estevinho BN, Carlan I, Blaga A, Rocha F. Soluble vitamins (vitamin B12 and vitamin C) microencapsulated with different biopolymers by a spray drying process. Powder Technology. 2016;289:71-78.'},{id:"B72",body:'Carlan IC, Estevinho BN, Rocha F. Study of microencapsulation and controlled release of modified chitosan microparticles containing vitamin B12. Powder Technology. 2017;318:162-169.'},{id:"B73",body:'Abubakr N, Jayemanne A, Audrey N, Lin SX, Chen XD Effects of encapsulation process parameters of calcium alginate beads on Vitamin B12 drug release kinetics. Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering. 2010;5(5):804-810.'},{id:"B74",body:'Estevinho BN, Rocha F. Kinetic models applied to soluble vitamins delivery systems prepared by spray drying. Drying Technology. 2017;35(10):1249-1257.'},{id:"B75",body:'Carlan IC, Estevinho BN, Rocha F. Innovation and improvement in food fortification: Microencapsulation of vitamin B2 and B3 by a spray-drying method and evaluation of the simulated release profiles. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology. 2021;1-13.'},{id:"B76",body:'Bajaj SR, Marathe SJ, Singhal RS. Co-encapsulation of vitamins B12 and D3 using spray drying: Wall material optimization, product characterization, and release kinetics. Food Chemistry. 2021;335:127642.'},{id:"B77",body:'Oliveira AM, Guimarães KL, Cerize N, Tunussi AS, Poço JG. Nano spray drying as an innovative technology for encapsulating hydrophilic active pharmaceutical ingredients (API). J. Nanomed. Nanotechnol. 2013;4(6).'},{id:"B78",body:'Azevedo MA, Bourbon AI, Vicente AA, Cerqueira MA. Alginate/chitosan nanoparticles for encapsulation and controlled release of vitamin B2. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2014;71:141-146.'},{id:"B79",body:'Joshi GV, Patel HA, Kevadiya BD, Bajaj HC. Montmorillonite intercalated with vitamin B1 as drug carrier. Applied Clay Science. 2009;45(4):248-253.'},{id:"B80",body:'Joshi GV, Patel HA, Bajaj HC, Jasra RV. Intercalation and controlled release of vitamin B 6 from montmorillonite–vitamin B 6 hybrid. Colloid and Polymer Science. 2009;287(9):1071-1076.'},{id:"B81",body:'Kevadiya BD, Joshi GV, Patel HA, Ingole PG, Mody HM, Bajaj HC. Montmorillonite-alginate nanocomposites as a drug delivery system: intercalation and in vitro release of vitamin B1 and vitamin B6. Journal of biomaterials applications. 2010;25(2):161-177.'},{id:"B82",body:'Adrover, A, Paolicelli P, Petralito S, Di Muzio L, Trilli, J, Cesa S, Casadei MA. Gellan gum/laponite beads for the modified release of drugs: Experimental and modeling study of gastrointestinal release. Pharmaceutics. 2019;11(4):187.'},{id:"B83",body:'Bajpai SK, SaxenaS. Dynamic release of riboflavin from a starch-based semi IPN via partial enzymatic degradation: part II. Reactive and Functional Polymers. 2004;61(1):115-129.'},{id:"B84",body:'Yao H, Xu L, Han F, Che X, Dong Y, Wei M, Li S. A novel riboflavin gastro-mucoadhesive delivery system based on ion-exchange fiber. International journal of pharmaceutics. 2008;364(1):21-26.'},{id:"B85",body:'Seidenberger T, Siepmann J, Bley H, Maeder K, Siepmann F. Simultaneous controlled vitamin release from multiparticulates: Theory and experiment. International journal of pharmaceutics. 2011;412(1-2):68-76.'},{id:"B86",body:'Bajpai SK, Sharma S. Dynamic release of riboflavin from ethyl cellulose coated barium alginate beads for gastrointestinal drug delivery: an in vitro study. Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part A: Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2005;42(5): 649-661.7'},{id:"B87",body:'Stops F, Fell JT, Collett JH, Martini LG. Floating dosage forms to prolong gastro-retention—The characterisation of calcium alginate beads. International journal of pharmaceutics, 2008;350(1-2):301-311.'},{id:"B88",body:'Kaygusuz H, Uysal M, Adımcılar V, Erim FB. Natural alginate biopolymer montmorillonite clay composites for vitamin B2 delivery. Journal of Bioactive and Compatible Polymers. 2015;30(1):48-56.'},{id:"B89",body:'Yang L, Shi J, Zhou X, Cao S. Hierarchically organization of biomineralized alginate beads for dual stimuli-responsive drug delivery. International journal of biological macromolecules. 2015;73:1-8.'},{id:"B90",body:'Carlan IC, Estevinho BN, Rocha F. Production of vitamin B1 microparticles by a spray drying process using different biopolymers as wall materials. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering. 2020;98(8):1682-1695.'},{id:"B91",body:'Peretz S, Regev O. Carbon nanotubes as nanocarriers in medicine. Current Opinion in colloid & interface science. 2012;17(6):360-368.'},{id:"B92",body:'Hua J, Wang Z, Xu L, Wang X, Zhao J, Li F. Preparation polystyrene/multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposites by copolymerization of styrene and styryl-functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2013;137(3):694-698.'},{id:"B93",body:'Othman RN, Wilkinson AN. Carbon nanotube hybrids and their polymer nanocomposites. In Synthesis, Technology and Applications of Carbon Nanomaterials. 2019;29-60. Elsevier.'},{id:"B94",body:'Mallakpour S, Soltanian S. Morphology and thermal properties of nanocomposites based on chiral poly (ester-imide) matrix reinforced by vitamin B1 functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Journal of Composite Materials. 2017;51(16):2291-2300.'},{id:"B95",body:'Asghari, S, Rezaei Z, Mahmoudifard M. Electrospun nanofibers: A promising horizon toward the detection and treatment of cancer. Analyst. 2020; 145(8):2854-2872.'},{id:"B96",body:'Pal K, Roy S, Parida PK, Dutta A, Bardhan S, Das S, Karmakar P. Folic acid conjugated curcumin loaded biopolymeric gum acacia microsphere for triple negative breast cancer therapy in in vitro and in vivo model. Materials Science and Engineering: C. 2019;95:204-216.'},{id:"B97",body:'Peer D, Karp JM, Hong S, Farokhzad OC, Margalit R, Langer R. Nanocarriers as an emerging platform for cancer therapy. Nature nanotechnology. 2007;2(12):751-760.'},{id:"B98",body:'Alwarappan S, Erdem A, Liu C, Li CZ. Probing the electrochemical properties of graphene nanosheets for biosensing applications. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2009;113(20):8853-8857.'},{id:"B99",body:'Kumar A, Lale SV, Alex MA, Choudhary V, Koul V. Folic acid and trastuzumab conjugated redox responsive random multiblock copolymeric nanocarriers for breast cancer therapy: In-vitro and in-vivo studies. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2017;149:369-378.'},{id:"B100",body:'Yang, G., Wang, J., Wang, Y., Li, L., Guo, X., & Zhou, S. (2015). An implantable active-targeting micelle-in-nanofiber device for efficient and safe cancer therapy. ACS nano. 9(2), 1161-1174.'},{id:"B101",body:'Poltavets YI, Zhirnik AS, Zavarzina VV, Semochkina YP, Shuvatova VG, Krasheninnikova AA, Posypanova GA. In vitro anticancer activity of folate-modified docetaxel-loaded PLGA nanoparticles against drug-sensitive and multidrug-resistant cancer cells. Cancer Nanotechnology. 2019;10(1):1-17.'},{id:"B102",body:'Ngo CL, Le QT, Ngo TT, Nguyen DN, Vu MT. Surface modification and functionalization of carbon nanotube with some organic compounds. Advances in Natural Sciences: Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. 2013;4(3):035017.'},{id:"B103",body:'Hua J, Wang Z, Xu L, Wang X, Zhao J, Li F. Preparation polystyrene/multiwalled carbon nanotubes nanocomposites by copolymerization of styrene and styryl-functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2013;137(3):694-698.'},{id:"B104",body:'Mallakpour S, Soltanian S. Morphology and thermal properties of nanocomposites based on chiral poly (ester-imide) matrix reinforced by vitamin B1 functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Journal of Composite Materials. 2017;51(16):2291-2300.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Fatma Nur Parin",address:"nur.parin@btu.edu.tr",affiliation:'
Polymer Engineering Department, Bursa Technical University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Bursa, Turkey
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Among different technologies for hydrogen production, oxygenic natural and artificial photosynthesis using direct photochemistry in synthetic complexes have a great potential to produce hydrogen as both use clean and cheap sources - water and solar energy. Photosynthetic organisms capture sunlight very efficiently and convert it into organic molecules. Artificial photosynthesis is one way to produce hydrogen from water using sunlight by employing biomimetic complexes. However, splitting of water into protons and oxygen is energetically demanding and chemically difficult. In oxygenic photosynthetic microorganisms water is splitted into electrons and protons during primary photosynthetic processes. The electrons and protons are redirected through the photosynthetic electron transport chain to the hydrogen-producing enzymes-hydrogenase or nitrogenase. By these enzymes, e- and H+ recombine and form gaseous hydrogen. Biohydrogen activity of hydrogenase can be very high but it is extremely sensitive to photosynthetic O2. At the moment, the efficiency of biohydrogen production is low. However, theoretical expectations suggest that the rates of photon conversion efficiency for H2 bioproduction can be high enough (> 10%). Our review examines the main pathways of H2 photoproduction using photosynthetic organisms and biomimetic photosynthetic systems and focuses on developing new technologies based on the effective principles of photosynthesis.",book:{id:"3587",slug:"biomimetics-learning-from-nature",title:"Biomimetics",fullTitle:"Biomimetics Learning from Nature"},signatures:"Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev, Vladimir D. Kreslavski, Velmurugan Thavasi, Sergei K. Zharmukhamedov, Vyacheslav V. Klimov, Seeram Ramakrishna, Hiroshi Nishihara, Mamoru Mimuro, Robert Carpentier and Toshi Nagata",authors:null},{id:"15766",doi:"10.5772/14400",title:"Antimicrobial Biomimetics",slug:"antimicrobial-biomimetics",totalDownloads:7200,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"1806",slug:"biomimetic-based-applications",title:"Biomimetic Based Applications",fullTitle:"Biomimetic Based Applications"},signatures:"Ana Maria Carmona-Ribeiro, Lilian Barbassa and Letícia Dias de Melo",authors:[{id:"5978",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Carmona-Ribeiro",slug:"ana-maria-carmona-ribeiro",fullName:"Ana Maria Carmona-Ribeiro"},{id:"17696",title:"Miss",name:"Lilian",middleName:null,surname:"Barbassa",slug:"lilian-barbassa",fullName:"Lilian Barbassa"},{id:"17697",title:"Miss",name:"Letícia",middleName:null,surname:"Melo",slug:"leticia-melo",fullName:"Letícia Melo"},{id:"123449",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Carmona-Ribeiro",slug:"ana-maria-carmona-ribeiro",fullName:"Ana Maria Carmona-Ribeiro"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"10042",title:"Superhydrophobicity, Learn from the Lotus Leaf",slug:"superhydrophobicity-learn-from-the-lotus-leaf",totalDownloads:20240,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3587",slug:"biomimetics-learning-from-nature",title:"Biomimetics",fullTitle:"Biomimetics Learning from Nature"},signatures:"Mengnan Qu, Jinmei He and Junyan Zhang",authors:null},{id:"66055",title:"Introductory Chapter: DNA as Nanowires",slug:"introductory-chapter-dna-as-nanowires",totalDownloads:1200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"6875",slug:"bio-inspired-technology",title:"Bio-Inspired Technology",fullTitle:"Bio-Inspired Technology"},signatures:"Ruby Srivastava",authors:[{id:"185788",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruby",middleName:null,surname:"Srivastava",slug:"ruby-srivastava",fullName:"Ruby Srivastava"}]},{id:"73011",title:"Brain-Inspired Spiking Neural Networks",slug:"brain-inspired-spiking-neural-networks",totalDownloads:986,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Brain is a very efficient computing system. It performs very complex tasks while occupying about 2 liters of volume and consuming very little energy. The computation tasks are performed by special cells in the brain called neurons. They compute using electrical pulses and exchange information between them through chemicals called neurotransmitters. With this as inspiration, there are several compute models which exist today trying to exploit the inherent efficiencies demonstrated by nature. The compute models representing spiking neural networks (SNNs) are biologically plausible, hence are used to study and understand the workings of brain and nervous system. More importantly, they are used to solve a wide variety of problems in the field of artificial intelligence (AI). They are uniquely suited to model temporal and spatio-temporal data paradigms. This chapter explores the fundamental concepts of SNNs, few of the popular neuron models, how the information is represented, learning methodologies, and state of the art platforms for implementing and evaluating SNNs along with a discussion on their applications and broader role in the field of AI and data networks.",book:{id:"10372",slug:"biomimetics",title:"Biomimetics",fullTitle:"Biomimetics"},signatures:"Khadeer Ahmed",authors:[{id:"320026",title:"Dr.",name:"Khadeer",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"khadeer-ahmed",fullName:"Khadeer Ahmed"}]},{id:"65418",title:"Opening the “Black Box” of Silicon Chip Design in Neuromorphic Computing",slug:"opening-the-black-box-of-silicon-chip-design-in-neuromorphic-computing",totalDownloads:1616,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Neuromorphic computing, a bio-inspired computing architecture that transfers neuroscience to silicon chip, has potential to achieve the same level of computation and energy efficiency as mammalian brains. Meanwhile, three-dimensional (3D) integrated circuit (IC) design with non-volatile memory crossbar array uniquely unveils its intrinsic vector-matrix computation with parallel computing capability in neuromorphic computing designs. In this chapter, the state-of-the-art research trend on electronic circuit designs of neuromorphic computing will be introduced. Furthermore, a practical bio-inspired spiking neural network with delay-feedback topology will be discussed. In the endeavor to imitate how human beings process information, our fabricated spiking neural network chip has capability to process analog signal directly, resulting in high energy efficiency with small hardware implementation cost. Mimicking the neurological structure of mammalian brains, the potential of 3D-IC implementation technique with memristive synapses is investigated. Finally, applications on the chaotic time series prediction and the video frame recognition will be demonstrated.",book:{id:"6875",slug:"bio-inspired-technology",title:"Bio-Inspired Technology",fullTitle:"Bio-Inspired Technology"},signatures:"Kangjun Bai and Yang Yi",authors:[{id:"239041",title:"Dr.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi"},{id:"245542",title:"Mr.",name:"Kangjun",middleName:null,surname:"Bai",slug:"kangjun-bai",fullName:"Kangjun Bai"}]},{id:"58622",title:"Bio-inspired Adaptable Facade Control Reflecting User's Behavior",slug:"bio-inspired-adaptable-facade-control-reflecting-user-s-behavior",totalDownloads:1670,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The purpose of this research is to develop the process of methodology in designing adaptable façade. This study focuses on the processes of façade operation control for each resident’s unit according to the user’s lifestyle. This study aims to develop the design methods that are applicable to the adaptable facade, which is inspired by the design inspiration of the biomimicry. The ideal façade to increase comfort in internal space is an adaptable façade that can constantly respond to changes in the environments. This chapter attempts in active adoption of adaptable facade that makes it possible to respond to changing requirements and environments, eventually enabling the creation of customized services for users. This chapter explores the processes of designing an adaptable façade controlled by three rules inspired by the behaviors of flocks of birds. This chapter shows how adopted bird intelligence can produce various façade controls. Also, this chapter demonstrates biomimetic façade control that has been implemented by behavior-based design. Through this demonstration, this chapter identifies the potentials of biomimetic design in facade using rules of bird flocking as source of design inspiration. This study concludes that a behavior-based approach provides flexibly responding façade to environments increasing users’ quality of life.",book:{id:"5902",slug:"interdisciplinary-expansions-in-engineering-and-design-with-the-power-of-biomimicry",title:"Interdisciplinary Expansions in Engineering and Design With the Power of Biomimicry",fullTitle:"Interdisciplinary Expansions in Engineering and Design With the Power of Biomimicry"},signatures:"Hyunsoo Lee and Nayeon Kim",authors:[{id:"220502",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyunsoo",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"hyunsoo-lee",fullName:"Hyunsoo Lee"},{id:"220507",title:"Ms.",name:"Nayeon",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"nayeon-kim",fullName:"Nayeon Kim"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"690",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. 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She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. 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Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"83065",title:"Interventions and Practical Approaches to Reduce the Burden of Malaria on School-Aged Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106469",signatures:"Andrew Macnab",slug:"interventions-and-practical-approaches-to-reduce-the-burden-of-malaria-on-school-aged-children",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Andrew",surname:"Macnab"}],book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81972",title:"The Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa; 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