\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3817",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"One of the first thing that comes to your mind after hearing the term “corrosion” is corrosion of a metal. Corrosion is a basically harmful phenomenon, but it can be useful in some cases. For instance, environment’s pollution with corrosion products and damage to the performance of a system are among its harmful effects, whereas electric energy generation in a battery and cathodic protection of many structures are among its advantages. However, these advantages are almost nothing as compared to the costs and effects imposed by its detrimental influences. The enormous costs of this phenomenon can be better understand through studying the published statistics on direct and indirect corrosion damages on economy of governments. The direct cost of corrosion is near 3 % of the gross domestic product (GDP) of USA. Considering this huge cost, it is necessary to develop and expand the corrosion science and its protection technologies.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1223-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6359-6",doi:"10.5772/57010",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",numberOfPages:710,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"8ff86fac7ac8bce142fdc3c0e5a79f30",bookSignature:"M. 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He is the head of Aliofkhazraei research group (www.aliofkhazraei.com). Dr. Aliofkhazraei has received several honors, including the Khwarizmi award and the best young nanotechnologist award of Iran. He is a member of the National Association of Surface Sciences, Iranian Corrosion Association, and National Elite Foundation of Iran. His research focuses on materials science, nanotechnology, and its use in surface and corrosion science.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"13",institution:{name:"Tarbiat Modares University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"944",title:"Metallurgy",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals-metallurgy"}],chapters:[{id:"46218",title:"Nanostructure of Materials and Corrosion Resistance",doi:"10.5772/57274",slug:"nanostructure-of-materials-and-corrosion-resistance",totalDownloads:2430,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"A. A. 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Therefore, it is equally important to address some of the numerous challenges in the present scenario. Traditional linear paradigm (take-make-dispose) has proved to be inefficient in perspective of the finite resources of the earth and there is a mounting stress on the resource side due to the ever-rising global population. In addition, this results in the unsustainable and inefficient consumption of natural resources, increasing costs of commodities and volatility in the markets, which are unaffordable for the manufacturing base of our economy. As an imminent response to these upcoming challenges, we should adopt a circular economic model thereby shifting the current economic model of ‘take-make-dispose’ to designing products capable of regeneration which should also be accompanied by secondary benefits such as innovations and growth in employability of the economy. The time has come to provide the deserving importance to the circular economy, which is the only plausible and deep-rooted solution to our present challenges and future endeavors.
\nAs we all know, the future is Industry 4.0 which is considered globally as the fourth industrial revolution. The world as we know it is going through its imminent transformation from traditional business models to a digitalized era and it is imperative to us to discuss the impacts and outcomes of this transition towards the ecological and economical sustainability of the world as well as how the circular economic model will be adapting to this massive transformation. Industry 4.0 and the related digitalization of industries are undergoing an exponential progress. While an individual’s life is reshaped by the tremendous advancement of industrial digitalization, the world is optimistically looking forward to its impact on Sustainability. According to the MICMAC analysis conducted by reveals that production efficiency and business model innovation which are the economic sustainability functions are the one to be impacted as an immediate outcome of Industry 4.0, which in turn leads its way to the advancement of socio-ecological sustainability functions of Industry 4.0 which are social welfare improvement, reduction of harmful emissions and energy sustainability [1]. This chapter provides a deeper understanding of what the digital industrialization can offer for sustainability and also measures to make sure that I4.0 delivers the expected sustainability functions globally effectively, equally and fairly.
\nEven though the current economic paradigm followed in a global scale underwent radical evolution and development over the years, the economy still sticks to the fundamental characteristic, which came to action during the initial stages of industrialization. The linear economic model which follows the cycle of ‘take-make-dispose’ has proved to be inefficient and not resource friendly in the long run. Industries source materials, implement labor force to manufacture the desired product and is sold to a customer- ‘which in turn he discards after use’ does not fulfill the purpose of sustainable development which is really hot topic required at a global scale. However, large-scale improvements are undertaken in the current model, any code, which does not concentrate on economic and restorative consumption of finite resources, will lead to imminent losses throughout the value string [2, 3, 4, 5].
\nIn the recent past, many companies started to surface the disadvantages and risks related with the linear economic model. The most notable risks is the surge of resource prices which tangles the businesses between the unchangeable demand expressed by consumer markets on one side and the mercurial and precarious market prices of raw materials on the other. The inconsistent prices are likely to remain on the higher note as the populations rise and urbanize, resource sourcing reaches unreachable destinations and the associated risks to the environment increases. To counter-act this backdrop, a new industrial model was necessary which would answer the questions of efficient utilization of resources and which aligns with sustainable ecological development [6, 7]. The term ‘Circular economy’ symbolizes a restorative design. It encompasses a cycle of using and reusing of natural sources with maximum possible efficiency throughout the life cycle of finished products and the basic principle behind being:
Balancing the consumption of finite renewable resources and controlling and preserving finite stocks
Circulation of the products and its basic materials in value at the best level achievable thereby leading to the optimization of resources.
Elimination negative externalizations by implementation of effective methods.
With this expected transition, the central role of economic process will be taken over by unlimited resources like labor and the limited natural resources will play a supporting role. Numerous industries were successful in counter-action of the imbalance between supply and demand for natural resources.
\nThe present scenario, which is ‘take-make-dispose’ model, leads to the significant wastage of finite natural resources. Even though throughout our past, the decrease of cost of resources have paved way for economic growth, this low costs of resources related to labor cost has led to the present economic model we follow which encompass wastage of resources on a significant scale. While considering the ease of getting our hands on new raw materials and the cheap cost related to the disposal of the residual, the re-usage of materials has never been our chief economic priority. Various factors affect the capability of self-correction of the system. The present rules, both accounting and managerial has let on for a wide array of secondary costs to be not put into accounts and are considered as externalities. In addition to this, certain products such as pharmaceuticals and fertilizers are to be faced with long approval periods, which is also a drawback to the change [8, 9]. The resulting model known as the linear model works in a non-complex way. Companies’ source raw materials manufacture the products and sell them to their respective customers which are then discarded when the products reach their end-of-life. The resource wastes involved in this model are briefed below:
Misuse of raw materials during production process: Significant amount of materials are usually lost during the manufacturing processes of products mainly in the sequence amid the initial and final process. For example, SERI (Sustainable Europe Research Institute) came into conclusion that in OECD countries during their manufacturing processes expend about 21 billion tons of materials, which has no direct involvement in products themselves like elements, which has no role in economic system - like segregation of materials from mining, wood and agricultural losses, also materials from construction activities. Wastage of substances takes place in different steps during production. Field damages due to attack of pests and pathogens, production related losses due to lack of efficiency, losses happen because of inappropriate storage condition of goods and products wasted use to inefficient usage by the consumers. The global wastage contributed by the food supply chain adds up to roughly one-third of produced food per year for human consumption.
Wastage by end of life: For majority of the goods, elementary manufacturing rates are greater when compared to traditional restoration rates of goods after the end of their useful life cycle. Based on quality, the global economic system saw a rise of approximately sixty-five million tons of raw materials in 2010 which is expected to rise up to eighty-two billion in 2020. In Europe, approximately only 40% of the total waste materials were recycled of the total 2.7 billion tons of waste. While the sole waste streams are taken into consideration, the present recycling rates cover only a few waste types. The latest UNEP report states approximate losses are calculated only for specific industries of certain level. Rubble created as a result of construction and demolition of buildings contributes to twenty-six percentage of the entire non-industrial solid waste produced by the United States, which consists of countless recyclable materials from wood to steel and concrete. The complete re-usage happens only for 20–30% of all the construction and demolition wastes and this is usually because all structures are built up making them unfriendly to smashing down into recyclable or reusable components, which will ultimately lead to wastage of materials beneficial for the organization.
Utilization of energy: In a linear system, whenever a material is disposed in a junkyard, it indicates the disappearance of all its residual energy. Re-usage saves more energy when compared to the merge share of energy redeemed by recycling disposed products. One of the most intense parts of the supply chain system is the usage of power resources in a linear production model. For instance, the procedures involved in extorting materials from the earth and its transformation to a commercial form favorable to access. During aluminum products manufacturing, the procedures involved in partially finished aluminum explains eighty percentage of energy absorbed. This is because of a system, which depends upon upstream production that leads to energy conservation. Upstream production means no new materials are used every time a product is manufactured and the industry along with its customers are relentless in ensuing immense recycle rates (In Ref. to the stats of UNEP, the ‘end of life’ rates of recycling of aluminum is between 43–70% and is higher compared to other non-ferrous metals, for example, copper (43–53%), zinc (19–52%), magnesium (39%)). While energy consumption by biological inputs is evenly extended throughout the value chain, the circular mode, which encompasses a reduced energy magnitude, leads to a decrease in the threshold energy demand and helps in the transition towards renewable energy thereby creating a virtuous cycle.
Erosion of ecosystem services: Even though it’s as significant as climatic change but given minor s concentration compared as the deterioration of ‘ecosystem services’ The benefits provided by the ecosystem that bolsters and boost up human well-being, for instance, forests which being a fundamental equivalent of atmospheric, soil and hydrological systems, take in atmospheric CO2 and releases O2, contributes to the carbon content in the soil and also regulates underwater tables --along with further other benefits, are subjected to human mismanagement. The investigation undertaken by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment on 24 environmental services ranging from immediate services like food arrangement to much more ambitious benefits like pest control and regulation of related diseases found out that 15 out of the twenty-four benefits are corrupted. We are currently consuming beyond the capacity that can be met by the earth’s ecosystem, thereby depleting the earth’s natural assets. If should be backed up by an example, according to The Economics and Ecosystem and Biodiversity, China lost around 12 billion US dollars in the period between 1950 and 1998 due to deforestation. The economic growth is weighed down due the imbalances of the current economic model:
The troubles present in the current economic system followed which ignores the complete utilization of the potential of natural resources have surfaced as the increase in the commodity prices are becoming evident and also their volatility. From 2002, we have observed a continuous hike in the costs of natural resources. While referring the McKinsey’s Commodity Price Index (2011), the mathematical average of the commodity sub-indices mainly metals, energy, food and other non-agricultural products, have reached a higher level when compared to past century values. The most attention worthy commodity price hike was that of West Texas crude oil—147USD per barrel price, which was record breaking in 2008 and in addition, 107% increase in price of food grains from June 2010 to January 2011. The already weakened global economy was further subjected to blow by the sustained higher cost of resources [10, 11, 12]. Over the past years, the commodity price volatility was affected by numerous factors. Firstly, the metal prices reached a higher level, much more that their respective cost curves, due to a spike in demands—where it was forced to face the relatively high costs to produce an additional unit. This lead to a condition where a minor change in the demand can result to disproportionately large swings of resource costs. In addition, at the same time, the technological requisites for extracting numerous commodities increased due to the excessive pressure on the easy to access reserves, making malfunctions more common in area of resource accessibility, thereby causing disruptions in the supply chain. The supply dynamics has also been made vulnerable by the weather patterns and abrupt political changes. Finally, the new investors of the financial market was given access to the commodity price tags due to development and innovations in the financial market which in turn paved way to the worsening of price swings. All these factors all-together hindered the global business growth and thus the economic growth. The recent problem faced by the company Tata Steel was that the price of raw materials for the steel manufacturing faced a hike but the steel market did not rise enough to cancel off the higher material cost leading to a loss. The way the companies found out to limit their exposure to this constantly fluctuating cost swings is by hedging contracts at a cost [12, 13, 14, 15]. The cost of hedging depends upon the credit rating of a company and the predicted changes in the market. However, in the current economic scenario, the company, which does not possess a grade credit history, will be most likely to spend more than 10% of hedged amount to financial services.
\nThe term Circular Economy has gained popularity in the recent times. The concept puts forth a characteristic and more defined propaganda which is restorative and regenerative by nature while maintaining its primary objective of keeping utilities, products and materials at the highest utility and values at all times. The circular economic model overlooks the presently followed take-make-waste industrial model and strives to redefine social-economical-ecological growth concentrating on positive society-wide benefits. The model progressively decouples the economic activity from over utilizing the finite natural resources and tries to eradicate waste production out of the system [16]. The circular model builds economic, natural and social capital by promoting a transition towards renewable energy resources and CE is based on three basic principles:
Preservation of natural capital via balanced renewable resource flows and controlled finite stocks: This is carried out by dematerialization of utilities or virtual deliver of utilities. Whenever there is a need for resources, the circular system makes an educational choosing of technologies and processes which uses renewable and better performing resources wherever possible. These approaches enhance natural capital and devise conditions for regeneration.
Circulating materials and products in the usage cycle while maintaining its highest utility: The proposed circulation is executed by designing products feasible for recycling, refurbishing and remanufacturing thereby providing towards the economy. Tighter inner loops are employed by the circulating system whenever possible which basically means maintenance instead of recycling. This helps in preserving the embedded energy and also maximization of the consecutive cycle counts and time utilized in individual cycles by increasing product lifespan and optimization of reuse. Circular systems also boost the re-entry of bio-nutrients into the atmosphere safely for decomposition which will turn into precious raw materials for a new cycle. In case of the biological cycle, the intention behind product design is to make them consumable or metabolized by the economy and to be regenerated as a new resource value.
Designing out negative externalities: In CE, waste does not exist as it is designed out purposely. Biological products are returned to the soil by employing biodegradable procedures as they are non-toxic. For technical materials- they are made to be recovered and upgraded there by reducing the inflow of energy and increasing the preserving value of products.
Further, CE believes that diversity important for building strength and it is considered as a major player for adaptability and flexibility. For instance, in living systems, biodiversity is very much needed for surviving environmental changes. Same as that, economies require a balance of businesses to survive and flourish in the long term. While smaller enterprises bring alternate models during crises, larger enterprises put forth volume and efficiency.
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Value of a product is most preserved when it is repaired and maintained to its complete utilization. When it comes to an extend where maintenance is not recommended, then the constituents are reused or remanufactured. The practice preserves greater value against recycling the materials.
Maximization of the count of successive cycles and/or time utilized in individual cycle for products which means number of times a product is reused or extension of a products life. The prolonged cycles of an individual product saves material, energy and labor needed to create a new one.
Diversification of reuse practices throughout the value chain. For instance, cotton clothing can be reused and then can be crossed to the furniture industry as a fill-in for upholstery, and further the fiber can be reused in stone wool insulation for construction. This will avoid the input of unused materials into the economy, which in this case before the cotton fibers are safely returned to the biosphere.
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Economic growth: Economic growth can be achieved by an increase in revenues from upcoming circular practices combined with the reduction in production costs by improved efficient utilization of inputs. These purposed changes in input and output of economic production habits will have an impact on economy-wide supply, demand and prices, etc. through all economic sectors, both direct and indirect, which will add to the overall economic growth.
Job creation: The effect on employability depends mainly on the increase in expenditure power supplemented by the reduction in prices, which is expected across sectors and also to the intensity of human labor required in high quality recycling practices and high skilled jobs in remanufacturing. Having said that the employment opportunities is not limited to the remanufacturing and growth within large corporations but is rich and diverse. There is an expected creation of jobs across industrial sectors, in small and medium enterprises, by a boost in innovation and entrepreneurship, by local reverse logistics and finally a new service-based economy.
Innovation: The driving force of innovation is fueled by the dream to replace one-way products with products designed to align with the circular system and which will help in the creation of reverse logistics networks. The benefits attained from a much more innovative economy are energy and labor efficiency, quality improved materials, improved technological developments and increased opportunities to profit for companies.
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Increased security and decreased fluctuation of supply: The transition towards a circular system based economy basically means the utilization of less virgin material, usage of more recycled materials encompassing a higher share of labor expenses, decreasing company dealings with fluctuating raw material prices and also increased resilience. CE also decreases the threat posed by natural calamities/political issues on supply chain networks as there is an access for alternate materials provided by decentralized operators.
Demand creation for business services: More demand for service businesses are created by the implementation of circular economies.
Products at the end of their life are reintroduced into the system by collection and reverse logistics companies
The utilization of a product to its maximum capacity or longer life cycles are made possible by product remarketers and sales platforms
Information and input on components remanufacturing and product refurbishment is offered by the respective specialized service businesses.
The need for specialized skills in order to collect products, disassemble, refurbish, integrate into remanufacturing and finally delivering products to customers, is imperative and this is where specialized service businesses comes to play. The current enterprises doing these processes are mostly subsidiaries of existing manufacturers, and hence there are new opportunities for new business models. Such responsible business models will help companies to attain a unique insight on product usage patterns which will further aid in the development of improved products, advanced services and also improved customer satisfaction [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
\nWe are in the midst of a powerful transformation in terms of the way we develop products, thanks to the digitalization of the manufacturing sector. This transition is significant in a way that it is termed as ‘Industry 4.0’ which defines the fourth industrial revolution ever occurred in the area of manufacturing. From the very first industrial revolution which depicted the mechanization of steam power and water, through the introduction of assembly lines and mass production using electricity in the second, the fourth industrial revolution is the continuation of the third revolution of computers and automation with a further enhancement by autonomous systems fueled by machine learning and data analytics. The definition of term ‘Industry 4.0’ can vary considerably depending on the point of view, but it can be easily referred as the intelligent and permanent linking and networking of machines and machine operated processes. Serious shifts are undergoing in the manufacturing sector which inevitably dismiss the claims that Industry 4.0 is merely a marketing buzzword. The introduction of computers was considered as a disruptive move during Industry 3.0 as it was an entirely new technology then but presently while Industry 4.0 unfolds, computers are interconnected and they can communicate with each other, ultimately capacitating them to make and implement decisions without the need for any human intervention. This revolution is made possible by the combination of technologies like cyber-physical systems; Internet of Things, the Internet of Systems; which will in-turn make smart factory a reality. These supporting machineries will get smarter as they gain access to more and more data, our factories will be more efficient, productive and at the same time, Sustainable. Ultimately, the true power of Industry 4.0 lies in the possibility to gather and analyze information across machines which enables quicker, more flexible and more efficient mechanism to manufacture high quality goods at reduced costs while the expected results being increased productivity, a shift in economics, industrial growth and a modification in the workforce profiles. With the emergence of new technologies, it is indeed an exciting time for the manufacturing industry as there will be a wave of new opportunities that will help a company towards achieving improved flexibility, sustainability and productivity. The Industry 4.0 will lead this generation towards an ecosystem where humans and machines can work together, empowering businesses to achieve greater insights, reducing risks of error and to make better decisions [24, 25, 26, 27, 28].
\nIndustry 4.0 incorporates three technological trends leading the transition which are connectivity, intelligence and flexible automation. I4.0 merges Operational Technology (OT) and Information Technology (IT) for creating a cyber-physical environment (Figure 1). This is made feasible due to the development of digital solutions and the advancement in associated technologies which include:
\nComponents of Industry 4.0.
Once dissimilar systems and processes are now integrated across the value and supply chain by interconnected computer systems thus aiding the digital transformation. Embracing this digital transformation with the interdependence that comes along will lead to a multitude of advantages for the company encompassing improved agility, flexibility and operational performance. Even though numerous organizations are operating in denial about the implications of Industry 4.0 on their business or are striving hard to find talent or knowledge to implement the framework, several others are actively preparing towards a future of digitalization accepting that smart machines can improve their business.
\nDesign and production aligning to CE terms: Primarily, circular economy must be regenerative and restorative by design. Importance must be provided towards the recovery of materials and products at the design level, contrary to the practice of waiting until the end of product life cycle. Design processes should be planned and organized in a manner that will facilitate product reuse, recycle and cross industrial transfer. This intricate CE product design is to be carried out with advanced skills, insights and working plans which are not very popular in the current situation. Material selection is expected to play a critical part in designing resilient products and the manufacturers are expected to detail the purpose of the end products over the specification of materials to be used. Standardized components, design which facilitates ease end of life sorting as well as taking into consideration the usage of by-products and wastes into something useful is also preferred [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
\nNew Business models: New business models should prioritize access over ownership in order to gain more attractive value propositions as this model will transform consumers into users. Companies that can leverage their market share and capabilities in the value chain can drive circularity in the mainstream business. Profitable businesses will inspire other businesses and there is a significant potential to be expanded globally.
\nReverse Cycle: For companies to attain value from products at the end of their life cycle, used products must be collected and brought back. Such value preservation will bolster the transition towards a circular economy. This is made possible by reverse logistics and treatment methods which will help those materials to get back on the market. This will be an intricate process which includes delivery chain logistics, sorting, risk management, warehousing, power generation and may even employ molecular biology and polymer chemistry. Reverse logistics network which cascade materials to be used for other purposes is to be optimized totally and must be brought under the terms of circularity. User friendly collection schematics, accessible locations for customers and specialists as well as capability to maintain the quality throughout the diverse applications of the collected products are to be provided significant importance. Efficient reverse cycle will be cost effective, will have a better quality collection and also will employ efficient and effective segmentation of utilized products thereby resulting in the decrement of loss of materials outside the system in turn aiding circular design.
\nThe world population is growing at alarming rate, so is the usage of natural resources. We will reach to a point where the nature will be depleted of the resources and will not have any to offer the human race. This is when circular economy benefits on a global scale. In addition to using up the resources, the development these days has an adverse effect on the environment. Moving towards a circular economy could offer reduced pressure on the environment. The wastes those are otherwise discarded to the environment are instead recycled and made to use up to its maximum potential. This could improve the security and availability of the natural resources, which are the raw materials for the production processes. This will increase competitiveness among the companies and bring about more innovation, which in turn will boost the economic growth. The economic growth is marked with creating more jobs and other opportunities. Circular economy can also help companies provide more durable and innovative goods with increased quality of life, which help consumers save money in the end [35, 36, 37]. According to waste management priority order, the first and foremost priority is to reduce the amount of wastes generated. It is followed by reuse, recycle and other recovery procedures. Disposal of waste to environment is the least desirable waste management procedure. This exactly aligns with the characteristics of a circular economy.
\nIt combines the scientific disciplines of management, economy, technology, engineering, environment and society. As circular economy is essential today to promote the goals of sustainable development and all these scientific areas are not independent, their connections and synergies exist and should be further developed. Multidisciplinary approaches and numerous connections between these scientific areas are mandatory to reach the sustainability goals and to solve environmental problems, expand technological limits and overcome potential economic disturbances. This approach is expressed with new policies (market-based instruments, command and control, and circular public procurement), technological suggestions (e.g. technical cycle solutions), environmental engineering technologies (e.g., waste management, 3R strategies, water recycle, wastewater treatment and reuse, renewable energy), circular business models, circular innovations, circular management solutions, consumers’ behaviour in circular economy, new circular economy products labels and social acceptance in circular economy.
\nJournal information.
\nNowadays, in the recognized economic systems, goods and services are used, created, and rejected, there is a well-defined pattern in linear economy, where the flow has a clear start and end. The circular economy works relatively differently, the services and products in a circular economy are intended to reused or recycled both in technical or biological cycles. All the products are synthesized in such a way that they can be easily take to bits and the materials used will either be broken down by natural process or returned to fabrication of any other product. The main advantage is that it will reduce the demand on earth’s finite resources, also the waste or unwanted residues from industry can be used as resources for another industry. It also provides a well-defined framework that put together approaches and methods from diverse foundations like biomimicry, cradle-to-cradle, ecosystem services, industrial symbiosis, and collective consumption. The circular economy is evidently a diverse way to do business, obliging the establishments to rethink everything starting from resource procurement, design and final manufacture of the products or services. Advocates of the circular economy propose a sustainable world, in which there will not be any depreciation in the standard of life the consumers and can be easily attained without any economic loss of revenue or additional costs for manufacturers and also the quality of the product or services.
\nFollowing are the principles that define how the circular economy should work in the present scenario:
Any waste is a resource: All the biodegradable and non-biodegradable materials are use again.
Second hand use: The product can be reintroduced in the economic circuit after the use by the initial consumers
Reuse: Some products or certain parts of those products that still work can be reused to elaborate new artifacts.
Repare: the damage products can be repaired and can be used.
Recycle: Making value added products from waste materials discarded in waste with or without minor addition or deletion.
Valorization: hitch energy from waste that cannot be recycled further.
Functionality economy: it establishes a system of rental property. After the use of the particular product, it is returned to the producer, it is dismantled and the effective parts can be reused.
Relying on energy from renewable sources: rejection of demand on the finite fossil fuels resources for the manufacture of the product, recycle and reuse.
Eco-design: This reflects and incorporates in its beginning, the environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of a product i.e. from cradle to grave.
Territorial Industrial and ecology: instituting of an industrial organizational method in an area/territory branded by an augmented management of resources, flows of resources, stocks, services and wastes.
The increasing needs and multiplying wants of human beings resulted in the overexploitation of the natural resources. From the primitive cave man to the present computer oriented man, both the volume and methods of natural resources exploitation have undergone tremendous changes. But modern research in science and technology has resulted either in the improved versions of already existing ones or in the inventions of the new ones at the cost of limited natural resources. As a result, the luxuries are becoming comforts and comforts are becoming necessities. Resources are limited, but people’s wants are unlimited. Therefore, limited resources need to be used carefully through efficient allocation among the various alternative uses. The rising socio-economic inequality, growing environmental degradation, climate change, urban sprawl and ever increasing cyber-dependency can be underlined as the global tendencies and this may result in social instability, natural catastrophes, water crises, pollution, heavy resource depletion, unemployment and migration throughout the globe [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43].
\nAfter the UN General Assembly in 2015, implemented the Agenda 2030- which amounts seventeen inseparable and self-sustaining goals called Millennium Sustainable Development Goals are envisioned to function as a foundation stone for the renovation of the global economies towards sustainable development. This alteration procedure must result in economic development in agreement with equal opportunity, social uniqueness within the so-called ecological margins. As indispensable investors’ for sustainable development, industrial establishments have to move towards an innovative archetype which places much prominence on sustainable value creation. The industrial value creation has undergone thorough changes starting from the age of discovery of fire to the industrial revolution throughout the years. Industry 4.0 (The fourth industrial revolution) which was initiated in 2010s, the ultramodern concept of technology and research for Industry 4.0 and sustainability are highlighted. In response to the Agenda −2030, the European Union released an outline for action, which collectively tells about the planet, people, peace and prosperity [17]. As indispensible stakeholders for sustainable development, all the industrial organizations have to move towards an innovative manufacturing pattern which puts importance on both sustainable development goals together with value creation.The sustainable value creation has three dimensions, such as economic, social and environmental.
\nThe major objectives of industry 4.0 include, linking services, resources and humans in real-time during the making on the basis of CPS (Cyber Physical Systems) and the Internet of Things (IoT). The major physical systems consist of several actuators, sensors, embedded data handling soft wares which enables fast processing and communication of data to different interfaces. There is complete automation in all the systems, process, manufacturing, packing, error maintenance, which helps in easy maintenance and control of the complete system.The value making elements in Industry 4.0 are, Business Models, Value Creation Network and Product Life Cycle, Product, Process, Organization and Equipment.
\nThe World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) was appointed in 1983 by the UN to study the relationship between environment and development and it submitted the report in 1987-Our Common Future’. After the publication of ‘Our common Future’ in 1987, the concept of sustainable development came in to being and is defined as the development which meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs [20]. Sustainable development provides a healthy model for the progress of the world. Sustainable development involves the eco-economic management of resources to reach an optimum level of use and satisfaction, instead of maximum level. It also involves the restoration of degraded resources, maintenance of production and the elaboration of resource base by the wise use of the renewable resources.
\nAs development involves a progressive transformation of the society in all aspects, sustainable development indicates the uninterrupted continuity of the improvement of social, economic. Ethical, scientific, technological, educational and spiritual condition. Thus it is an all-round human development of an integrated or holistic nature. Sustainable development necessitates the rate of depletion of non-renewable resource to be reduced to make future options possible. The national strategies suggested by the WCED for attaining the concept of sustainable development are revitalizing growth, meeting crucial needs for jobs, water, sanitation and energy, guaranteeing sustainable level of population, reorienting technology, conserving and enhancing the resource bases and handling risks and integration of environment and economics in the final decision making [21, 22, 23, 24].
\nInteraction between economic growth and development fully depends on the natural resources and human resources. The attitude of human beings determines both the content of growth in material and energy terms and its impact in terms of equity. Now both developing and developed countries are in the process of evolving sound methodologies to estimate the real stock and the value of national disasters, providing larger and better opportunities for education and health, assessing social and ecological costs of development projects and taking decisions less vulnerability to economic crisis and these resources that are not exploited in enterprises or national accounts. Only if the quantity of decrease in the deterioration of the natural resources and the conditions along with human resources are calculated we will be able to estimate whether growth is quantitatively acceptable or not. Equitable distribution of income, less vulnerability to economic crisis and national disasters, providing larger and better opportunities for education and health, assessing the social and ecological costs of development projects and taking decisions based on it etc. are the different aspects of improving the quality of growth in order to attain sustainable development. Thus sustainable development can accelerate and assure social welfare by taking steps to improve both natural and human resources.
\nThe approach of sustainability comprises of three pillars which include, the economic, environmental and social dimensions as ultimate and integrative arenas of action. Environmental sustainability designates the conservation and existences of the whole ecological complexes, which is both, a source as well as a sink of natural resources and anthropogenic activities. Social sustainability comprises of the equitable sharing of human resources, taking into consideration about the age groups, social classes, gender, and regional distinctiveness together with social justice and solidarity. Economic sustainability needs the keeping of modest benefits and efficient market orientation together with targeting at the conservation of the available resources and thereby increasing the standard of life. Sustainable development involves the eco-economic managing of resources to reach an optimal level of use and satisfaction, instead of maximum level. It also involves the restoration of degraded resources, maintenance of production resources and the enlargement of resource base by the judicious use of the renewable resources.
\nEconomic decisions of the past were taken mainly on the basis of the market value generated as a consequence of implementing the decisions. But quite often markets do not represent the real costs and benefits involved in a particular production process. Therefore reflecting the hidden costs and benefits mainly environmental became a major concern of modern policy makers and planners who aim at sustainable development. Integrating economic and environmental concern proper changes in attitudes and institutional arrangements have become the hall mark of most modern developmental models. Ecological and economic interactions and interdependence and testified through trade, finance, investment and travel. Hence sustainable development requires the association of ecology and economics in order to promote development and safeguard environment.
\nIn the final phase of suggesting essential requirements for attaining sustainable development, the World Commission puts forward the presence of the following systems.
A political system that fortifies effective citizen’s participation in the final decision making.
An economic system which is able to create technical knowledge on a self-contained and sustainable basis.
A social system that offers solutions to the pressures arising from discordant development.
A production system which compliments the responsibility of the presence of the ecological basis for the development.
A technological system that can explore unremittingly for new clarifications
An international system that nurtures sustainability patterns of trade and business.
An administrative system that is very flexible and has the capability of self-correction.
These necessities actually depict the different dimensions of sustainable development. Unless sincere, omniscient, integrated and harmonious changes in attitude take place from the bottom of human hearts, sustainable development will remain a distant dream.
\nCarrying capacity is the number of human beings, which can be sustained in a specified area together with the natural resource limits without degrading the social, economic natural and cultural environment for the present and coming generations. The carrying capacity of every system is the maximum amount of resources it can provide and maximum amount of residuals or wastes it can assimilate. Man as an organism has a carrying capacity to use the resources and dump the waste/byproducts back to the environment like any other organism in the universe. If the population of a specific organism is well below the carrying capacity of the environment, it will support positively for natural increase in the number of organisms of the particular species. Several reports are there regarding the carrying capacity of the earth for humans’ shows that it has been exceeded far above the normal rate the biosphere can sustain. If carrying capacity of the biosphere is exceeded, living organisms must acclimatize to the new levels of consumption or find alternative resources for meeting their needs. As there is rapid rise in population, the demand for natural resources is increasing in an alarming rate also the pollution load and environmental degradation results. However, through effective management systems and development of new resource saving technologies, we can sustain with limited resources available.
\nThe world Summit, 2002 identified key objectives of sustainable development: protecting natural resources, eradicating poverty and changing unsustainable consumption and production patterns. A multidisciplinary team including technologists, ecologists, economists and policy analysts has to ascertain the consumption pattern globally and determine the human carrying capacity and come up with sustainable solutions in which we are considering both environment and economic development equally. The carrying capacity can be changed by improving the technological advancements. As the system exceeds its natural carrying capacity, leaving the environment no longer able to support even the original number of people inhabiting in the area on a sustainable basis [41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46].
\nFor development, we need resources, due to rapid increase in population, urbanization, industrialization the resource depletion is increasing in an alarming rate. We cannot avoid development; we are not able to change to the bullock cart age, so we have to find alternatives for the sustainable use of available resources. We will reach to a point where the nature will be depleted of the resources and will not have any to offer the human race. This is when circular economy benefits on a global scale. In addition to using up the resources, the development these days has an adverse effect on the environment. Moving towards a circular economy could offer reduced pressure on the environment. The wastes those are otherwise discarded to the environment are instead recycled and made to use up to its maximum potential. This could improve the security and availability of the natural resources, which are the raw materials for the production processes. This will increase competitiveness among the companies and bring about more innovation, which in turn will boost the economic growth. The economic growth is marked with creating more jobs and other opportunities. Circular economy can also help companies provide more durable and innovative goods with increased quality of life, which help consumers save money in the end. According to waste management priority order, the first and foremost priority is to reduce the amount of wastes generated. We can follow the reuse, recycle and other recovery procedures. Disposal of waste to environment is the least desirable waste management procedure. This exactly aligns with the characteristics of a circular economy, finally can attain in sustainable future also.
\nThe present work evaluated the prospective of industrial value creation in Industry 4.0 in terms of their involvement to sustainable development. The importance of the study was to put together the social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainability. The fundamentals concepts of Industry 4.0 and its basic technologies for value development in the context of Industry 4.0, as well as of sustainable value creation were delineated. This work also aims to propose a novel sustainability approach in industrial environment, especially in environment management systems in industries in order to achieve better performance in terms of both economic and environmental perspectives. The work also supports the engineering systems to be sustainable and feasible industrial systems that can support a transition to the circular economy by change in their process, product and approach finally help them to act in fruitful congruence with the recuperative mechanisms of the Mother Nature. Also results in less demand on the earth’s natural resources and less impact on environment. The challenge involves complex array of issues and problems that require more sustainable solutions than that are usually done as the end-of pipe-remedies. Hence there is urgent need for environment management together with the incorporation of principles of sustainable development.
\nNowadays growing attention has been modeled to enhance the sustainability component in the manufacturing process by decreasing the consumption of natural resources and its key materials, the energy consumption and the ecological footprint which also increases the company’s acceptability and competiveness in global markets. The rebuilding comprises of a set of processes or systems, tools and knowledge based approaches to reuse and recover functions and valuable materials from industrial waste products and postconsumer products under a circular economy perspective. Globally the industries are facing several challenges to attain the reasonable and sustainable health by upholding peaceful and good relationship between the societies and the biosphere. To overcome these challenges the components of industry 4.0 is set to achieve sustainable development in three dimensions- economic, ecological and social. The new evolution of the production and industrial process called Industry 4.0, and its related technologies such as the cyber–physical systems, big data analytics and Internet of Things, still have an unidentified potential influence on the environment. Though, the existing economic strategies and the resultant business models are more or less universal, they largely neglect the organizational essentials. The closed-loop economy or circular economy present modewort on debate on sustainable development as it an approach in which the waste or residuals from an industry can be used as raw material for another industry there by reducing the demand on earth’s natural resources. The vital aim of the work is to bond the gap between organizational characteristics, such as profitability, market position, structure, decision-making style and the adoption of circular economy practices.
\nThe authors certify that there will not exists any conflict of interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.
Herbal or phyto-based medicines are in the mainstream of present pharmacological world [1]. Nearly two-thirds of the medicines throughout the world is plant based, the rest being the conventional ones [2]. The main reasons behind the preference of herbal drugs over the synthetic ones are that they have negligible side effects, are cost-effective, and easily available [3]. Also, the knowledge of herbal sources has led to the formation of base for many modern medicines. Some examples mentioned by Vickers and Zellman [4] are aspirin taken from willow bark, digoxin from foxglove, and morphine from opium poppy. Many researchers have also stated the development of resistance to allopathic drugs after a long medicament leading to becoming ineffective [5]. Thus, a documentation of medicinal plants and its herbal aspect becomes the first step toward a “botanical healing.”
\n\nZanthoxylum genus, belonging to family Rutaceae, comprises of aromatic, therapeutic deciduous shrubs and tree species [6]. Most of the plants in this genus are characterized by the presence of a strong lemon like odor, and prickly spines in the world [7]. The plant is mostly found in the South and Southeast Asian regions at an altitude of 1300–2500 m [7, 8, 9]. It is a plant of the warm temperate climate [10]. The benefits of this genus vary from healing common problems like toothache, gum problems, stomach ache, cough, cold, fever, dyspepsia, expulsion of roundworms, and in the treatment of fatal disease like cancer [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. It is an anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antifertility, adipogenic, hepatoprotective agent; it also has the special ability to improve speaking power, reducing rheumatism, arthritis, asthma, skin diseases, abdominal pain, anorexia, ataxia, and purifying the blood [12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. The plant has phytomolecules that display insecticidal, antiparasitic, nematicidal, larvicidal, and fungicidal activities [13, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29].
\nSeveral species under Zanthoxylum genus have been used by various regions of the world since ancient times for benefits of mankind and their live stocks [5, 30, 31]. Z. liebmannianum bark is used for removal of parasites in Mexico [32]. For malaria, Z. rhoifolium, [33, 34] and Z. acutifolium [5] have been preferred from this genus. Nyishi tribe of India utilizes Z. armatum fruit, seed and bark in a traditional “Honyur” mix to treat stomach disorder, fever, and cholera, respectively [10]. Z. chiloperene var. angustifolium Engl. is also known as an antiparasitic agent in Paraguay [35]. Z. integrifolium bark is utilized by YaMei and Lanyu indigenous tribes of Taiwan, to treat dyspepsia and fever [5]. Freitas et al. [36] has reported antitumor and colitis-relief in Z. rhoifolium Lam. Z. monophyllum has found a place in the Venezulan medicine for treating jaundice, and ophthalmia [5]. Roots of Z. zanthoxyloides have been used to treat sickle cell anemia [37]. Z. alatum has been used for treatment of diabetes, toothaches, and abnormal cell growth [38].
\n\nZ. leprieurii and Z. zanthoxyloides inhibits cancerous activity of leukemia (HL60) and (MCF7) breast cancer cell line [39]. It also shows moderate anti-cancerous activity (MCF-7), liver (WRL-68), prostrate (PC-3) and colon (CACO2) carcinoma cell lines [37]. In another study, methanolic extract (ME) of the pericarp of Z. armatum revealed the presence of compounds ZP-amide A, C, D, E, hydroxyl α and β sanshool, and Timuramide A, B, C and D [9]. All these compounds inhibited the growth of mouse glioma cells that were deficient of tumor suppressor genes NF1 homolog-Nf1, whereas only few compounds showed activity against cell lacking Trp 53—the genes responsible for encoding tumor suppressor gene p53, at a concentration that is nontoxic to the nontumor cells. Z. alatum Roxb. stem bark petroleum ether extract (PE) possesses various anticancerous lignans, namely sesamin, kobusin, and 4′0 demethyl magnolin [38]. Out of which 4′0 demethyl magnolin, which is a novel compound, gave the best anticancerous output against lungs (A549) and pancreatic (MIA-PaCa) cancer cell lines, in comparison to the standard docetaxel. Z. armatum dried root ethyl acetate extract (EAE) (a good antioxidant) and its two components flavonoids, apigenin and kaempferol-7-O-glucoside, also possess an anticancerous trait against A-549, MIA-PaCa, MCF-7, and CACO2 cancer colon cell lines [40]. In an extensive study, the ME of leaf of Z. armatum induced apoptosis in cervical cancer cell lines (HeLA) at IC50 (60 μg/mL) through Caspase 3-independent and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK)-dependent mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) apoptosis pathways [41]. Karmakar et al. [42] demonstrated that at an IC50 value of 102.30 μg/mL, the ME of the leaves of Z. armatum exhibited toxicity against Ehrlich Ascites cancer cells. The toxic effect was attributed to the presence of phenol and flavonoid compounds in the plant extract. Karmakar et al. [43] stated that the ME of leaves of this plant are capable of apoptosis by regulation of bcl-2/bax protein expressions and DNA damage in cancer cells and determined the presence of flavonoids, rutin, myricetin, and quercetin in the methanolic extract as potent anticancerous phytochemicals. Zanthonitrile [{4-[(3-Methyl-2-buten-1-yl) oxy] phenyl}acetonitrile] isolated from the leaves of the plant eluted by hexane: ethyl acetate solvent has a cytotoxic effect on Ehrlich Ascites Cancer cells with an IC50 value of 57.28 μg/mL [44]. Aqueous extract (AE) of Z. piperitum De Candolle fruit induces c-Jun N-terminal kinase autophagic cell death in colorectal (DLD-1), hepatocarcinoma (HepG2), and CACO2 cancer cell lines but not in A549, MCF7, and colon (WiDr) cells [45]. Alam et al. [46] demonstrated that ME and crude saponins from leaves, fruit, and bark of Z. armatum have a potential of exerting a cytotoxic effect on breast (MDA-MB-468, MCF-71) and colorectal cancer (Caco-21) cell lines using the mechanism of apoptosis. Another compound Tambulin, a flavonoid isolated from the fruit exhibited antiproliferative action on certain cancer cell lines like MCF-7, WRL-68, COLO-205, MDAMB-231, with an IC50 ranging from 37.96 to 48.7 μg/mL [45]. Three compounds isolated from Z. zanthoxyloides fruits ME, hesperidin, skimmianine, and sesamine, possess anticancerous activity up to some level against A549, MCF7, and PC3 cell lines [47]. Pang et al. [48] confirms the anti-proliferative activity of seed oil of Z. bungeanum Maxim. on melanoma (A375) cells by arresting G1 phase and inducing apoptosis. Component analysis revealed the presence of unsaturated fatty acid in the seed oil. The EAE fraction of the fruit of Z. acanthopodium has been found effective for breast cancer cell line (T47D) toxicity [49]. Another isolated compound scoparone, a coumarin from the fruit of Z. leprieurii, at an IC50 of 44.93 μg/mL can be used to design anticancerous agents against human HepG2, with the least amount of toxicity to normal Chang liver cell lines [49]. Fruit of Z. acanthopodium in n-hexane fraction is also, effectively anticancerous toward T47D cell line [50]. The possible mechanism for this is cell cycle inhibition, apoptosis induction, and downregulation of cyclin D1 activity. Geranyl acetate is present in the highest percentage in the effective fruit n-fraction.
\nNakamura et al. [51] has reported that Z. bungeanum could reduce scopolamine-induced dementia. Gx-50, an isolate of Z. bungeanum could also aid in Alzheimer’s disease, PE of the same plant can act as an antidepressant [52]. This compound gx-50 has the ability to cross blood–brain barrier and stop the degradation of nerve cells. Qinbunamide isolated from pericarp of Z. bungeanum can activate the nerve growth factor to further activate neurite outgrowth at 20 μM concentration [53]. Three alkaloids berberine, chelerythrine, and columbamine isolated from chloroform extract of Z. schreberi inhibit cholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase [51]. As these enzymes are responsible for breakdown of acetyl choline, their inhibition leads to increase in number of nerve messengers, especially helpful in case of Alzheimer’s and myasthenia gravis.
\n\nZ. chiloperone leaves EO and one of its major component canthin-6-one, showed an inhibition of parasitic activity of Trypanosoma cruzi at 10 mg/kg of oral and subcutaneous dose in comparison to standard benznidazole (dose 50 mg/kg) [35]. ME of Z. armatum seeds, at a concentration of 50 mg/mL induced paralysis in Pheretima posthuma (test model) in lesser time than the reference drug piperazine citrate (10 mg/mL) [54]. Z. armatum methanolic leaves extract at the concentrations of 250–1000 μg/mL showed a moderate trypanocidal activity on blood parasite found both in humans and animals—Trypanosoma evansi in an in vitro condition utilizing mice cells as a model [28]. Hexane bark extract of Z. heitzii acts as an inhibitor of P. falciparum at an IC50 0.050 μg/mL [55]. Dihydronitidine one of the major components of the extract also acts as an antimalarial compound at an IC50 value of 0.0089 μg/mL [55]. In another investigation, anti-leishmanial activity was seen in crude extract and its hexane fraction of Z. armatum fruit against Leishmania major [46]. The essential oil (EO) of Z. monophyllum leaves also possess acute toxicity against larvae of Anopheles subpictus (LC50 41.50 μg/mL), Aedes albopictus (LC50 45.35 μg/mL), and Culex tritaeniorhynchus (LC50 49.01 μg/mL). Among its two major compounds Germacrene D-4-ol has better efficiency than α-Cadinol [56]. Also, The EO, along with Germacrene D-4-ol, and α-Cadinol, EO has very low toxicity against Gambusia affinis, an eradicator of malarial larvae. Costa et al. [57], has reported antiparasitic activity of three noval compounds (5,7,8-trimethoxy coumarin, syringaresinol, and dictamine, isolated from the ethanol extract (EE) of roots of Z. tingoassuiba against Leishmania amazonensis and Trypanosoma cruzi, similar to positive control benznidazole and amphotericin. The larval stage of Schistosoma haematobium, a bladder cancer causing parasite can be successfully eliminated by acridone compound arborinine, isolated from fruit of Z. leprieurii at an IC50 value of 6.98 μg/mL [57].
\nBark EE of Z. fagara, Z. elephantiasis, and Z. martinicense presented antifungal activity against fungi prevalent in domestic animals—Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Microsporum canis, Trichophyton mentagrophytes [31]. Though, it was unable to inhibit bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Psuedomonas aeruginosa [31]. Lipophilic leaf of Z. armatum extract was found effective against Alternaria alternata and Curvularia lunata [58]. The EE of the whole Z. armatum plant proved to be effective against S. aureus (7 mm zone of inhibition), Bacillus subtilis (23 mm the biggest zone of inhibition), B. cereus (6 mm zone of inhibition), and B. thuringiensis (1 mm zone of inhibition) [25]. Barkatullah et al. [18] reported a maximum inhibition of Micrococcus luteus, Pasteurella multocida, E. coli, and B. subtilis by the application of Z. armatum leaf EE. Z. leprieurii and Z. xanthoxyloides EO decreased the effective time required to deactivate 7log cfu/mL of Salmonella enteritidis [59]. Oxychelerythrine, a benzophenanthridine alkaloid extracted from the ME of roots of Z. capense Thunb. altered the sensitivity of S. aureus ATCC 6538 to tested antibiotics (erythromycin, oxacillin, and tetracycline) in a positive way by twofold [60]. According to Alam and Saqib [46], n-hexane, chloroform, and aqueous-methanol fraction of Z. armatum fruits are a potent antifungal source, especially against Trichophyton longifusus, Microsporum canis, A. flavus, Fusarium solani. The presence of alkaloids may be the reason behind such activity. Chen et al. [61] has found antimicrobial activity in the leaves extract of Z. bungeanum Maxim. against E. coli. K. pneumonia, P. aeruginosa, S. enteritidis, Listeria monocytogenes, C. albicans. Mirza et al. [62] observed that Z. armatum aqueous leaves extract-derived copper oxide nanomaterials (100 μl) was more sensitive in all bacterial strains tested (S. aureus, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus pyrogenes, Staphylococcus epidermidis, B. cereus, Corynebacterium xerosis, E. coli, K. pneumonia, P. aeruginosa, and Proteus vulgaris) in comparison to its source plant extract (100 μl).
\nPotent tuberculosis plant: ME of Z. leprieurii at minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 47.5, 75.3 and 125.0 μg/mL inhibited rifampicin-resistant and isoniazid-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, respectively [63]. Hydroxy-1,3-dimethoxy-10-methyl-9-acridone, 1-hydroxy-3-methoxy-10-methyl-9-acridone, and 3-hydroxy-1, 5,6-trimethoxy-9-acridone isolated from the plant also exhibited potent inhibition of resistant strains [63].
\n\nZ. coreanum root extract at an IC50 of 1.0 μg/mL inhibited porcine epidemic diarrhea virus growth [5]. Moreover Z. planispinum also exhibited the similar activity at an IC50 of 6.4 and 7.5 μg/mL respectively. Patino et al. [5] also reported the anti-HIV activity of Z. ailanthoides, Z. integrifoliolum, and Z. scandens.
\nOxypeucedanin, a coumarin compound present in ME of roots of Z. flavum Vahi., possesses significant antioxidant activity with an IC50 value of 8.3 μg/mL in a dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay [32]. Z. armatum fruit EE showed promising activity as a natural source of antioxidants [64]. According to their study, the bioactive compound responsible for such quenching action is flavonoids, especially quercetin. Moreover, the EE of its stem bark tested via 2,2′-diphenyl picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity exhibited significant antioxidant activities [23]. DPPH radical scavenging activity was obtained in the sequence of ME of stems (IC50 54.6 ± 2.9 μg/mL) > dichloromethane extract of stems (IC50 4.7 ± 117.5 μg/mL) > EO of fruits (IC50 5764.7 ± 6.5 μg/mL) of plant Z. limonella Alston [65]. Singh et al. [65] reported that the EO from the seeds of Z. armatum was a potent antioxidant. Ethyl acetate fraction and aqueous fraction of Z. bungeanum showed potent DPPH, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging abilities and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) [66]. The EO and its constituent oleoresins showed moderate antioxidant activity when evaluated by DPPH radical scavenging, Fe2+ chelating, ferric thiocyanate method, and different lipid peroxidation assays. Leaves extract of Z. bungeanum maxim “You Huajiao” variety from China possess DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity. It also possesses the reducing potent power (FRAP) [61]. A compound Ombuin isolated from the fruit of Z. armatum possessed antioxidant capacity [67]. Two new sesquiterpenoid glycosides, dihydrophaseic acid 4′-O-[6″-O-(4″′-hydroxy-3″′, 5″′-dimethoxy) benzoyl)]-b-D-glucopyranoside and dihydrophaseic acid 4′-O-[6″-O-(3″′-methoxy4″′-hydroxy) benzoyl)]-b-D-glucopyranoside, isolated from the ethanolic extract of stems of Z. armatum showed moderate scavenging activity in DPPH free radical assay with IC50 values of 241 and 264 μM, respectively [68]. Aqueous extract of leaves of Z. armatum and copper oxide nanoparticles derived from it were less effective in DPPH radical scavenging activity in comparison to L-ascorbic [40].
\nThe crude extract of Z. armatum reduced thermal pain significantly at the concentrations of 100 and 400 mg/kg body weight in case of intraperitoneal (i.p.), in comparison to 30 mg/kg body weight i.p. of standard anti-inflammatory drug phenacetin [69]. Also, its root extract exhibited analgesic activity when compared to standard drug indomethacin (40 mg/kg body weight i.p.) [69]. The anti-inflammatory activity of EE of the stem bark of Z. armatum against paw edema in Wistar rats has also been observed by Sati et al. [23]. Thus, Z. armatum may be helpful in the treatment of pain and inflammation symptoms. Eight lignans that may be responsible for this curative quality, namely eudesmin, horsfieldin, fargesin, kobusin, sesamin, asarinin, planispine A, and pinoresinol-di-3,3-dimethylallyl, were recognized by HPLC analysis in its EE of stem and root [70]. Nine terpenylated coumarins, namely 7-[(E)30,70-dimethyl-60-oxo-20,70-octadienyl]oxy-coumarin, schinilenol, schinindiol, collinin, 7-[(E)-70-hydroxy-30,70-dimethy-locta-20,50-dienyloxy]-coumarin, 8-methoxyanisocoumarin, 7-(60R-hydroxy-30,70-dimethyl-20E,70-octadienyloxy)coumarin, (E)-4-methyl-6-(coumarin-70-yloxy)hex-4-enal, and aurapten, along with a 4-quinolone alkaloid and integrifoliodiol, isolated from the leaves of Z. schinifolium by α-glucosidase inhibitory effect showed anti-inflammatory activity [71]. EO from fruits of Z. coreanum Nakai inhibited both the IgE-antigen complex and IL4 production in RBL-2H3 mast cells showing anti-inflammatory activity [60]. 2α-methyl-2β-ethylene-3β-isopropyl-cyclohexan-1β, 3α-diol and phenol-O-β-D-arabinopyranosyl-4′-(3″,7″,11″,15″-tetramethyl) hexadecan-1″-oate noval compound isolated from the methanolic extract of Z. armatum fruit exhibited anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6 in peritoneal macrophages at the concentration of 5 and 10 μg/mL [72].
\n\nZ. armatum bark ME exhibits anti-hyperglycemic activity against streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats at 200 and 400 mg/kg concentration [73]. Stem bark AE of Z. chalybeum Engl. displayed anti-hyperglycemic activity at 10, 100, and 1000 mg/kg body weight concentration against streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [74]. n-Butanol fraction of Z. alatum EE inhibits can inhibit protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B and stimulates glucose uptake in C2CL2 myotubes in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [75]. Z. armatum aqueous leaves extract the activity α amylase, and α and β glucosidase, thus, can act as an antidiabetic agent [75].
\nDi-chloromethane extract of Z. usambarense bark displayed insecticidal activity against Masca domestica at 5000 g/ha, but its individual component could not produce any insecticidal results [70]. The EO contained sabinene, D-germacrene, β-mycrene, β-elemene and γ-elemene. The larvicidal potential of EO and its constituent from the seeds of Z. armatum were screened against three mosquito species, Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, and Culex quinquefasciatus [15]. Among these three species, C. quinquefasciatus showed the highest sensitivity at lowest concentration LC50 and LC95 at 49 and 146 ppm, respectively. However, linalool the most important constituent present at the maximum concentration (57%) in the EO failed to establish any significant larvicidal effect individually [15]. Hieu et al. [76] revealed that mixtures of Z. armatum seed oil (ZA-SO) and its constituents either alone (0.2 mg/cm2) or as a binary mixture (0.01 + 0.99 mg/cm2) with Calophyllum inophyllum nut oil (CI-NO) can be potential repellents against stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans. An aerosol of the mixture (ZA-SO-2.5% + CI-NO-2.5%) was also found effective as a repellent of stable fly. Among all its constituents tested, only methyl cinnamate exhibited a significant effect [77]. In a different study, three bioactive compounds—piperitone, myrtanol, and citronellal from Z. armatum seed oil were assessed for fumigant toxicity potency against stable fly with a simultaneous comparison of chlorpyrifos and dichlorvos, which are the organophosphorus insecticides [78]. The fumigant toxicity potential of seed oil and all three compounds according to the vapor phase assay was high with LC50 value 0.242–0.456 μg/cm3, but their toxic level was five magnitudes below the organophosphorus insecticides, which reflects that Z. armatum may be further used as a bio-insecticide [78]. Additionally, constituents of EO-cuminaldehyde citronellal, neral, linalool, linalool oxide, terpinen-4-ol, 1,8-cineole, and piperitone induced a significant repellent behavior in the stable fly [76]. The in vitro insecticidal efficacy of the EE of the bark of the plant has been observed against mustard aphid Lipaphis erysimi at the concentrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg/L [79]. After 24 h of spray at a concentration of 2.0 mg/L, 100% mortality of the aphid was there, proving that Z. armatum may be a good insecticide [79]. Nanoencapsulated EO of Z. rhoifolium leaves efficiently reduced the number of eggs and nymphs of Bemisia tabaci at 1–5% concentration [80]. Out of 32 constituents identified from the EE of Z. armatum twigs, 1,8-cineole piperitone, and limonene in particular were efficient as an insecticide against Lasioderma serricorne and T. castaneum [81]. While, in another study, the effect of Z. armatum leaves methanolic extract has been checked for antifeedant activity on the adults of “Red flour beetle”–T. castaneum [82]. Another study stated the effects of n-hexane, EE, and ME of leaves of Z. armatum on Plutella xylostella, diamondback moth [83]. In this investigation, the n-hexane fraction exhibited the best larvicidal activity at an LC50 value of 2988.6 ppm. Moreover, two compounds, particularly 2-undecanone and 2-tridecanone identified from the n-hexane fraction of leaf extract of Z. armatum through GC–MS analysis, which may be responsible for the larvicidal activity [83]. Egg laying capacity of Bemisia tabaci, a major tomato pest, can be reduced (85–98%) by using EO of Z. rhoifolium and Z. riedelianum at 1.0–2.0% concentration [84].
\nEO of Z. armatum fruit showed more than 90% nematicidal activity 5 mg/mL concentration against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, whereas its components methyl trans cinnamate and ethyl trans cinnamate also exhibited 100% activity at 0.0625–2.0 and 0.25–2.0 mg/mL, respectively [85]. Z. armatum leaves AE (100–400 mg/kg body weight concentration) decreased the hatching ability of Meloidogyne incognita [13]. The leaves of Z. armatum also work as a nematicide on M. incognita if added directly in the soil at the concentrations of 8, 10, and 20 g/kg of soil [86].
\nGlycoprotein isolates of Z. piperitum DC fruit inhibited hypoxanthine/xanthine oxidase [87]. It also decreased the level of lactate dehydroenase, thio barbituric acid, while increasing the level of antioxidant enzymes in carbon tetrachloride acute liver damage. The leaf EE of Z. armatum significantly decreased all the symptoms of hepatotoxicity in Wistar albino rats by normalizing the elevated levels of hepatic enzymes, which was induced by carbon tetrachloride [24]. It induced hepatoprotective activity at a concentration of 500 mg/kg of body weight in comparison to standard drug silymarin at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight. This effect was there due to the radical scavenging activity of the phytochemicals, especially flavonoids present in the plant [24]. In a different study, the EE of bark of Z. armatum significantly expressed hepatoprotective activity at concentrations of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg when administered orally in Wistar albino rats (where liver damage was instigated by paracetamol) by decreasing the levels of hepatic enzymes, bilirubin and at the same time increasing catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione in comparison to silymarin [88]. In a recent study the ME at a dose of 500 mg/kg exhibited successful hepatoprotective activity with 66.87, 64.84, 67.95, 60.76, and 65.85% protection on aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, total bilirubin, and total protein enzyme levels of the liver, respectively in Wistar rats [89].
\n\nZ. rhoifolium Lam. stem bark EE prevents the formation of gastric lesions at 125–500 mg/kg dose by increasing enzymes like catalase (reduces oxidative stress) and also mucous secretion, nitric oxide (repair of gastrointestinal tract injury) [36]. It also helps in opening KATP channel to control H+ pump and acid secretion. Z. bungeanum pericarp extract reduces the level of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-12 to reduce the inflammation in J774.1 colon cells [90]. Thus it can be utilized to treat ulcerative colitis.
\n\nZ. bungeanum EO at the concentration of 5, 10, and 20 mL/kg had a significant effect on deduction of cholesterol, hyperlipidemia, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein; it also aided in the induction of high-density lipoprotein [91]. The EO of Z. bungeanum also helped in relaxation of contracted aortic muscles by reducing calcium influx via calcium channels [90]. Z. armatum fruits hydroethanolic extract (dose administered—200 and 400 mg/kg body weight) succeeded in decreasing the elevated levels of cardiac diagnostic marker enzymes (aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase-MB, troponin-T), lipid profile and antioxidants (enzymatic and nonenzymatic), to normal conditions. The results were comparable to a positive control verapamil, expected phytochemicals are yet to be identified [92].
\nIn a study, methyl cinnamate, an important bioactive compound of the Z. armatum suppressed the intracellular lipid accumulation [20]. It was possible at a concentration of 25 μM through Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 (CaMKK2)-phospho AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway, by downregulating the adipogenic transcription factors, sterol regulatory element binding protein-1 (SREBP-1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα), as well as inhibiting the activity of PPARγ and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) in 3 T3-L1 preadipocyte cells [20].
\n“Sichuan pepper” with its pungent odor and numbing taste belongs to the genus Zanthoxylum [93]. According to Ji et al. [94] five species of Zanthoxylum—Z. armatum, Z. bungeanum, Z. shinifolim, Z. simulans, Z. piperitum, are commonly considered as “spice” species of the family. Not only seeds, fruit, leaves, bark, and even root of this genus is used as spice in China, Japan, and Korea [95]. This pepper is used by the people of China to create a special “Mala” flavor, which literally refers to numbness and spiciness. More than hundred volatile compounds have been isolated, which are responsible for the unique spicy note and fragrance of this genus [96]. Some nonvolatile compounds have also been identified like alkylamides (sanshools, capsaicin) and polyphenolic compounds [97]. The genus has found a place in culinary as “five spice powder,” in cosmetics, as well as in pharmaceutical too [98]. In cosmetics, the variable fragrance provided by the genus—sweet, spearmint, herbal, floral, fruity, rose, citrus—is of great significance [99]. This diversity is due to the presence of more than hundred volatile compounds like 1,8-cineole, 1-terpineol, 2,-nonenal, 2-tridecanone, α-elemol, α-pinene, β-pinene, geraniol, myrcene, neryl acetate, piperitone, rosefuran etc. [100]. The pungent property of the spice of this genus has been attributed to the presence of α-, β-, γ-δ-sanshool and hydroxyl α and β-sanshool [99]. In pharmacology the presence of polyphenolic compounds like flavonoids and glycosides make Sichuan pepper a good antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. Zhu et al. [98] has also reported the presence of antibacterial activity against both gram positive and negative bacteria in EO of Z. bungeanum fruit. EO of Z. shinifolium and Z. piperitum (broad spectrum) has been reported to have antiviral properties [94]. Most significantly, Sichuan pepper and its component sanshool amide have displayed inhibitory action on the formation of hetercyclic amines, which are carcinogenic to humans in beef grilling procedure [11, 101]. Utilization of analytical techniques to compare component analysis is lacking in the literature related to spice knowledge of the genus. Also according to Ji et al. [94] if the effect of heat (while cooking) is elaborated on the spice and its individual compound, it would be more beneficial to the herb and spice world.
\n\nZanthoxylum genus is a stockpile of medicinal plants brewing with therapeutic properties, as gathered from the above references of the recent decade. The readers can benefit with the traditional and current knowledge on the herbal aspect of several species Z. acanthopodium, Z. acutifolium, Z. ailanthoides, Z. armatum, Z. bungeanum, Z. chalybeum, Z. chiloperone, Z. coreanum, Z. elephantiasis, Z. fagara, Z. flavum, Z. heitzii, Z. integrifoliolum, Z. leprieurii, Z. liebmannianum, Z. limonella, Z. martinicense, Z. monophyllum, Z. piperitum, Z. planispinum, Z. rhoifolium, Z. riedelianum, Z. scandens, Z. schinifolium, Z. schreberi, Z. tingoassuiba, Z. usambarense, Z. zanthoxyloides to name a few, of this genus. The information can form the basis of research regarding drug formulations, conservation of medicinal plants, pharmacokinetics, and new drug discoveries, which are plant based in the future.
\nThe company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\nIn the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n2004
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\\n\\nWe started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\nIn the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n2004
\n\n2005
\n\n2006
\n\n2008
\n\n2009
\n\n2010
\n\n2011
\n\n2012
\n\n2013
\n\n2014
\n\n2015
\n\n2016
\n\n2017
\n\n