Interpretation challenges and scenarios.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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In case of Jenkinson’s map of Russia (1562), it was well known by historians of cartography, however, only from their renditions. It occurs possible thanks to the outstanding Flemish 16th century cartographer and editor Abraham Ortelius. One day he simply decided to collect the maps of his times to create an atlas. In this way the first atlas in a quite new editorial form came into existence, equally becoming a rich historical source for the scientists of different fields. Ortelius collected the maps of different regions of the world made by different excellent cartographers of his times. One of the maps that gained his interest was the map being a result of the first English travels to explore the way to China and India by water. English traders travelled along the north-east passage. At the same time Ortelius has just learned that the map of Moscovia has been printed in London by a king’s printer, Reginald Wolf. Twenty-five copies of the map in question have been sent to him by Nicolaus Reinoldus to Antwerp, what the latter mentions in his letter. One of the copies has been assigned to be remade in the form of rendition and to fit the size by Ortelius’ new Atlas “Theatrum Orbis Terrarum”, first edition (1570).
The map of Moscovia – today’s western Russia, by Anthony Jenkinson with the 1562 date is hand-colored copper-cut and it measures 101,7 x 81,7 cm including 6 cm decorative border. It is considered by historians as a wall map and has been made in the north orientation. Doubtful in this respect is only Finland Gulf (“Sinus\n\t\t\t\tFinlandicus” in the map), which is situated north-south instead of rather east-west.
In the north part of the map there is today’s north-western coast of Russia. Far eastern part of the coast in geographical sense reaches the Ural mountains and the lower course of the Ob river. The river discharges into so-called North Sea (“Mare Septentrionale”) – today’s Kara Sea. The source of the Ob river in the map is in mysterious Chinese Lake (“Kitaia Lacvs”). On the opposite side of the lake, i.e. from the south, the river continues its course, however not as the Ob but the Sur river, which bifurcates in its upper course in the “Shamarghan” and “Baida”regions. The tributary of the Sur is “Amow”river.
Jenkinson’s genuine copy, 1562 (size of the map see in text). From Wrocław University Library cartographic collection
An eastern part of the map, i.e. east of Ob and Sur rivers, covers quite a wide space of this part of the map. However, geographically this is a rather poor fragment. Namely, there are only names of the following regions, going from the north: “Casackia”, “Samoyeda” and “Molgomzaia”, “Baida” and “Colmac”. In the south part of the map we can see the name “Persia” and in the lower right-hand corner there are “Mhoghol” and ”Kirges”. To the north there is “Taskent”, where the Sur river takes its source. In the most south-eastern end of the map there is a city called “Audeghen”. In south-western part is the Black Sea but it has been almost wholly covered by the cartouche with the dedication for the sponsor of the map. Above this cartouche we can read the names of “Lithuania” and “Livonia”. In the western part is the above mentioned Finland Gulf and White Sea, named not as it is today but as the gulf of the “North Sea”(“Mare Septentrionale” on the map)
Ortelius’ rendition, one of the edition in his “Theatrum orbis Terrarum” (here much enlarged to Jenkinson’s original copy above – size of the map see in text). From Wrocław University Library cartographic collection
Characteristic feature of the genuine copy of the map in question is its unusually rich decorativeness. It is undoubtedly worth wider discussion. The variety of the content of the map we can study is especially interesting. There are ethnographic, religious, military and historical elements. Finally, the map can be examined in respect of its rich fauna, too. These features make the map an outstanding document of the epoch of the territory portrayed here. The decorative border with metal design is an additional element which makes the map even more interesting. We can find the special value of the map in the numerous texts distributed all over it. These decorative elements are of historical value, too. Mentioned texts are boxed in different cartouches.
The author of the map in question – Anthony Jenkinson (1525/29/30?-1611) is one of the first English travelers, and simultaneously a member of the founded in the years 1552-1553 and chartered in 1555 Muscovy Company. The Company, the society of the English merchants has been later called the Russia Company, English Trading Company, Company of Merchant Adventures or differently. Its purpose was to penetrate and to explore the north-east sea passage to reach China and India.
Sebastian Cabot (ca. 1482 - 1557), Robert Thorn (1492-1532) and John Dee (1527-1608) were the first who became the impellers of this enterprise. As already mentioned, Jenkinson was not the first voyager who travelled to Russia. Earlier there were two brothers – Stephen Borough (1525 - 1584) and William Borough (1536- 1599) who undertook the task to pass the way to mouth of the Ob river. Richard Chancellor (1520-1556) and Sir Hugh Willoughby (1516-1554), the explorers of the northern part of Russia were the next travelers, but unfortunately they both perished in their voyages.
Anthony Jenkinson was the trustworthy agent of the Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603, dominated 1558 - 1603). He began his journeys in 1557. First of them were in 1557-1560. The next: 1561-1563 (to London 28 Sept. 1564), 1566 - 1567 and the latest 1571 - 1572. His map is dated back to the 1562, however, when we take into account the examinations by Samuel H. Baron’s (1989)[1] - and Krystyna Szykuła’s, (2000)[1] -, the map in question has been probably published between 1567 and 1569.
An exciting moment when the genuine copy of the map has been rediscovered was finally that could be compared with the existing renditions, i.e. made by Abraham Ortelius (1527 - 1598) and Gerard de Jode (1509 - 1591). It was especially exciting because of the different representations by Ortelius and de Jode which differ with one another. Namely de Jode’s picture displays only, even not in whole, the left-hand part of the original. Before the genuine copy was recognized, scholars had discussed who of these two cartographers has been right. Finally today we know that Ortelius’ representation was correct in respect to the territorial range.
The size of the three maps – the prototype and its renditions was the essential distinction to be seen at first glance, because of the quite other way of situating the title and dedication cartouche. The existence of the dedication has been only mentioned by Ortelius, but we can learn about its content as recently as from the genuine copy. The same concerns the content of boxed texts, decorative elements and borders – much more of them and changed in style in the genuine copy of the map. An appearance of the quite new creators in the main title cartouche was of the most importance issue. Namely, both of the creators of renditions placed Jenkinson as an author in their cartouches, but only Ortelius additionally included the name of Henry Sidney (1529-1586), the sponsor of the genuine map to whom the above mentioned dedication has been devoted by the editor Clement Adams (1519? – 1587). The second unknown yet to us was an engraver Nicolaus Reinoldus (Nicolas Reynold). We already know him thanks to his letter mentioned in the Introduction, unfortunately undated, which has been estimated to be written about 1573[1] -. The name of the printer of the map has been recovered, too, to be Reginald Wolf(ius) - Dutchman, settled in England since 1530, d. 1573. He was the member of the Muscovy Company, as well, in the following years: 1559, 1564, 1567 and 1572. In the letter we can find one more interesting person, Jan de (van) Schille (1533 - 1586), who was an Antwerp painter and engraver and could be also engaged in creating the genuine map, maybe even responsible for the decorative part of it. In the letter he is the person who was allowed by Wolfius to keep one of the 25 copies of the map. The original copy of the letter quoted in Hessels’s Ortelius’ correspondence, too (Hessels J.H., 1887, letter number 43) had been indicated by Peter Barber – then the Head of the British Library Manuscript Department (Barber, P., 1989). Unfortunately, the letter is still the only document in which genuine Jenkinson’s map had been mentioned, and even not quite directly. We can only presume that mentioned 25 copies were not a full size of its edition, and therefore ask where is the rest (if there were any at all) of the 24 copies which are missing, if we take into account only those mentioned in the letter.
As far as the above mentioned differences in arrangement and the content of cartouches are concerned – in Ortelius’ rendition the title cartouche is placed in the left hand bottom corner, but on the genuine map in the upper left corner. Close to the title cartouche in genuine copy there is another very important one in which all the regions belonging to Moscovia at that time are mentioned. De Jode’s title is also placed in the left upper corner but only with the name of Jenkinson (without information on Henry Sidney). The latter is distinguished only by name in Ortelius’ title cartouche. Then we can read the comprehensive dedication to this noble man, as the sponsor of the map, only in its genuine copy.
As far as the dimensions of the three maps are concerned they go are as follows: the genuine copy – 101,7 x 81,7 cm.[1] -, Ortelius’ rendition – 44 x 35,3 cm[1] -, and de Jode’s – 26,3 x 32,6 cm[1] -. Quite a long in size horizontally is one more rendition, by brothers Jan and Lucas Deutecum (Doetecum, too) – 104 x 50 cm[1] -, which the author kindly received from Dr Aleksy K. Zajcev.
This coincidence took place in the author’s domestic city, Wrocław (Poland). It was during a visit in the cathedral library, that the head of the library informed her about one lady, who brought him a 16th century map. It was obviously extremely exciting news for the author. The owner of the map, the lady who was a teacher in one of the Wrocław high schools, decided to sell it. That is why she brought the map to the author (then the head of the Wrocław University Library Department of the Cartographic Collection). An expertise has shown that just found genuine map is the one used by Ortelius and de Jode as the basic picture to their most popular renditions. Additionally in the famous History of Cartography (Bagrow, L. & R.A. Skelton, 1964, p. 172), there is only one sentence on the genuine map – “the map not survived and it is known only from the copies in the atlases of Ortelius and de Jode”. Then the conclusion was quite clear – that is the only copy of the map in the world! What is yet more interesting, before bringing the map to the University Library the owner has been showing it in some eminent libraries but nobody showed any interest in this map. Because of the great interest of the author finally it had been purchased by the Wrocław University Library.
According to information of the owner, the present map has been used by her for years as a didactic (teaching) aid on her history lessons. Because of its big size it has been folded twice and finally brought in a plastic bag, simply because the lady was not aware of its value. To the question of how the map ended up in a teacher’s hands, she answered that it was a gift from her pupil, who found it after the World War II, probably in some cellar or attic!
The content of the dedication by the editor Clement Adams to Henry Sidney – the sponsor of the Jenkinson map. Below Sidney’s coat of arms
Undoubtedly we have to remember that it happened thanks to above mentioned famous cartographer Abraham Ortelius as the creator of the first Atlas “Theatrum Orbis terrarum” to which the Jenkinson’s map had been incorporated, too. Although he did not use it in an original form, however, thanks to him the knowledge on the map and its author has survived. On the other hand, to include the map in its original big size was even technically not possible. He was then obliged to reduce its format, as well as to limit its decorative elements and the number of boxed texts. However, he never limited the geographical content of the maps he reworked. He also always put the original authors in them, in spite of his own authorship as the new author of rendition. The engraver of Ortelius’ rendition was Franciscus (Frans) Hogenberg.
Apart from the Ortelius’ and de Jode’s renditions, another one had been made by above mentioned Deutecum brothers with the date 1569[1] -. As well as rather mysterious is the Ortelius’ rendition reworked by Antonio Possevino (1533/34 --1611), in 1587 edition of his book (reproduction of the map in : Szykula, K., 2000, p. 79). One more rendition, has been published by B. Langens much later than the first edition of Ortelius’ Atlas in Amsterdam (1598)[1] -.
The first historian of cartography who revealed his interest in Jenkinson’s map was Richard Hakluyt (1552 – 1616). It resulted in the comprehensive edition of the book entitled “The Principal Navigations, Voyages and Discoveries of the English Nations”(1589), where he included Jenkinson’s accounts from his diary about his journeys. Among them he placed the description on the journey by the first Russian ambassador in England during the reign of Mary Tudor. The interest in the period of journeys and Jenkinson’s map has reappeared and raised in 19th century. It was the topic which became the fundament of the work by Edward Delmar Morgan and Charles Henry Coote and resulted in their book published in 1886 – “Early Voyages and Travels to Russia and Persia, by Anthony Jenkinson and Other Englishmen”(\n\t\t\t\tMorgan, E.D. & Coote, H., 1886). At the end of the 19th century we can notice a great interest by Russian scholars, as well. The leading one at that time was the scholar of Russian history of cartography Veniamin Aleksandrovich Kordt (1899), who has published absolutely fundamental work on the early maps of his country in which he included their reproductions, too. At the beginning of the 20th century another Russian historian of cartography H. von Michow (1906, pp. 22-25) showed the same interest, and in the interwar period also Leo Bagrow (1928) – the Russian emigrant settled in Germany and then Sweden. Again, after the World War II, we can observe an interest in our subject. There are articles by Dutch historian of cartography Johannes Keuning (1956), and by mentioned Leo Bagrow (1962). In the same year the book by Margaret B.G. Morton had been published, but rather from the Jenkinson’s private life point of view. Then in turn we have works by: Rybakov, A. B. (1974), Sager, P. (1974), Bagrow L. (1975) and Oakeshott W. (1984) and finally by still uncertain to the original finding S.H. Baron, (1989) together with his several works connected with the epoch in question. So, these are all of the works issued before the genuine map has been found (1987), i.e. the period when none of the mentioned authors was aware of the original picture of the Jenkinson’s map, i.e. the period when they had only two main existing renditions as a proof of the map’s existence to their disposal.
In the year 1987 starts a new epoch for the Jenkinson’s map. The second step of the author taken was to announce the subject of the rediscovery to Organizers of the next International Conference on History of Cartography, then it was to be in Amsterdam. Just after the announcement of the author’s abstract of the subject, Canadian editor of “Cartographica” Edward Dahl showed an interest in this exciting news. The editor needed the confirmation that the announcement on the genuine map in an Abstract is trustworthy. It was because of the next paper which professor Baron prepared for printing, still about the rendition of the Jenkinson map. Hence, professor Baron had to rework just before delivering the article (Baron S.H., 1989) to the editor and write in the footnote this sensational news, however as has been said, carefully informing on the new discovery. The presentation during the conference brought unexpected effect. Englishmen who noticed the genuine map reproduction in the poster session called: sensational, incredible, unbelievable. The first post conference publications on the discovery were: short article in conference book (Szykuła, K., 1989); conference account (Scott, V.G., 1989), and the same author short information with small reproduction of the rediscovered map (Scott, V.G., 1990), finally additional information (Barber P., 1989). At the same time in accounts by Eckhard Jäger (1989) and R. W. Karrow (1989) the copy in question had been announced, too.
In the meantime, there has been established a friendly scientific correspondence cooperation between Professor Baron and the author which resulted in the Professor’s first article about the genuine copy (1993). He considered the relations between original and its renditions, and tried to establish the real dating of the genuine copy.
From the historical point of view Jenkinson’s map is the 16th century document of the epoch during the reign of Elizabeth I (1533–1603) in England and of Ivan IV Terrible (1530-1584) in Russia. To be more clear why the map had been depicted we have to go back to the epoch of Edward VI (1537-1553) and Mary Tudor (1516-1558). The date of the death of Edward is at the same time the date of establishing the Muscovy Company. The date of the death of Mary is in turn the period when our Jenkinson had been travelling on his first voyage to Russia (he left London on May 1557).
Ivan IV Terrible and Anthony Jenkinson (from the genuine map)
Important dates for the mentioned period were following events as attachment of Khanate of Kazan (1552) and Astrakhan Khanate (1556), as well as subordination by tsar the Nogai Orda and Khanate of Sibir. At the time the Russian neighborhood played an important role – Poland and Lithuania, for instance Ivan’s suffering the defeat in the war with Livonia (1557/1558 – 1570). To have an access to the Baltic coast was the main reason of the battle at that time.
This short introduction to historical epoch of our map of Russia let us take a look at the map of this point of view. Historical content is reflected in numerous texts on the map, as well as, for instance in silhouettes of numerous khans which are placed in the right-hand part of the map in its south-eastern fragment of the territory. In the left-hand part of the map there is only one figure of khan -“Ismail Sophi” near the Ardevil town (“Ardabil” in the map). This city is situated close to the other important city, Tabris (“Tenbres”) and in the western direction there is yet one more important city Kazvin (“Caby” in the map).
Opposite to the left-hand side of the map, in the right-hand side, are five figures of khans. There are (going from the south): “Kvrcot chan”- to the north of “montes paraponise”, “Alie chan”– in “Kirges” region, “Blag chan”- in “Boghar” region, “Azim chan”- in “Turkmen” region and “Aphis chan”- in “Taskent” region, to the north of “Ta
As far as the content on regions included is concerned the best idea is to quote full list mentioned in the bottom of the title cartouche, i.e. left hand corner of the map. This goes as follows:
“Johannes Ba
As the historical description we can also consider the following one[1] -For the translated texts of genuine Jenkinson’s map from Latin to Polish the author wishes to thank Dr Wojciech Mrozowicz from Wrocław University Institute of History: “Haec pars Lituaniae, hic descripta, Imperatori Ru
One of the descriptions is a historical one only at its beginning: “Permiani et Condoriani, aliquando Ethnici fuerunt, at nunc a Ruβorum Cae
The subsequent text of historical content is: “Crimae
Here again there is only the beginning of the text which can be interesting from the historical point of view: “Medi, Per
Interesting is the description close to Caspian east coast region: “Turcomannorum imperium inter quinque fratres e
The next text is to be continuation of the previous one and it goes: “Horum Vrgence Principem locum tenet. Incolae Mahumeticam
Northwards of the Caspian Sea in the genuine Jenkinson’s map
Some other interesting descriptions are as follows: “Vrbs Cora
Conclusion: these above mentioned descriptions placed in the map give us quite a rich material on history of the territory in question.
Right hand lower part of the genuine map
To examine the subject of the Jenkinson’s map from the geographical point of view, it is worth devoting some place to history of cartography of Russia. Obviously, this field is best known by native scholars. One of them is for instance Professor Alexey V. Postnikov. Before we take into account his publication from 2000, we should go back to the ancient times. Here should be mentioned for example Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 550 – 480 BC), Herodot from Halicarnassus (c. 484 – 425 BC), Dicearchus of Messana (c. 350 – 285 BC) or Eratostenes (c. 276 – 196 BC) and of course many others. On the map of the world by Dicaearchus it is the most amazing because already depicted in south-north extension of the Caspian Sea, and as we know this error was presented on early maps up until the beginning of the 18th century, for instance on J.B. Homann’s map in 1720 (“Generalis Totius Impeii Moscoviti”). As well as on the Dicaearchus map, there is already a symbol of the cartographic net in form of two perpendicular lines – the meridian which crosses Rhodos Island and parallel, so called diaphragma, which start from Pillars of Hercules (Strait of Gibraltar), and it runs to the Himalaya Mountains. The proper shape of Caspian Sea was undoubtedly known by ancient people, what we can learn from the article by Leo Bagrow[1] -.
On the maps of ancient geographers and cartographers untill the times of Claudius Ptolemaeus (100 – c.168) one may observe the development of geographical knowledge. Some information were repeated together with the development from one to the next generation. This happened with the presentation of the Oxus or Ougus river[1] - which was so depicted until the first quarter of the 18th century. As an example can be shown the map by Christfried Kircher of 1734 or J.B. Homann’s map of Kilania (and different other dates of its editions)[1] -.
As far as the domestic Russian cartography is concerned, it is necessary to come back to the above mentioned Alexey V. Postnikov’s article. We read there that the first document of Russian domestic cartography was so-called “Nikon’s latopis”. The earliest Russian maps initially were composed for small fragments of areas, for instance a vicinities of rivers, meadows, then strongholds, and finally cities. The last were created mainly for military needs. Road maps in turn were created for mission needs to be used by monks. The maps of northern sea lands were made because of sailors’ and fishermen’s needs. However, despite of existence of much information in Russian transmissions in maps and drawings, practically they had not survived. There are, however, many maps, which have been made by foreign cartographers, who in their diaries or accounts were writing about the politeness Russian natives showed towards the foreigners. They were particularly very helpful in every aspect in terrain. It is even possible that they served some sketch maps of a small parts of a given area like those experienced traders and voyagers of the Muscovy Company. Professor Postnikov writes about the Polish cartographer G. Maintsky, who, according to the Professor, was an author of the world map of 1100, where he already marked Russia as a country situated northerly of the Danube. The next cartographic document where the Russia territory is marked is the famous Ebstorf map of the end of 13th century. On the map Professor Postnikov notices fourteen times the different names connected with the region of Russia.
As far as the territory of South Asia is concerned, we should not forget about the voyages by 13th century latest half traveller Marco Polo (1254 – 1324). Together with his brother he passed the so-called Silk Road (south of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea) and reached China, and, like Jenkinson, later on, Marco Polo passed the same dangerous Bokhara, as well as was a guest on the court of Great Khan of Persia.
From the year 1459 comes the world map by Fra Mauro, however, there is a quite detailed fragment of territory of Russia which is therefore why it should be quoted here (Borodaev & Kontev, A. V., 2007). Very good picture of the part of the region in the book illustrates the fragment of the map (p. 20). We find the description on this map on the next page. On subsequent maps appear more detailed pictures of Sarmatia[1] - – for instance in 1513 Strasburg edition of “Geography” by Ptolemaeus.
16th Century is a golden age of very comprehensive geographical works where the maps became quite often illustrations of the texts. The most famous is so-called “Cosmography” by Sebastian Münster (1488 – 1552). In its first edition of 1544 in Basilea we can find the map of Moscovia, as well. However, the real cartography of Russia begins from Dmitry Gerasimov (c.1465 – c.1535), who was the Russian ambassador. He passed his observations on Moscovia to Paolo Jovio[1] - (1483 – 1552). Next, Battista Agnese (1500 – 1564) published the Jovius map in his Venice edition of 1554 (reproduction of the map in Szykula’s article, 2000).
The next important map of Russia was prepared by Baron Sigismund Herberstein (1486 – 1566). It is the result of his travels to Russia. He was an Austrian diplomat and the messenger of the emperor Maximilian I (1459 – 1519). The map has been made in wood by Augustin Hirschfogel in 1546, and published in 1549 in the book by Herberstein “Rerum Moscoviticarum commentarii” and it is the first comprehensive report on the Moscovia State.
Dates 1537, 1542, 1555 and 1570 are the years of subsequent editions of the map by Anton Wied. This one has been made on basis of an information by I(van?) V(asilevich?) Liacky.
Now it is time when the Jenkinson’s map should be already described from the geographical point of view. The left-hand half of the map which has been already mentioned in this respect is the richer one than the right. The latter is not only poorer in those physiographical elements but generally speaking in most degree erroneous in its representation. On the other hand it is richer in decorative components. As was already mentioned, the Ortelius rendition is the most faithful to the original map, especially at its left hand part. Vaughan, Earnest Vancourt (1912) was the one who very accurately analyzed Ortelius’ rendition.
Obviously many other historians were engaged in analyzing the map, too, but still before the original has been found. After the discovery of the genuine copy of Jenkinson’s map we can find the first descriptions on the relation between genuine copy and the Ortelius’ rendition: Szykula, K., (1989) in the conference book and Baron S.H., (1993) more comprehensive description. Next in: Szykula K. (1995), Szykula K. (2000).
Now to attempt to analyze the genuine copy in this respect, it is worth remembering some common opinion which was expressed by many scholars, that the north-western part of the map has been made by Jenkinson on the basis of the manuscript map by William Borough (1558) – reproduction in Szykula’s, K. (2000), south-western part on the basis of Anton Wied’s, but the most erroneous east part by Anthony Jenkinson himself. Obviously, it would be nothing strange that Jenkinson should use the existing maps of his predecessors, but on the other hand such an opinion is to some degree rather unjust. At first, because he himself personally first overcame the roads so far inside Russia and as a first Englishman reached Buchara region at the time - previously Bokhara region have been reached only by Marco Polo. Before the map has been depicted, he has been exploring the western region of Moscovia three times. This shows his great and rather correct knowledge of the way in question, to Persia, too. Some proof makes, too, his detailed diary in which we read about his numerous measurements along the way, by log (distances) and astrolabe (latitudes). He also gives many concrete data on estimated value of latitudes as well as distances in miles or in number of days. The north orientation of his map is the next proof of the modern attitude to cartography, however, known already from the Ptolemaeus atlas, but more innovative to Wied’s map, which is, according to its author, an eastern one, but south-eastern because of some elements on the map.
White Sea region on the genuine map
The visual eastern border of the left half of the map reaches the lower course of the Ob river, “Tiumen”region, east coast of Caspian Sea, crosses the “Ougus”river, and in the southern part of the territory reaches the north end of the Persia and Hindukush mountains, where river Ougus takes its source. As far as the descriptions of the rivers here is concerned, the author asks the reader to be understanding if she will not always follow the principle to describe them from the upper course as it is usually practiced. To continue the subject and going from the south-eastern part there is the Black Sea but it is covered by the cartouche containing the comprehensive dedication to Henry Sidney, as the sponsor of the map. We can only notice the north part of the Sea, i.e. Azov Sea (“Palus Meotis” in the map). In the western part of the Sea is the Dnieper river (“Biri
Into the Azov Sea flows Don river (“don uel tanais fl.”). Then it turns to the north-eastern direction, where from the west it leaves the “Crimea” region. Further the river passes “Mordva” and “Reza” regions crossing two lakes – smaller one “Iuan ozera” and the larger one “ploglar ozera”. Finally it reaches the smallest of them “rezanskoy ozera”.
Between the two mentioned seas runs two mountain ranges marked with small hillocks, which are almost for sure Kaukaz mountains. The name of this region is marked “Chirkassi Petigorski”. Below is Kura river (“Cirus fl.”). To finish the description of the left lower part of the map, it is worth mentioning the cities of the region, but they will be included in the “Dictionary” of further “Monography “. In this chapter there should be yet considered Kaspian Sea (“Mare Caspium”) with the estuary of Volga river. It changes its names (“Volga fl” or “Volga Rha uel Edel fl.” or “volgha fl.”). The another one is Ural river mouth (“bogthiar” & “Yaik fl.”). However, coming back to the course of proper Volga going from its estuary in Caspian Sea - its first half of the course is better shown than in other early maps, however we can say that there is not one Volga river! The proper course of Volga river goes from the Caspian Sea under the name “volga fl. and “Volga fl.””. Then from Kazan (“Cazane gorode”) it turns by 900 angle to the west to Nizhny Novgorod (“Ni
The distinctive feature of early maps are different scales on the same map. It is because the cartographers compiled different maps which were made by using a different scales. Hence, we can observe numerous errors in several parts of the maps. According to numerous measurements of the distances made by the author the average scale of Jenkinson’s map occurred to be about 1: 5 083 871 (Szykuła, 1995). Whereas, the scale which has been counted on the basis of three scales on the map, i.e. in Russian miles, English and Spanish miles, according to professor Baron has been assessed to be between 1:6 000 000 to 1: 7 800 000 (Baron, 1993).
The other reason of the distortions in the early maps was obviously the imperfection of the measuring instruments used then. In 16th century there were used so-called logs for measuring the distances. Jenkinson used it for instance during his journey by Volga river, whereas for measuring the latitude he used so-called astrolabe, the most popular device in 16th century which enabled him to measure the position of the sun or stars. This instrument was still modernized and used until the 18th century. As far as the designation of the longitude is concerned, it was still a very difficult task at that time. Therefore Jenkinson in his map marked only latitudes on the frames of the map. The map has no cartographical net. It was the reason why the author used her own method in the form of a rectangular net to show the differences between the examined maps and in the same way to try to determine its projection. Simply because well-known distortion net is possible to be used only if the cartographical net is used. The method the author first time has shown in 1994 during the implementation of the grant Project given by so-called Polish “State Committee for Scientific Research” (in Polish KBN). Then, the author invented the method and shown in graphic form in two poster sessions on Zurich (1994) and Vienna Conference (Szykuła, K., 1995). Next in a sketch description in the publication from the national Conference in Pobierowo (Szykula, K., 2008). However, its final graphic result the author is going to present in her “Monograph” – then to be evidently proven by specialists of geodesy. Now short description should be presented to the readers to let them see what is a basic principle of this method.
The nets of triangles have been depicted on every one of the maps, including contemporary maps, which have been chosen to be compared with Jenkinson’s and other 16th century maps of different authors. The number of triangles could be assumed by the author himself. In case of Jenkinson’s map it has been used ten triangles. The points of cities, mouth of rivers and so on have been used as a vertexes of the triangles. The triangle nets to be compared were fixed in two position – first in natural position (according to the lower frame of the map), i.e. the given orientation and the second one according to one of the side of the triangle which has been chosen by the author, but fixed vertically for every one of the maps the same. In this way it was possible to observe how the whole given figure turned out and how subsequent triangles changed its angles, surfaces and sides of the triangles. Sometimes they changed not only their shape, but also vanished at all or they overlapped. Every figure with precisely measured angles of the triangles had been then introduced to the computer in a special Program. The results on the printed triangle nets were noticeable at the first glance. It was especially interesting when we turned the figures according to the same vertically fixed side of the given triangle. Then we could define closer an orientation of the map, as well as to compare the triangle nets depicted on contemporary maps, too.
Summing up the benefits of the method we can shortly mention them as follows: 1/ possibility to identify the non-existing projection, 2/ to notice the differences in the localization of the subsequent points as cities, mouth of rivers and so on, 3/ to define an orientation of the map and 4/ to find most uncorrected places in maps of our interest according to subsequent triangles.
The triangle net from the Jenkinson genuine map - an initial (basic) figure to be compared with every other maps (the sketch and legend in Polish because it has been made in Polish Project then)
Triangle nets of the same region from maps of Russia by different authors (author of the whole conception Krystyna Szykuła, the triangle nets introduced to a computer program by Mariusz Ożarowski)
Going back to our map, the above mentioned method clearly has shown the innovativeness of our genuine map and the similarities between renditions and the genuine copy of the Jenkinson map. Amazing similarity the author has found, too, if a figure of the one of contemporary maps of the territory in question has been taken. Then it evidently occurred that possibly Jenkinson used a similar or even the same projection which has been used in the contemporary map.
From the geometrical point of view Jenkinson’s map is undoubtedly quite innovative. The same conclusion concerns an orientation of the map when we compare two figures - taken for instance from Jenkinson’s and Wied’s map.
Triangle nets depicted on maps of different authors being compared with Jenkinson’s map. They are fixed vertically according to one common axis Moscow-Azov. The fragment of the poster presentation in mentioned Zurich and Vienna Conferences
As far as the ethnographic elements in Jenkinson’s map are concerned, it is exceptionally rich, although this is rather typical for the 16th century maps. However, it can be an outstanding source of information for the specialists of different fields[1] -. In this respect the genuine copy significantly dominates over its renditions. Although fauna is usually joined with physiography, however, in this article the author decided to join it with ethnography because the human being from the earliest times has lived with animals to use them as the means of transport and, unfortunately, as the foodstuffs, too. As the means of transport we can see numerous camels and as the means of food we can see hunters with their trophies. We can also notice the connections between animals and people in so-called numerous genre scenes. There are camps of Cossacks, Tartars, Samoyeds depending on the given region in the map. From the human figures there are mostly warriors of different kinds depending on the region they are depicting. The warriors are equipped with a bows. Especially in the left part of the map we can notice many warriors who are shooting with the bows. In the east in turn we have already mentioned procession of the figures of sitting khans. There are also some dog-teams or deer-teams in the north of the map territory and camel-teams in the middle of the map – north of the Caspian Sea. In this fragment of the map we can see herds of sheep and tarpans, too. In the south-eastern part there are even panthers in Tashkent region. In the east are hordes of Tartars living in characteristic tents. Worth to draw attention to are two-wheeled carts, to which camels are hitched. Numerous horses are used to horse riding, furnished with bows or lances.
There are three religious scenes. First of them in the upper right corner close to camp in “Colmack” region (the Khanate of Sibir at that time), is the scene where the group of a few believers worships the sun. The comment on the map to this scene goes as follows: “Molgomzaiani, Baidai, Colmachij, Ethinici
The next object is worshipped by Samoyeds. It is so-called Golden Woman (Zlata Baba in Russian). The figure of the woman is sitting on some kind of pedestal and holding a small child. In Jenkinson’s map it is situated in “Obdora” region, between the mouth of Ob toward the sea and the unnamed mountain range. Undoubtedly it is the North Ural. Quite a long description on the scene in Latin is placed on the opposite side of Ob river where we read: “Zlata Baba id e
Above mentioned pedestal with “Zlata Baba” has been used not only by Jenkinson but by Herberstein, Mercator and Wied in their maps as well. However, in every of these maps they differ from each other in subsequent representations. Accompanying descriptions on every of these representations on these maps are different as well.
Third interesting religious scene is the picture in Kirgiz region as follows: ”Kirge
We can classify the signatures of the cities rather to decorative elements, however they were popular in 16th century maps. The examples can be picturesque signatures of “V
Toponymy and the orthography on the Jenkinson’s map has been already considered by the author in her article (Szykula, K., 2010), published in a special jubilee volume devoted to the 50th work anniversary of Professor of the Stettin University Olga Molchanova = Molczanowa or Molčanova (Ad Fontes, 2010).
In the first part of the paper the author shared with the readers her remarks, doubts and difficulties, which accompanied her during the creation of the dictionary being in preparation. The cause of the difficulties were the differences in the orthography on every of the examined maps. We sometimes meet interesting phenomenon on some of the maps where the represented region is not a native for given cartographer. This happens for instance in case of Mercator’s and de Jode’s map when they marked the same cities many times because of the different versions of their names they met on several maps. In Mercator’s map it concerns for instance Polish city Bydgoszcz which takes following names to be in fact the same city. There are: “Bromberg”, “Bidgostia”, “Bizgelaw” and “Biltgotz”. In de Jode’s rendition of Jenkinson’s map there are in turn: “Bobroue
In the mentioned article the author was comparing the toponymy on different 16th century maps in their relation to the Jenkinson’s map. Examined in this respect were Wied’s map, by brother’s Doetecum (so called Daškov[1] - = Dashkow map), Sigismund Herberstein and Giacomo Gastaldi (1500 - 1566) – map of 1551 (in the map itself the 1550 date has been written).
When we are examining toponymy we take into account such physiographic elements as: mountains, rivers, lakes, gulfs or bays, islands, peninsulas but as well as names of cities, ethnic or administrative names and every other elements that bear the geographical names in the maps.
The other phenomenon is when the names differ sometimes only in their orthography, but in some cases there are quite unrecognizable changes to the names. To mention some of them there are for instance: “Kinieshma” in temporary map, “Kmysma” in the Jenkinson’s map, “Kmÿshma” in Ortelius’ rendition and “Kmijshma” in de Jode’s rendition. If we compare the genuine Jenkinson’s map with Doetecum map there is for instance “Choghloma” in Jenkinson’s and “Czohloma” in Doetecum map.
The case is very interesting if we compare Jenkinson’s map with Wied’s map. The latter used so-called Cyrillic script, not only for the names but for the quite comprehensive text situated in the bottom of the map as well.
Fragment of the cartouche from the Wied’s map of Russia
The names in question have double forms – in Latin and Cyrillic script. The next question is how the two editions of the Wied’s map differ from each other. In his map of Moscovia published in 1542 there is the city “Wollozeck”, but in the edition from 1570 – there is the version “Wollo
Jenkinson’s map in relation to Herbestein’s and Doetecum map gave interesting results in case of the name “Kiev”: in Jenkinson’s the name of the city is “Kiou”, in Herberstein – “Kiow”, and in Doetecum – “Kioff”. In Wied’s map we have even a typical Polish letter “ę” in the sentence “Dux Mo
Taking into account the most intriguing geographical elements in the Jenkinson’s map we have to mention: northern Volga river, lakes: “volock lacvs” and “Kitaia Lacvs”, as well as the rivers “Amow fl.” and “Ougus fl.”
Every of the mentioned elements has been already considered in Polish articles published by the author (Szykuła K., 1995 & 2000) and in one published in English (2005) – available in the Internet, too. Unfortunately, the latest has been limited by the editor and therefore it is there not in its original form and without most of the figures.
The problem of north Volga river has been already described in the subchapter on the physiographic elements. To remind it, the error is a consequence of the incorrect name of the Volga river, because instead of “Volgha fl.” it should be there today’s Neva, Swir and Volkhov rivers. Quite a rich history have already the so-called “volock lacvs”. We can find some information in very useful 18th century dictionary of geographical names “Historisch=Politisch=Geographischer Atlas, 1774-1750”. This is the German version of the French Lexicon by Bruzen de la Martiniere. Under the head “Wolochs, Volock” we read there (in transl.): “the city in Russia, see “Wolocz”, and there: “a small city in State Russia in the province Rzeva, on the border of the Dutch of Moscovia, not far from the Fronowo Lake, on the outer edge “Wolkonsky Forest” (Volkonski les in Russian). The description could be correct in respect of the place of the lake in question in the Wied’s map, however, this author carefully left this lake without geographical name. Herberstein placed the Fronowo Lake at the source of Dvina as “Dwina Lacq.” We find another explanation in the history of cartography by well known Polish historian of cartography Stanisław Alexandrowicz in his book on the history of cartography of Lithuania (1989, p. 57, footnote 25). He considers there that the incorrect information has been found in Polish historiographer’s Jan Długosz “Chorographia”, and he quotes “Annales seu cronicae”, lib. I, p. 99. There the author of the work writes about a big lake or marsh which lays 30 miles from Smolensk towards Novgorod, where three rivers have their mouth: so called western Dvina, Volga and Dnieper. This information has been used again by famous Polish cartographer Bernard Wapowski. He placed the lake in question in his not surviving map of the Northern Sarmatia. Then, the information has been taken over again by Wied and placed in his map. Finally, the lake’s name has been retaken by Jenkinson. According to Professor Alexandrowicz (1989) the name of the lake comes from the city “Wyšnij Woloček” (Wyshni Wolochek). In turn in above mentioned map from 1525 (Gerasimow-Jovius-Agnese map) this lake is called “Palus magna”, and there meets Volgha, Dnieper, Dvina, and additionally to Jenkinson’s representation – the Neva river. Professor Samuel H. Baron (1993, p. 58, footnote 10) gives some other conception. He claims that this mistake comes from Gerasimov and then from Münster’s map. This mistake could be also explained by the translation of the word “volock”– in Russian language it means “the carriage across the river”. Then, it could be understood as the lake, especially that the terrain on which the lake is situated is full of marshes. The lake could be also identified with mentioned here Fronovo Lake, which is also mentioned by Jovius (Baron, S.H., 1986) and was confirmed above by the quotation from the Bruzen de la Martiniere Lexicon on the lake.
The next problematical element worth to be considered here is “Kitaia Lacvs” which has been already discussed several times in many articles, and which representation has been depicted on numerous maps. The number of conceptions, too, was presented. However, in spite of so many theories, which based on quite a real research results, it is difficult to resist an impression that both in shape and in its relation with the river Sur (Sir-Darya today), the lake can be automatically associated with the Aral Sea. Especially that it does not exist at all in its proper place in the Jenkinson’s genuine map.
“Kitaia Lacvs” and Ob river in Jenkinson’s map
Quite different but interesting is the attitude of the Russian scholars to this open question. In “Zapiski” by Herberstein (Gerberstein, S., 1988, footnote 546, 547), there are following theories presented by different scholars. As far as the Zajsan lake is concerned it has been considered by A.F. Middendorf as an “Upsa=Ubsa Nur” or “Uvs nuur” by G. Genning and M. P. Alekseev, as the Aral sea by G. Michow, L.S. Berg, and K.M. Ber, and as the Teleckoye lake by A.Ch. Lerberg and D. N. Anucin. To the mentioned conception refer another Russian scholar, Vadim F. Starkov (1994), who writes about the participation of Gerasimov in creating the theories, like that of above mentioned professor Baron. Aleksey K. Zaytsev focuses on “Teleckoye Lake”. He explains that Teleckoye Lake is placed on the way of the Ob river, or rather its tributary called Bija, which joins with the Kotunia river and they create the Ob river. The note we can consider as the real one if we take into account mentioned here “Historisch=Politisch=Geographische Atlas” (Bd. 1, 1744,; Bd.4, 1746,), where under the entry we read (in transl. from German): “Kitaius lacus”, so is in Latin named a great lake in the Kingdom of Altin, see “Altin” and then under the entry “Altin” we read – so is named (by somebody) the lake, which is situated in the eastern part of the kingdom of the same name. The completion of this information we find in another geographical dictionary (Šchekatov, 1808, č. 6, v. X, columns 164-165), where under the entry of the “lake” we read that the lake bears as well the name “Altyn” or “Altaj”[1] - and is situated in Tomsk Gubernya, and Kuznieck district. Having so many conceptions, it is necessary to consider their reliability. Then, we should look at lakes’ geographical placement. Every one of the lakes is situated in the mountain region, close to the Altai mountains. When we look at the Jenkinson’s map, east of Kitaia Lacvs, he depicted high mountain range. As has been already said, Teleckoe Lake is situated on the way of Bija river – the tributary of the Ob river, whereas the Zaisan Lake on the Irtysh river the tributary of the Ob river, too. Only Upsa is not connected with the Ob river. The latter is in most degree in the shape of “Kitaia Lacvs”, because two other have, using the geographical vocabulary, the shape of finger lakes. There are, however, many indications against these theories on the three lakes. Mainly because they are situated far away to the east from the territory represented in the Jenkinson’s map, i.e. above 1500 km. from the Aral Sea. The Altai mountains are situated to the south-eastern direction, but not in northern Siberia. On the other hand, the Teleckoye lake could be accepted to be “Kitaia Lacvs” because of the reasonable argument which has been already mentioned above and quoted from the geographical Lexicon by Bruzen de la Martiniere. Simultaneously we know that neither Jenkinson nor Herberstein entered so far in the Asia interior. They had been not able to get in so high ranges of mountains and because of wild tribes living east of Bokhara region. Then, to be remembered, there is yet the possibility that the Lake was retaken from Gerasimov, what has been already mentioned in Starkov’s work (1994) and confirmed by S.H. Baron (see above).
Then, maybe we should return to the Aral Sea conception. As it was already mentioned about its shape and the course of river Sur (Syr-Darya) there is “Amow” tributary of “Sur” river, too. It seems very unlikely if Jenkinson, who travelled across the territory between the Mare Caspium and Tashkent including Bukhara region, did not notice such a great lake as the Aral Sea. We are obviously not talking about today’s drying up lake.
However, coming back to the previous thought, that is “Kitaia Lacus”, at the times thanks to brothers Boroughs’ voyages (Baron, S.H., 1989 & Mayers, K., 2005) there was known only the lower course of the Ob river, and yet before the Jenkinson’s map has been made. Then it is very probable, that Jenkinson, who did not know the further course of the Ob river, could add up information acquired by the mentioned brothers with his own information collected during his second travel to Russia, when he reached Bokhara. Hence, he made similar mistake as Wied on his map - to join two pieces of news together - because he did not know the territory between the lower Ob river and the Ougus river. That is why there is also Sur extended to the south and the Aral Sea shifted too much to the north that was Wied’s some kind of idea or trick done by eliminating the unknown territory.
Funeral ceremony by Kirghizes
On the other hand there are still many unclear points in the presented “discussion”. We should raise the question, why under the entry “Arall” in the quoted dictionary by Bruzen de la Martiniere there is only a short description on the settlement of the same name. “Arall” as a sea is only briefly mentioned there, however in the same dictionary is that the view is so great as the sea! Another argument which indicates that the Kitaia Lake is the Aral Sea is the opinion expressed by zoologist J. Bartmańska[1] -, who claims that these kinds of animals as camels, tarpans and sheep should be presented on the latitudes 450 – 520 but not on the 600 – 650. However, some of them are situated in a correct place, too, for instance in northern direction of the Caspian Sea in the genuine map. We know that the latitude of the Aral Sea is about 450 and there is Kyzyl-Kum desert but not the region of the high mountains as it is shown in the Jenkinson’s map. Whereas the existence of the camels and sheep on the same latitude as “Kitaia Lacvs” and between the mountains steppes indicate in turn the Altai mountains. Then, as we can see, solving the problem is not so easy and probably it will be never solved. Some final conclusion could be supported, too, by the description of the name “Kitaya” in Wikipedia under the entry “Kitay-gorod”.
There is one more interesting geographically questionable element in Jenkinson’s map. This is the Amu-Darya river which as Ougus flows into the Caspian Sea. The problem have been already interestingly and accurately described by many authors (Menn G.F.C., 1839, Alenicin V.D., 1879, Barthold W., 1910). As have been here already mentioned the representation of the mouth of Ougus river can still be found in the 18th century maps. The history of the mouth of Amu-Darya from the oldest times had been very accurately described by G.F.C. Menn in Latin[1] -. There are some interesting testimonies which we can find in Herodot’s work in following sentence (translated: “the biggest river in this region is “Arakses” or “Oksos” and that one of the branch flows into the Caspian Sea”). What is interesting, he also calls the river as “marshes of Aral”. Alenicin in turn asks himself a question – which way Jenkinson has gone when, as he writes in his diary, he met so-called “priasna” water, i.e. sweet water. The author comes to conclusion that at some point Jenkinson had to confuse the directions of the world. Alenicin realized that if Jenkinson met a sweet water it could be neither the Aral Sea nor the Caspian Sea – it must have been probably Sary-Kamysh – a big lake situated between the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea, because it goes from Mangyshlak peninsula across the Ust’- Urt’. On the 12 page of his book Alenicin writes about yet another conception. He there claims that in 1878 came into the Caspian Sea a branch of the river which probably reached it. Interesting description on Amow river (a tributary of the Sur river on Jenkinson’s map) we read in already quoted geographical dictionary (transl.: “Amou or Amu it is the river of Asia, which by our contemporary geographers is named Amu. Because “Ab” word in Persian means water or river. Arabs call it Gibon, but accurately Balkh, river Balkh, because it flows across city of the same name. The old called it Oxus and Bactus. This river flows out from the Imaus mountains and directs its course from the east to the west. As a matter of fact, when it comes close to the Khovarezm country, it runs in meander way, and seems to flow to its source direction, however it comes back again, and flows into Caspian Sea in the west”). It is worth here to quote before mentioned Menn (G.F.C., 1839). In his book in the chapter I entitled “Oxi fluminis vetustae navigationis in mare Caspium documenta” on 5th page we read (transl.:“…Oxus flows into the Caspian Sea across Scythia…” W. Barthold (1910, s. 68), who discusses the Jenkinson’s map writes (in transl.: “south branch flows to the lengthened gulf of the Caspian Sea, i.e. Sary-Kamysh” (see Tolstov 1962, pp. 261-267) where the author writes that the river Amu-daria at the beginning of the 10th century had flown into the Caspian Sea. This Russian archeologist Tolstov (1953, p. 62) recalls Jenkinson’s opinions from his diary, which are opposite to his map’s picture. Namely, Jenkinson claims that the water in his times did not flow into the Caspian Sea as it was in the early times. So we may presume, that the picture of the Ougus river in his map has been simply retaken from Ptolemaeus’ map of this territory. The history of this early course of Amu-Darya comprehensively describes S.P. Tolstov in his another book (1962, pp. 17 – 26), where he gives the bibliography of this subject.
Every one of these theories could be taken into account in the light of the interesting text quoted in Internet from the famous book by Ryszard Kapuściński. In this description we are told a beautiful story of the Uzboj river, which was examinated by yet another Russian archeologist A.H. Jusupov. The story has been told to Kapuścinski by a local called “Raszyd”(Rashyd). The author writes: (transl.“Raszyd has shown me on the map the course of the Uzboy river. The river Uzboy has taken its waters from the Amu-Darya river, the river has flown across the desert Kara-Kum into the Caspian Sea. It was a beautiful river – long as the Seine river. This river died, as he said, and from the time of its death the war begun.”)
In the article, the author tried to show a kind of sketch of the further full Monograph on the Jenkinson’s map. The first conclusion which is easily noticeable is that the subject in question constitutes an inexhaustible material for investigation from different points of view. What one could notice if we enter more deeply into some of the described questions is that every one of them opens new paths to be further investigated. After all, we have here following questions: the history of geographical discoveries in Asia, relations between the two continents, Europe and Russia in relation to Asia, and next the subsequent regions – their history, ethnography, especially connected with Cossacks and Tartars, the history of links between England and Russia[1] -, history of Persia, including the history of consecutive khans. In this subject it is difficult to neglect the Russian relations to the western frontier states or historical regions which, especially at that times, were Lithuania and Poland. Characteristic and equally very interesting is that the stories of several regions and states connects with one another. Thanks to this phenomenon new topics still emerge and it is difficult to resist them. New and equally very interesting riddles still arise. The sources which needed to be compared were very exciting for the author. Such was for instance the story of the course of the Amu-Darya river and the Aral Sea in connection with the “Kitaia Lacus” as well. Very interesting is the interdisciplinary character of the subject in question, too. For instance, some evidence is the participation of the archeologists in the examination of the bed of the Amu-Darya river, its significance and results. To continue the idea presented by the author it could be also worth using the infra-red pictures to confirm one more argument for the theory of the old river-bed of Amu-Darya. We can say the same about the other questions considered here. The long-lasting investigation of the author and the rich literature create valuable occasion for scientific contacts with other authors in the world. It was a very valuable exchange with mentioned here Professor S.H. Baron, Dr. K. Mayers and Dr. Osipov Igor A. (2008 and 2009). We can notice that the papers by many other scholars of the western Europe and of the USA already mentioned here that were issued brought benefits for the subject considered here from the time since the Jenkinson’s map has been rediscovered (1987). The subsequent papers by the author during the period as well tried to enlarge the field of the investigation and still are bringing new reflections.
Therefore the author hopes that the full version of Monograph will bring much more valuable results and will do its good for the Jenkinson’s map and its examination.
At the end, summing up the benefit of the rediscovered genuine copy of the map in question we should answer the question “what has its recovery brought?” There are as follows:
Quite a new image of the Jenkinson’s map – both in general view and its size.
The confirmation of the territorial range which has been portrayed by Ortelius and territorial discrepancy of de Jode’s rendition.
The differences in arrangement, number and the contents of cartouches and boxed texts placed in them in every of these maps.
The knowledge of the two new co-creators of the genuine copy of the map. They are the engraver Nicolaus Reinoldus and the editor Clement Adams, who both to the very moment of rediscovery were not connected with the map in question. The notice directed to the printer Reginald Wolf and the painter Jan de Schille should be not neglected as well.
The knowledge of the much richer content in relation to the original and renditions in all elements as: genre scenes, boxed texts, decorative borders and so on.
Jenkinson was the first who determined the distance and the direction to China by means of the description which he placed in the lower right-hand corner as follows (in translation from Latin to Polish and then to English): “Thirty days of the travel in the eastern direction from Kashkhar begins the frontiers of the Chinese Empire (Cataye). From this frontier is three-month of travel to Cumbalcu“(= Cambaluc – the early name of Beijing, now Peking). However, we also know that in the place of Siberia region “Regnum Cathay” Waldseemüller puts in his world map of 1513. Hence maybe “Kitaia Lacvs” taken his name.
We can presume, how it happened that the genuine Jenkinson’s copy has been found in Wrocław city. Probably it was sent from Antwerp or from Ortelius himself to one of the learned officials in the city who were in close relation at that time. The author could drawn this conclusion thanks to the examinations by Curator of maps Joost Depuydt at Antwerp FelixArchief who carried out the investigation on Ortelius’ activity. However, this is not yet proved by appropriate document because of the huge amount of correspondence to be read and dispersed in different places of the world, among others in Wrocław University Library or Harry Ranson Humanities Research Center (from the paper kindly sent to the author by Professor Christian Coppens)
Unfortunately, an information on one more copy of the genuine Jenkinson’s map which was said to be found in State Library in Leningrad could be sensational if trustworthy. It appears to be untruthfull, and has been given by Leo Bagrow in his article in Imago Mundi 5, 1965, p. 62. Reprint edition of 1925 I.M.
For supporting of every works connected with the library collections, author of the Chapter wish to thank to her Director Grażyna Piotrowicz and her Successors in the Department of Cartographic Collections of Wrocław University Library – Anna Osowska and to Dariusz Przybytek – the Head of the Department.
Mobility is defined as “the ability to move oneself (either independently or using assistive device or transportation) within environments that expand from one’s home to the neighbourhood and regions beyond” [1]. The ability to move about the community is essential for carrying out the instrumental activities of daily living (i.e. basic life-maintenance activities) and ensuring social participation [1].
\nGrowth in ageing populations is a global trend. A recent United Nations report states that the number of persons aged 60 (or older) is expected to grow from 962 million in 2017, to 2.1 billion in 2050, and 3.1 billion in [2]. According to the Global Status Report on Road Safety published by The World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 1.35 million people around the world die each year in traffic accidents [3]. The NHTSA estimates that 94% of serious crashes are due to human error or poor choices—including distracted driving and drunk driving [4].
\nThe driving task necessitates interacting with the vehicle and the environment at the same time. Many body systems need to be functional to ensure the safe and timely execution of the skills required for driving [5]. Specific factors that contribute to maintaining a licence include vision, physical health and cognitive health [5]. Research indicates that cognitive abilities are important enabling factors for safe driving [6]. Research also indicates that adaptive strategies are essential to maintaining the normal parameters of driving safety in the face of illness and disability [7].
\nAge-related declines in the abilities of older adults provide certain obstacles to safe driving. A 2001 survey by the OECD found that 15% of those 65 or older had stopped driving, while an overwhelming number of those who continued to drive were very selective about when they did so [8]. In general, driving cessation has been linked to increasing age, socioeconomic factors, and declining function and health [9]. Negative effects of driving cessation on older adults’ physical, mental, cognitive, and social functioning have been extensively studied [10, 11, 12].
\nMany automotive companies are developing and/or testing driverless cars. Largely, the proposed solutions follow established automation models such as the six levels of automation as defined by NHTSA [13]. Driver assistance technology presents a potential solution to problems pertaining to driver persistence and the management of fitness to drive issues in older adults. As this technology is not fully implemented and in use by the public, it is very difficult to both predict and assess its potential ethical implications and impact. Should the purpose of these systems go beyond safety? Is full automation an appropriate solution to effectively managing the apparent conflict between two goals—(1) promoting driver persistence and (2) ensuring road safety? That is, is it appropriate to enable an older driver to continue driving, even if there is a risk of a serious accident given their medical background? With crashes also comes the question of liability. Currently, lawmakers are considering who is liable when an autonomous car is involved in an accident. Such discussions raise many complex legal and ethical questions. Largely, the literature around ethics and driverless cars appears to focus on issues pertaining to (1) addressing conflict dilemmas on the road (machine ethics), (2) privacy and (3) minimising technology misuse/cybersecurity risks. These are indeed important ethical issues. However, the literature and public debate tends to avoid other serious ethical issues—specifically, issues concerning (1) the intended use and purpose of this technology, (5) the role of the person/driver (including older adult drivers) and (6) issues pertaining to the potential negative consequences of this technology.
\nIn relation to (6), this concerns the social consequences of this technology and the potential impact on older adult identity and well-being. The future is indeed unknown. The advancement of new driving solutions raises overarching questions in relation to the values of society and how we design technology to: (a) promote positive values around ageing and enhancing ageing experience, (b) protect human rights, (c) ensure human benefit and (d) prioritise well-being. Specifically, it raises fundamental questions in relation to the value we place on promoting autonomy and social participation for older adults and optimising quality of life/well-being.
\nThe public opinion on self-driving cars (including solutions for older adults) will determine the extent to which people will purchase and accept such systems [14]. We should not proceed with this technology just because it is available. Critically, designers must carefully consider the human dimensions of this technology and its social implications. To this end, this chapter reviews the relevant ethical considerations in relation to assisted driving solutions. Further, it presents a new ethically aligned system concept for driver assistance. In so doing, it addresses the philosophical principles that underlie the proposed driving system concept, and specifically, the role of the person.
\nEthics concerns the moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour or how an activity is conducted [15]. A key distinction in ethics is the distinction between that which is unethical and that which is undesirable.
\nPrimarily, moral principles apply to a person. However, moral code can also be ascribed to the behaviour of automated or intelligent systems (A/IS). Accordingly, driverless cars are termed ‘artificial moral agents’.
\nThe Universal Declaration of human rights (1948) enshrines all persons with human rights [16]. This includes rights pertaining to dignity (Article 1), autonomy (Article 3), privacy (Article 12), and safety (Article 29) [16]. Some would argue that rights also apply to technology and artificial agents. These are referred to as ‘transhuman rights’ [17, 18]. To this end, the field of roboethics has emerged. Specifically, roboethics is concerned with the moral behaviour of humans as they design, construct, use and treat artificially intelligent beings.
\nMore broadly, ‘digital ethics’ or ‘information ethics’ deals with the impact of digital Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) on our societies and the environment at large [19]. As defined by Capurro [19], it addresses the ethical implications of things which may not yet exist, or things which may have impacts we cannot predict.
\nProgress is typically defined in relation to concepts of advancement and improvement. As stated by the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development’s (OECD) ‘Being able to measure people’s quality of life is fundamental when assessing the progress of societies’ [20]. Future technology is shaping (and will shape) our political, social and moral existence. The application of ethics to questions concerning technology development is not new. In his seminal work ‘The Question Concerning Technology’, the philosopher Heidegger suggests that in asking what technology is, we ask questions about who we are [21]. In so doing, we examine the nature of existence and human autonomy [21]. Such ideas have led to the concept of ‘ontological design’ which focuses on the ‘the relation between human beings and lifeworlds’ [22]. As argued by Winograd and Flores, new technology does not simply change the task, it changes what it means to be human [22]. Put simply, we are designed by our designing and by that which we have designed [23].
\nThe Information Technology (IT) sector is taking some leaps in relation to addressing these questions. Currently, there is a large focus on issues pertaining to well-being, data privacy and cybersecurity. In 2016, Amazon, Google, Facebook, IBM, and Microsoft have established a non-profit partnership (i.e. the Partnership on Artificial Intelligence to Benefit People and Society) to formulate best practices on artificial intelligence technologies [24]. Further, the IEEE Standards Association has recently articulated a desire to create technology that improves the human condition and prioritises well-being. Specifically, the ‘IEEE Global Initiative on Ethics of Autonomous and Intelligent Systems’ have defined a set of core ethical principles for autonomous and intelligent systems (A/IS). As stated in ‘Ethically Aligned Design (EAD1e), A Vision for Prioritizing Human Well-being with Autonomous and Intelligent Systems’ [25] ‘for extended intelligence and automation to provably advance a specific benefit for humanity, there needs to be clear indicators of that benefit’. Further, the IEEE Global Initiative argue that ‘the world’s top metric of value (Gross Domestic Product) must move beyond GDP, to holistically measure how intelligent and autonomous systems can hinder or improve human well-being’ [25].
\nThe concept of identity has three pillars: the person, the role and the group [26]. Personal identity refers to the concept of the self which develops over time and the life-span. This includes the aggregate of characteristics by which a person is recognised by himself/herself and others, what matters to the person and their values [27]. Crucially, autonomy is central to personal identity [27].
\nAccording to the ‘Six-factor Model of Psychological Well-being’, six factors contribute to an individual’s psychological well-being, contentment, and happiness [28]. This includes positive relationships with others, personal mastery, autonomy, a feeling of purpose and meaning in life, and personal growth and development [28].
\nQuality of life is inextricably connected to well-being. As defined by the OECD, well-being can be defined/measured in relation to (1) quality of life (i.e. health status, personal security, social connection and participation/activity, work/life balance, subjective well-being, environmental quality, etc.), and (2) material conditions (i.e. income and wealth, job and earnings and housing) [29].
\nSelf-efficacy is defined as a person’s belief in his or her own ability to accomplishing a task or succeeding in specific situations. One’s sense of self-efficacy can play a major role in how one approaches goals, tasks, and challenges. The promotion of self-efficacy is a key element for success in interventions designed to reduce depressive symptoms in late life [30].
\nThe beginning of old age is between the age of 60 or 65 [31]. Definitions of old age are multi-dimensional and include a combination of chronological, functional and social definitions [31]. Older adults are a highly heterogeneous group. Often, older adults are segmented based on factors such as ageing phases, levels of fitness, severity of physical limitations, mobility patterns and social activities. According to Rowe and Kahn, successful ageing is multidimensional, encompassing the avoidance of disease and disability, the maintenance of high physical and cognitive function, and sustained engagement in social and productive activities [32].
\nThe prevalence of mental health issues is high in older adults as compared with the general population [30]. Older adults are at risk for developing anxiety and depression, given increased frailty, medical illnesses and medication and the potential for loss, reduced social connection and trauma (arising from injuries/accidents such as falls). On the other hand, younger older people are generally happier with a strong happiness increase around the age of 60 followed by a major decline after 75 [33].
\nGrowth in ageing populations is a global trend. In Japan, Taiwan and Singapore, governments are defining smart ageing strategies to ensure that the growing ageing population ages well. This includes the promotion of multi-generational living, awareness of Dementia and other age-related health conditions and smart devices to monitor vital signs [34].
\nThe driving is not a task isolated from everyday life. It occurs for a purpose (to get to somewhere, to see the scenery, etc.) and is often undertaken in parallel with other activities (for example, talking, listening to the radio, singing, planning-ahead and eating).
\nThe driving task involves a complex and rapidly repeating cycle that requires a level of skill and the ability to interact with both the vehicle and the external environment at the same time [5]. Information about the road environment is obtained via the visual and auditory senses. The information is operated on by many cognitive and behavioural processes including short and long-term memory and judgement, which leads to decisions being made about driving [5]. Decisions are put into effect via the musculoskeletal system, which acts on the steering, gears and brakes to alter the vehicle in relation to the road [5]. As reported by Fuller, the overall process is coordinated via a complex process involving behaviour, strategic and tactical abilities and personality [35]. As stated in Fuller’s task capability model (2005), loss of control arises when the demand of the driving task exceeds the driver’s capability [35].
\nIt is estimated that by 2030, a quarter of all drivers will be older than 65 [36]. Further, by 2030, more than 90% of men over 70 will be driving [37]. Research indicates a general increase in both car access and licensing rates in the older population [38]. This increase is mainly attributable to significant increases in the number of older female drivers [38].
\nA number of studies have sought to categorise older adults in terms of their physical abilities [39] their economic, geographic/spatial and activity patterns [40], use of cars as a transportation mode [41], and lifestyles and associated requirements in relation to transport services [42]. The most nuanced categorisation is that of the GOAL project which proposes five distinctive profiles or segments of older people [43]. The segments take demographics, physical and mental health characteristics, social life, living environment, mobility-related aspects and transition points into account. The five profiles differ significantly according to age and level of activity/mobility and health [43]. They include.
A younger and more active profile (“Fit as a Fiddle”)
A young, fit and active elderly (“Happily Connected”)
A young, severely impaired and immobile elderly (“Hole in the Heart”).
A very old, highly impaired and immobile segment (“Care-Full”)
A quite mobile and still independent senior despite his/her old age (“Oldie but a Goldie”)
As we age, we face decisions as to whether we should (1) continue, (2) limit, or (3) stop driving. Age related declines in the abilities of older adults can be treated as obstacles/barriers to safe driving performance. These age-related changes yield specific challenges for older adults. As reported by Langford and Koppel [44], this includes:
Psychomotor functions: joint flexibility, muscle strength, manual dexterity and coordination.
Sensory abilities: visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, sensitivity to light, dark adaptation, visual field, space perception, motion perception, hearing.
Cognitive abilities: fluid intelligence, speed of processing, working memory, problem solving, spatial cognition and executive functions like inhibition, flexibility and selective and divided attention.
A recent study has identified the prevalent driving errors of older adults [45]. Following a systematic review of the literature, the authors categorised the prevalent driving errors into eight categories: (1) decision-making, (2) direction and lane control, (3) lack of regulation compliance and awareness, (4) speed performance, (5) visual checking and physical control, (6) recognising and responding to signs, (7) recognising and responding to traffic lights and (8) skills involved in turning and parking. It was found that (2) direction and lane control, (1) decision-making, (7) recognising and responding to signs, and (5) visual checking and physical control were most frequent as prevalent issues for older drivers [45].
\nCertain unsafe driving behaviours increased in frequency as age, with drivers of 40 years or over—older people more likely to engage in driving behaviours such as (1) little or no sign of attempts to avoid dangerous driving situations, (2) lack of attention to other people and cars, (3) improper manoeuvring around curves and (4) improper or no turn signals [46].
\nSelf-regulation and/or compensatory behaviour of older adults is defined in relation to the tendency of older adults to minimise driving under conditions that are threatening and/or cause discomfort and conversely, to restrict their driving to conditions perceived as safe and/or comfortable [44].
\nCompensatory behaviour of older adults includes avoiding driving in the following situations/conditions:
In the dark
In bad weather
In heavy traffic
In new areas
On motorways and complex road layouts
Avoid long journeys (fatigue/tiredness)
As stated in the Eldersafe Report (2016), older road users need to be aware, acknowledge and have insight into their functional impairments in order to self-regulate [47].
\nHealth deterioration is the primary trigger/key determinant for driving cessation among older adults [48]. Medical conditions either (1) impact the fitness to drive of older drivers and/or (2) an older person’s perceived fitness to drive (i.e. attitude, confidence levels, etc.). Several medical conditions and associated impairments are more prevalent in the older adult population and are, therefore, associated with ageing. These medical conditions can potentially impact the crash risk of older road users [49]. Specifically, a systematic review of the literature by Marshall identified specific conditions including: alcohol abuse and dependence, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease/TBI, depression, dementia, diabetes mellitus, epilepsy, use of certain medications, musculoskeletal disorders, schizophrenia, obstructive sleep apnoea, and vision disorders [50].
\nThe path to automated/driverless cars began before 2000 with the introduction of cruise control and antilock brakes. Since 2000, new safety features such as electronic stability control, blind spot detection and collision and lane shift warnings have become available in vehicles. Further, since 2016, automation has moved towards partial autonomy, with features that enable drivers to stay in lane, along with adaptive cruise control technology, and the ability to self-park.
\nAutomated driving systems are defined as systems that control longitudinal and lateral motions of the vehicle at the same time [51]. Self-driving cars use a combination of sensors, cameras, radar and artificial intelligence (AI) to travel between destinations without a human operator. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has defined six levels of driving assistance technology (level 0–5) [52].
No automation
Driver assistance
Partial automation
Conditional automation
High automation
Full automation
In addition, BASt [53] and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) [13] have defined equivalent standards.
\nMany automotive companies are developing and/or testing driverless cars. This includes Audi, BMW, Ford, General Motors, Tesla, Volkswagen and Volvo. Solutions are also being advanced by Google and Uber. As of 2019, a number of car manufacturers have reached Level 3 [54]. This level involves an automated driving system (ADS) which can perform all driving tasks under certain circumstances, such as parking the car. In these circumstances, the human driver must be ready to re-take control and is still required to be the main driver of the vehicle [54]. According to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic (2017), as of 2017, automated driving technologies will be explicitly allowed in traffic, provided that these technologies are in conformity with the United Nations vehicle regulations or can be overridden or switched off by the driver [55].
\nAs noted earlier, technology innovation influences societal values and raises ethical questions. As posed by BMVI, how much dependence on technologically complex systems will the public accept to achieve, in return for increased safety, mobility and convenience [56]? In relation to the advancement of assisted driving solutions, Gasser distinguishes four clusters of issues, (1) legal issues, (2) functional safety issues, (3) societal issues (including issues of user acceptability) and (4) human machine interaction (HMI) issues [53]. A recent literature review on the ethical, legal and social implications of the development, implementation, and maturation of connected and autonomous vehicles (CATV) in the United States groups the issues into the following themes: privacy, security, licensing, insurance and liability, infrastructure and mixed automation environment, economic impact, workforce disruption, system failure/takeover, safety algorithm and programming ethics, and environmental impact [57].
\nLargely, the literature around ethics and driverless cars appears to focus on a subset of important ethical issues. This includes issues pertaining to (1) addressing conflict dilemmas on the road, (2) privacy and protecting personal sphere, (3) minimising technology misuse and (4) the digital self and transhuman rights. In relation to (1) operational decisions have moral consequences. The issue of managing conflict dilemmas on the road poses significant challenges for autonomous vehicles. As outlined in the literature, operational decision making raises many serious questions in terms of how human life is valued. Equally, such solutions raise significant ethical questions in terms of data privacy and the sharing of sensitive/private information about a person’s health condition and potential driving risk. The possibility of technology hacking is also a potential threat to the implementation of this technology. Further, issues around defining rights in the context of the augmented self (i.e. the mix of human rights and rights as apply to our digital self which is enabled/transformed by the reach of artificial technology) are real. As argued by some, we may have to devise a set of ethics that applies to the whole continuum of our digital self and identity. Potentially, the specification of a Universal Declaration of Transhuman Rights should underpin the development of these technologies. Data gathered in a recent cross-national acceptability surveys concerning driverless vehicles indicates that the above issues are also a significant public concern [58, 59].
\nThese are of course important both ethical and societal issues. However, the literature and public debate tends to avoid other significant issues. This includes issues pertaining to (4) the purpose and intended use of this technology, (5) issues around the role of the person/driver (including older adult drivers) and (6) the potential negative consequences of this technology, including the social consequences of this technology and its impact on well-being.
\nThe high-level objective of this research was to specify the requirements for a new driving assistance system which prolongs safe driving for older adults with different ability levels, and in so doing, helps maintain cognitive and physical abilities. Importantly, the proposed system must carefully reconcile the potential conflict between (1) ensuring road safety and (2) promoting driver persistence (i.e. enabling an older driver to continue driving, even if there is a risk of a serious accident given the Drivers’ medical background). From a design perspective, the challenge was to high-tech solution for users who are often averse to technology.
\nOverall, this research has involved the application of human factors methodologies to the analysis and specification of a proposed driving assistance system. Several phases of research have been undertaken. These are detailed in Appendix A. To date, this research has mostly been theoretical. Overall, the proposed driving system concept follows a multidisciplinary analysis of relevant literature pertaining to
Older adults and positive ageing
Segmentation of older adult drivers
Driving task and theories of driver cessation and explanations of self-regulation
Automated driving solutions and ethical issues
The detection/interpretation of driver states (i.e. physical, cognitive and emotional states) using a combination of sensor-based technology and machine learning techniques
Innovative human machine interaction (HMI) communication methods
Further, it follows the application of Human Machine Interaction (HMI) design methods including personae-based design [60] scenario-based design [61] and participatory co-design [62], to the modelling of a proposed solution. Currently, a new assisted driving solution has been defined. A preliminary workflow and multimodal communications concept has been specified in relation to several demonstration scenarios. The proposed multimodal solution will be further validated using a combination of co-design techniques and simulator evaluation.
\nIn line with a human factors approach, the proposed concept was modelled using both personae based and scenario-based design methods. Driver profiles were segmented from the perspective of driver persistence, driver health situation and ability. Overall nine driver profiles were identified. This includes:
Older adults in optimal health and driving as normal
Older adults who regulate their driving in relation to managing specific driving challenges and/or stressful (difficult) driving situations
Older adults who are currently driving but have a medical condition that impacts on their ability to drive
Continuing drivers—older adults who have continued to drive with a progressing condition—but have concerns in relation to medical fitness to drive and are at risk of giving up
Older adults who are currently driving and at risk of sudden disabling/medical event
Older adults who have stopped driving on a temporary basis
Older adults who have stopped driving (ex-drivers) before it is necessary
Older adults who have stopped when it is necessary
Older adults who have never driven a car (never drivers)
These nine profiles reflect ‘ideal categories’ based on the explicit project goals (safety, driver persistence, driver experience/enjoyment and health several monitoring).
These profiles were then decomposed into a series of personae. Each persona included information about the older adult’s goals, their ability and health, medications, typical driving routines, typical driving behaviours and driver pain-points. For more information, please see Appendix B.
\nIn parallel, several scenarios were defined. These scenarios followed from (1) the project goals (i.e. top down approach) and, (2) specific driving challenges and older adult driver behaviours, as identified in the literature review (i.e. bottom up approach). These include:
Driver is enjoying drive—everything going well
Driver is distracted by their mobile phone ringing
Driver feels stressed given traffic delays
Driver has taken pain medications and is drowsy
Driver is fatigued after long day minding grandchildren
Driver is having difficulty parking (visual judgement)
Sudden advent of acute medical event
Driver is having difficulty remembering the correct route
Driver has taken alcohol and is over the legal limit
As indicated in Table 1, the different scenarios were classified in terms of interpretation challenges.
\nInterpretation challenge | \nExplanation of the interpretation challenge | \nScenario examples | \n|
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nTask support/feedback | \nAddresses driving challenges and typical supports required | \nParking support Navigational assistance Assistance changing lanes | \n
2 | \nActivation/“flow” | \nIncorporates multiple psychological states: stress/anger/excitement/workload/engagement including driver difficulties and driver behaviour | \nFlow/enjoying drive Stress given traffic delays Intelligent driving | \n
3 | \nDistraction and concurrent task management | \nAddresses age-related cognitive and perceptual challenges including driver difficulties and driver behaviour | \nDistraction from mobile phone ringing Talking with passenger/checking GPS directions and driving | \n
4 | \nFatigue and drowsiness | \nMany medical conditions and drugs also manifest this way | \nFatigue | \n
5 | \nIntoxication—alcohol/drugs/related medical conditions | \nOther drugs and some medical conditions manifest similarly | \nAlcohol Prescription drugs | \n
6 | \nHeart attack/stroke | \nAddresses fear factor—which may discourage older drivers from driving | \nHeart attack Stroke | \n
Interpretation challenges and scenarios.
Following this, the scenarios were associated with specific user profiles and personae (see Table 2).
\nInterpretation challenge | \nScenario | \nProfile | \nPersonae | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nTask support/feedback | \nDriver needs assistance with parking | \n2. Older adults who regulate their driving in relation to managing specific driving challenges and/or stressful (difficult) driving situations (perceived safety risk or complexity) | \nMary | \n
2 | \nActivation/flow | \nFlow | \n4. Continuing drivers: older adults who have continued to drive with a progressing condition, but have concerns in relation to medical fitness to drive and are at risk of giving up | \nSarah/James | \n
Stress | \n5. Older adults who are currently driving and at risk of sudden disabling/medical event | \nLouise | \n||
Intelligent driving | \n2. Older adults who regulate their driving in relation to managing specific driving challenges and/or stressful (difficult) driving situations (perceived safety risk or complexity). | \nMary | \n||
3 | \nFatigue and drowsiness | \nFatigue | \n1. Older adults in optimal health and driving as normal | \nElizabeth/Sam | \n
4 | \nDistraction and concurrent task management | \nDistraction | \n2. Older adults who regulate their driving in relation to managing specific driving challenges and/or stressful (difficult) driving situations (perceived safety risk or complexity) | \nTom | \n
Concurrent Task Management | \n3. Older adults who are currently driving but have a medical condition that impacts on their ability to drive | \nRichard | \n||
5 | \nIntoxication | \nAlcohol | \n1. Older adults in optimal health and driving as normal | \nJames | \n
Prescription drugs | \n5. Older adults who are currently driving and at risk of sudden disabling/medical event | \nRory | \n||
6 | \nHeart attack/stroke | \nHeart attack | \n5. Older adults who are currently driving and at risk of sudden disabling/medical event | \nBrian | \n
Stroke | \n5. Older adults who are currently driving and at risk of sudden disabling/medical event | \nLouise | \n
Interpretation challenges, scenarios, user profiles and personae.
Lastly, the specific scenarios were further decomposed in relation to (1) a time sequence/text narrative, (2) the sensing framework and behaviour of sensor technology and machine learning, and (3) multi-modal communications.
\nNine end user profiles have been identified—see Table 3. Specific system goals/requirements are associated with different profiles. It is suggested that the proposed solution might target profiles 1–7, and potentially profile 9.
\n# | \nUser profile | \nGoals/role of new technology | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nOlder adults in optimal health and driving as normal. | \nDriving enabling life-long mobility Monitor driver’s task and driver’s capability Monitor driver states that impact on driver capability and provide task assistance to ensure safety Promote confidence for older driver Promote comfortable, enjoyable and safe driver experience | \n
2 | \nOlder adults who regulate their driving in relation to addressing specific driving challenges | \nAs (1) and… Technology directly addresses causes of self-regulation | \n
3 | \nOlder adults who are currently driving but have a medical condition that impacts on their ability to drive | \nAs (1) and… New car directly addresses challenges associated with condition Monitor driver state in relation to specific medical condition, and provide task assistance to ensure safety | \n
4 | \nContinuing drivers—older adults who have continued to drive with a progressing condition—but have concerns in relation to medical fitness to drive and are at risk of giving up | \nAs (1) and… New tech might monitor conditions and provide feedback—continue with licence/evidence, keep safe | \n
5 | \nOlder adults who are currently driving and at risk of sudden disabling/medical event | \nAs (1) and… New tech might monitor conditions and provide feedback New tech might take relevant action based on detection of onset of medical event | \n
6 | \nOlder adults who have stopped driving on a temporary basis | \nAs (1) and… Monitor driver state and health condition and provide task assistance to optimise safety | \n
7 | \nOlder adults who have stopped driving (ex-drivers) before it is necessary | \nAs (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5) | \n
8 | \nOlder adults who have stopped when it is necessary | \nN/A | \n
9 | \nOlder adults who have never driven a car (never drivers) | \nAs (1) and… Motivate to buy car/learn to drive, given protections provided by new car and associated driver experience | \n
User profiles and goals.
The different driver scenarios as defined in Table 1 raise a myriad of ethical questions—in addition to legal issues and issues pertaining to societal/user acceptability. For example,
How is the human role and well-being being considered in relation to the development of these systems?
What is the role of older adult and what level of choice do they have in relation to mode of operation?
What level of impairment is acceptable for an older driver to keep driving?
Should the system determine the level of automation/assistance, or the older adult?
Should the driver be able to take control of the car at any point?
How is information about the health status of the driver, their driving challenges, driving routines and any driving events being stored?
Who has access to driver profiles, health information and incident information?
For a full list of issues, please see Appendix C.
\nOverall, there is much overlap between ethical issues and legal issues. There is also much commonality between ethical issues and user acceptability/societal issues. Further, many of the ethical and societal/user acceptability issues are also HMI/human factors issues (for example, handover of control and role of the older adult in the system, etc.).
\nIn principle, ethical issues and issues concerning societal/user acceptability pertain to all profiles as defined previously. Critically, these ethical issues have meaning in the context of different degrees of automation. Some issues pertain to the specific level of driving automation (i.e. manual, partially automated/function specific, highly automated, fully automated), while others present to all.
\nThe design problem is framed in relation to advancing systems that can detect the health and psychological/emotional condition of the driver, so that the vehicle responds as appropriate, while also ensuring a positive/enjoyable driving experience and promoting driver self-efficacy.
\nTo this end, three high level goals for the system have been defined. These are:
\n1.Safe driving for older adults
\n2.Driver persistence
\n3.Positive driver experience
\nAccordingly, the requirement is to advance a system which can detect the health and psychological/emotional condition of the driver so that the vehicle responds as appropriate (i.e. promoting engagement/alertness, providing task supports, taking over the driving task if the driver is impaired and/or calling an ambulance).
\nIt is very difficult to both predict and assess the potential ethical implications and impact of this technology. However, we can document key performance indicators (KPIs) relevant to the potential success of this technology once it is introduced and used by the public.
\nAs stated previously, we have defined three high level goals for the system. These goals have been reformulated in terms of objectives concerning human benefit and well-being and associated measures/KPI’s. These are described in Table 4. As indicated in Table 4, there is a relationship across goals (1), (2) and (3), and the associated objectives and metrics.
\n# | \nSystem goal | \nHuman benefit and well-being objectives/targets (design outcomes) | \nMetric (outcome indicators) | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nSafe driving for older adults | \nDriver feels safe Driver feels in control The car is in a safe state | \nSubjective perception of safety/security Objective measure of car safety (position on road/lane, speed) | \n
2 | \nDriver persistence | \nCar as an enabler of active ageing/positive ageing—and allied health benefits Car contributing to eudaemonia (living well) Car contributing to a sense of having a purpose Car as an enabler of mobility Supporting social connection and participation Supporting citizenship, etc. | \nHealth status Mobility status Positive human functioning and flourishing Social capitol Personal growth | \n
3 | \nDriver experience | \nDriver feeling happy/enjoying driving activity Emotional state/psychological well-being (avoidance of stress) Driver in control Focus on ability (available capacity) Promote adaptation and bricolage | \nSubjective enjoyment of driving Subjective feeling of human agency/independence Subjective well-being | \n
System goals, well-being objectives and well-being metrics.
The third phase of research involved the specification of the high-level system logic and associated principles associated with this concept. The high-level principles associated with the system logic are grouped into six themes as follows:
Philosophy of the system
Technology and the conceptualization of the driver
Technology and the conceptualization of the driver task and driving experience
Driver health conditions and emotional/psychological State
Detecting symptoms with sensors
Using multi-modal technology to promote safe driving and a positive driving experience
As indicated in Figure 1, the principles associated with (1) are derived from related principles relating to (2), (3), (4), (5) and (6). In addition, the principles related to (5) follow from an understanding of (4) and feed into (2) and (3) and so forth. Subsequent sections focus on principles related to (1) and (2).
\nHigh level principles.
The proposed co-pilot system carefully reconciles the potential conflict between two goals—(1) ensuring road safety and (2) promoting driver persistence (i.e. enabling an older driver to continue driving, even if there is a risk of a serious accident given the drivers’ medical background). Overall, the technology is designed to provide different levels of assistance/automation to drivers so that accidents are avoided (i.e. safety). Three levels of assistance are proposed.
No response—all seems to be in order, the driver is alert and attentive, driving well; there is no basis for an intervention
Driving assistance—one or more driver factors have been identified; they are not an immediate threat, but the driver could do with some assistance to drive safely and/or manage their own emotions. Driving assistance could take a range of forms:
An alert to the driver
Adjusting car settings
Auto-braking/speed reduction
Temporary co-pilot in charge
Task assistance
Task information
Safety critical intervention—the driver’s health and/or safety are at immediate risk; the co-pilot needs to make a strong intervention. This could include:
Auto-park and engine stop
External warnings to other road users
Alerts to emergency services
To this end, we are proposing assistance (i.e. adaptive automation) and not full automation. Normally, the older adult driver chooses the level of task assistance required. However, the system also recommends different levels of assistance based on the driver’s profile (level of ability), and real time context (i.e. driver state and driver behaviour). In particular circumstance, if the system detects that (1) the driver is in a seriously impaired state (i.e. alcohol or medications), (2) there is a potential for a safety critical event, or (3) the driver is incapacitated, then authority moves to ‘automation’. Accordingly, the proposed co-pilot system is both reactive and predictive.
\nThe system is designed to be usable, accessible, and understood by people of all ages with different abilities and health conditions. To this end, the system/co-pilot system provides three levels of assistance, taking into account the diverse driving situations and needs of different drivers (including older adult drivers).
\nThe proposed co-pilot system is premised on concepts of successful/positive ageing and self-efficacy. Although certain conditions occur in old age (and impact on the driving task), old age itself is not a disease. Ageing (and the associated changes in functional, sensory and cognitive function) is a normal part of life. To this end, the system seeks to normalise ageing, and not treat ageing as a ‘problem’ or ‘disease’. The driving solution (i.e. car, sensor system, co-pilot and HMI) is designed to optimise the abilities and participation of older adults. That is, it addresses what older adults can do as opposed to focusing on declining capacities.
\nThe co-pilot is conceptualised as a means/intervention to ensure that older adults drive safely and for longer. Critically, the technology supports continued and safe driving for all adults, including those adults at risk of limiting their driving and/or giving up. Accordingly, concepts of ability, adaption and assistance (as opposed to vehicle automation) underpin the system logic. To achieve this, the proposed technology provides different levels of assistance, tailored to the older adults (1) ability, (2) health and (3) the real-time physical and psychological/emotional health. In general, this will deliver benefits for the wider population and not just older adults.
\nThe ability of the driver to perform the driving task depends on the driver’s ability (i.e. functional, sensory and cognitive), his or her driving experience and the ‘real time’ state of the driver (i.e. health, level of fatigue, emotional state, etc.) and the operational context (i.e. cabin context, road context, weather and traffic). Thus, to provide targeted task support to the driver, the system combines (1) an understanding of the driver’s profile (i.e. ability and driving experience) and (2) an interpretation of the real time context (i.e. the state of the driver and the operational context).
\nThe critical objective for the system is not to precisely diagnose the drivers’ condition/state but to interpret the implications for the driving task and the driver. According, the driving assistance system logic addresses ‘interpretation challenges’ rather than the driver condition or state. This is achieved in relation to six high-level interpretation challenges. These include.
Task support/feedback
Activation/flow
Distraction and concurrent task management
Fatigue and drowsiness
Intoxication
Heart attack/stroke
Underpinning the system logic, is a vision of the co-pilot as a learning system. Arguably, a human-centric design philosophy necessitates continuous learning on the behalf of the co-pilot (i.e. including AI/machine learning). If the co-pilot can learn about those situations and tasks that prove challenging and/or stressful for the older adult driver (i.e. driving in traffic, poor visibility, changing lanes, parking and so forth, etc.), then it can truly tailor the task support that it provides to the driver. This tailored task support is predictive/intelligent, ensuring that the driver persists in challenging driving situations, while also enjoying their drive.
\nThe proposed system maintains the autonomy of the individual. In principle, the driver is able to choose (and/or switch off) task support and advanced levels of automation, if they so choose. Overall, we are starting from the point of the engaged driver, who has capacity and ability. In this way, the system supports a vision of the older adult driver as ‘in control’. The role of the driver is to work in partnership with the ‘co-pilot’, to achieve a safe and enjoyable drive. Critically, the system treats the driver as ‘capable’ and ‘in charge’ unless it detects that the driver is incapacitated and/or there is a potential for a safety critical event (i.e. level 3 assistance/safety critical intervention). If the system detects that the driver is in a seriously impaired state and/or incapacitated, or that a safety critical event is imminent, then the principle of ‘driver autonomy’ is outweighed by that of safety. In such cases, authority moves to ‘automation’.
\nThe proposed driving assistance system is premised on a conceptualisation of the driver/older adult as a person and not a set of symptoms/conditions (i.e. holistic approach). Specifically, biopsychosocial concepts of health and wellness inform the logic of the proposed driving assistance system. The system is concerned with all aspects of the driver’s wellness, including the driver’s physical, social, cognitive and emotional health.
\nCritically, the driving assistance system logic is premised on the idea that all older adult drivers are not the same. Older adult drivers vary in many ways including body size and shape, strength, mobility, sensory acuity, cognition, emotions, driving experience, driving ability (and challenges) and confidence. In relation to driving situation and ability, we have segmented older adults into the following high-profiles or clusters—as indicated previously. These profiles have been further specified in relation to a series of personae. Critically, the system logic directly addresses the needs and requirements of these specific personae.
\nThe acceptability of the proposed system largely depends upon how it treats certain issues pertaining to driver rights. Overall this technology is designed to uphold an older adult’s rights. This is specifically salient in relation to preserving driver autonomy, monitoring the driver state and recording driver health information. As outlined earlier, the technology maintains the autonomy of older adults (i.e. the starting point is the engaged driver). Further, we are proposing that information captured about the person’s current health and wellness and driving challenges/events is NOT shared with other parties. In all cases, the driver is in charge of their own data and decisions about how it is stored and shared with others.
\nAs highlighted by Fry, the introduction of new technology has the potential to transform what it means to be human [23]. In this way, the introduction of new assisted driving solutions presents a challenge to our being. Design decisions are normative—they reflect societal values concerning human agency and human identity/avoiding ageism. In particular, they provide an opportunity to foster quality of life for older adults as they age, and to promote positive ageing. Design/technology teams thus exercise choice in relation to what is valued and advancing technology that improves the human condition (and not worsens it).
\nThe discovery and utilisation of fire by early humans was of course transformative and positive [63]. It shaped how we eat, kept warm and how we protected ourselves. However, less examined are the negative by-products that came with fire, and the ways in which humans may or may not have adapted to them [63]. In the same way, it is important that designers consider issues pertaining to potential technology impact in terms of the three strands of health and wellness (i.e. biological, psychological and social health). In particular, designers should consider protections concerning the ‘unknown’ future implications of this technology (including the potential negative social consequences).
\nIn relation to the introduction of other consumer and information technologies (for example, mobile phones and social media), many important questions were posed ‘post hoc’. As stated by Heraclitus, ‘One cannot step twice in the same river’ [64]. These technologies have resulted in many changes to previously established social norms. Arguably, social norms in relation to identity and privacy and associated information sharing, have appeared to change—and without serious questioning of the implications of this. Further, in its early stage, designers need not properly consider the potential social consequences of this technology (for example, social isolation and depression).
\nNonetheless, just because the horse has bolted (i.e. the automotive industry is currently advancing and testing driverless cars), does not mean there is nothing to be achieved and/or that we are powerless. As mentioned previously, the availability of this technology does not mean that we have no choice. Critically, we need to challenge existing design assumptions from the perspective of human benefit, well-being and rights. In this regard, the IEEE Global Initiative represents a positive step in this direction.
\nSalganik proposes a hope-based and principle-based approach to machine ethics [65]. This is contrasted with a ‘fear-based and rule-based’ approach in Social Science, and a more ‘ad hoc ethics culture’ as emerging in data and computer science [65]. Hope is not enough! As evidenced in this research, principles need to be both articulated and then embedded in design concepts. Importantly, human factors methods are useful here—in relation to considering different stakeholders and adjudicating between conflicting goals/principles.
\nIn line with what is argued by the IEEE, A/IS technologies can be narrowly conceived from an ethical standpoint. Such technologies might be designed to be legal, profitable and safe in their usage. However, they may not positively contribute to human well-being [25]. Critically, new driving solutions should not have ‘negative consequences on people’s mental health, emotions, sense of themselves, their autonomy, their ability to achieve their goals, and other dimensions of well-being’ [25].
\nArguably, as demonstrated in this research, we can define an ethically aligned design in relation to several key concepts. This includes (1) human role, (2) human benefit, (3) rights, (4) progress and (5) well-being. These concepts provide structuring principles to guide the design of new driving assistance systems.
\nA key theme of this research has been about defining the purpose and role of new driving assistance technologies. As designers we decide what ethical guidelines AI in autonomous vehicles will follow. The analysis of relevant health literature and TILDA data has identified specific conditions that impact on older adult driving ability [66]. As such, it has provided an empirical basis for addressing ethical dilemmas around whether full automation is an appropriate solution to effectively managing the conflict between two goals—namely, (1) promoting driver persistence and (2) ensuring road safety. It is argued that the three levels of driver assistance represent an ethically aligned solution to enabling older drivers to continue driving, even if there is a risk of a serious accident given their medical background. Evidently, some medical conditions do not negatively impact on safe driving. However, there are other conditions that pose challenges to safe driving, and others still that make it unsafe to drive. The proposed solution is designed to directly address this fact—to promote driver persistence and enablement in these different circumstances, albeit while simultaneously maintaining safety.
\nHuman benefit is an important goal of A/IS, as is respect for human rights. In terms of rights, this includes the rights of (1) older adult drivers and (2) other road users and pedestrians who may be negatively affected by older adult driving challenges and specifically, health events such as strokes and heart attacks. The specification of benefits is not straightforward. People benefit differently. Also, benefits are not always equal for all people, as driving system that benefits older adults must also benefit other road users and pedestrians. In this way, the proposed system must be verifiably safe and secure. We must ensure the safety of all drivers and pedestrians. Benefits in relation to older adult mobility must not outweigh safety concerns (i.e. we cannot address benefit from a narrow perspective/prioritise one stakeholder).
\nThe design problem—prolonging safe driving for older adults is framed in relation to a philosophy of ‘enablement’ and positive models of ageing. Crucially, the proposed vision of ‘technology progress’ in closely intertwined with concepts of progress from a societal values perspective. The proposed co-pilot system is premised on concepts of successful/positive ageing and self-efficacy. The system seeks to normalise ageing, and not treat ageing as a ‘problem’ or ‘disease’. The driving solution (i.e. car, sensor system, co-pilot and human machine interface) is designed to optimise the abilities and participation of older adults. That is, it recognises what older adults can do as opposed to focusing on declining capacities. Further, the co-pilot is conceptualised as a means/intervention to ensure that older adults drive safely and for longer. The proposed technology supports continued and safe driving for all adults, including those adults at risk of limiting their driving and/or giving up when there is no medical/physical reason for doing so.
\nArguably, existing high automation approaches do not support positive ageing. Crucially, ‘technology progress’ in closely intertwined with concepts of progress from a societal values perspective. New assisted driving solutions provide an opportunity to change/improve the lived experience of older adults, particularly in relation to autonomy and social participation. Enabling driver persistence is an issue for all of society, not just older adults.
\nMany negative driving experiences are linked to frustrations with the vehicle not being configured for the driver. Drivers are highly diverse in terms of size, strength, angle of vision and experience of different vehicles. Older drivers present even greater diversity when limitations of movement, hearing, eyesight, memory emerge. It is argued that personalisation is central to fostering a positive driver experience. For example, vehicle sensors can be used to detect which driver is driving and to adjust the vehicle parameters accordingly (i.e. angle of mirrors, steering wheel, seat, etc.). Moreover, personalisation offers an enormous opportunity to ensure that task support and multimodal feedback is configured according to knowledge of the particular driver’s ability (including sensory ability), driving routines and routes and typical challenges/errors.
\nA human-centric and ethically aligned design philosophy necessitates continuous learning on the behalf of the assistance system (i.e. including AI/machine learning). If the assistance system can learn about those situations and tasks that prove challenging and/or stressful for the older adult driver (i.e. driving in traffic, poor visibility, changing lanes, parking and so forth, etc.), then it can tailor the task support that it provides to the driver. This tailored task support is predictive/intelligent, ensuring that the driver persists in challenging driving situations, while also enjoying their drive.
\nNew technology raises complex ethical questions. Assessing the ethical implications of things which may not yet exist, or things which may have impacts we cannot predict, is very difficult. However, this should not be barrier to posing important questions and ensuring that these questions are addressed as part of the design process. Typically, the human factors discipline is concerned with issues around intended use, user interface design and technology acceptability. As demonstrated in this research, human factors research should extend its remit to include examination of ethical issues pertaining to new technology, and specifically, how well-being, rights and human value/benefit should be considered in terms of design solutions. In this way, HF methods can be used to provide some protections to ensure that ethical issues are considered. As demonstrated in this research, the application of a personae/scenario-based design approach allows us to consider the ethical dimension of these technologies. Further, the translation of system objectives in relation to well-being and human benefit objectives and associated metrics—ensures that well-being and human benefit is both a reference point and a design outcome. We may not have certainty as regards potential future technology impact, but at least we are asking important questions so as to pave the way for an ethically aligned technology of which well-being and human value is a cornerstone. The design and implementation of ethically aligned technology takes leadership and education. It also requires adopting a multi-disciplinary perspective and ensuring diverse disciplines are involved in solution design (including persons trained in ethics and moral reasoning). Further, a crucial element of the design process to ensure an ethical product is rigorous experimentation in a simulator using a co-design approach.
\nThe initial concept requires further elaboration and specification. In line with a human factors approach, a series of co-design and evaluation sessions will be undertaken with end users. In addition, the proposed solution will be evaluated in using a driving simulator. A health event cannot be induced as part of a driving simulation exercise. However, we can evaluate the overall concept, driver responses and the usability of specific driver input/output communication mechanisms.
\nThe proposed design/automation approach reflects an ethically aligned and principled approach to a multi-dimensional design problem. Human benefit, well-being and respect for human rights and identity are important goals for new assisted driving technologies. Such systems must also be verifiably safe and secure. In this way, the solution needs to carefully balance goals around safety and human benefit. As indicated in this research, well-being and human benefit goals and associated KPI are defined to ensure that these concepts are properly considered in the design process, and to ensure that well-being and human benefit is a tangible outcome of new assisted driving solutions.
\nArguably, existing high automation approaches do not support positive ageing. Crucially, ‘technology progress’ in closely intertwined with concepts of progress from a societal values perspective. New assisted driving solutions provide an opportunity to change/improve the lived experience of older adults, particularly in relation to autonomy and social participation. Enabling driver persistence is an issue for all of society and not just older adults.
\nThe application of new car-based sensors underpinned by machine learning techniques, and innovative multimodal HMI communication methods can support driver persistence, driver enablement and successful ageing. The proposed adaptive automation/co-pilot concept is predicated on an analysis of the literature and relevant ageing data (i.e. TILDA data). The co-pilot concept and associated innovative multimodal HMI will be further elaborated using human factors/stakeholder evaluation methods (for example, participatory co-design and evaluation in a test simulator).
\nIt is anticipated that this new car-based technology will deliver (1) safe driving (2) driving persistence and (3) an enhanced driver experience. (4) Health monitoring is built into (1), (2) and (3). In this way, health monitoring is not a goal of new driving assistance systems. Rather, it is an enabler of driver assistance systems and promotes safe driving, driving persistence and an enhanced driver experience.
\nThe authors would like to thank the Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) who co-sponsored this research.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
See Table 5.
\nPhase | \nDescription | \nDetails | \nStatus | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nLiterature review | \nDriver task, older adult driver segmentation, older driver challenges, self-regulation of driving, driver cessation | \nComplete | \n
Successful ageing | \n|||
Health conditions that impact on older adult driving | \n|||
Assisted driving concepts and issues pertaining to ethics and user acceptability | \n|||
The detection/interpretation of driver states (i.e. physical, cognitive and emotional states) using a combination of sensor-based technology and machine learning techniques | \n|||
Innovative multimodal communication approaches and driving solutions | \n|||
2 | \nAdvancement of profiles, personae and scenarios | \nSegmentation of driver profiles in relation to driver persistence and ability | \nComplete | \n
Advancement of personae and scenarios | \n|||
3 | \nSpecification of theoretical principles underpinning advancement of new driving concept | \nAdvancement of technology role, purpose and approach (adaptive automation) | \nComplete | \n
4 | \nSpecification of high-level multimodal HMI approach | \nSpecification of scenarios Iterative refinement of scenarios and multimodal concept Iterative integration of scenarios with sensor and machine learning research | \nComplete | \n
5 | \nCo-design of evaluation of HMI concept | \nSpecification of preliminary UI concept Preliminary co-design/evaluation with stakeholder panel (desktop simulation of high-level concept | \nOngoing | \n
6 | \nSimulator evaluation | \nDetailed evaluation in simulator | \nTo do | \n
Research phases and status.
Personae (James).
Personae (Sam).
See Table 6.
\n# | \nQuestion/issue | \nKeywords | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nHow much dependence on technologically complex systems (potentially based on artificial intelligence with machine learning capabilities) will the public accept to achieve, in return, more safety, mobility and convenience? | \nEthics, user, societal acceptability | \n
2 | \nAgreeing/defining the purpose and role of these systems? Should the purpose go beyond safety? | \nEthics, user, societal acceptability, safety | \n
3 | \nAgreeing/defining the role of the individual in the system | \nEthics, user, societal acceptability, legal | \n
4 | \nDealing with conflict between two goals—promoting driver persistence and ensuring road safety (enabling an older driver to continue driving, even if there is a risk of a serious accident given medical background) | \nEthics, user, societal acceptability, legal, safety, driver persistence | \n
5 | \nShould the system determine the level of automation/assistance, or the older adult? Is this something that the older adult chooses (and can modify in real-time), or is it prescribed given profile information? | \nEthics, user, societal acceptability, legal, safety, driver persistence | \n
6 | \nWhat is the intended use? Are these reactive and/or predictive systems? | \nEthics, user, societal acceptability, legal, HF | \n
7 | \nBalancing expected benefits versus risk (system failure, hacking, etc.) | \nEthics, user, societal acceptability, legal, HF | \n
8 | \nWhat are the legal obligations of the driver, if the driver is taken out of the loop (i.e. full automation)? | \nEthics, legal, societal/user acceptability | \n
9 | \nWho is to blame if there in accident—the driver or the co-pilot? | \nEthics, legal, societal/user acceptability | \n
10 | \nIf the driver is in an impaired state (i.e. Alcohol, drug use, medications) should they be allowed driver only if automation take control? What level of impairment is acceptable? | \nEthics, legal, societal/user acceptability | \n
11 | \nAddressing conflict dilemmas on the road? How should the car act (what aught the automated car do/decision logic), in cases where a choice must be made between one of two evils (decision between one human life and another)? | \nEthics, legal, societal/user acceptability, safety | \n
12 | \nIn what circumstances, can automation take control over the car (over-ride the decisions of the driver)? | \nSafety, human factors, legal, ethics, user/societal acceptability | \n
13 | \nShould the driver be able to take control of the car at any point? Should the driver always be in control? What tasks are suitable to delegate to automation? | \nSafety, human factors, legal, ethics, user/societal acceptability | \n
14 | \nProtection of the personal sphere? User control over own information? Information span personal profile, health profile, location tracking, destination tracking, safety behaviour, etc. | \nLegal, ethics, user/societal acceptability | \n
15 | \nHandover issues/transition of control (human to technology handover and tech to human, etc.) | \nSafety, human factors, ethics, user/societal acceptability | \n
16 | \nSoftware hack and misuse Cybersecurity threats and vulnerabilities—both in relation to personal information and car security | \nSafety, human factors, ethics, user/societal acceptability | \n
17 | \nSafety issues related to equipment or system failure. System/equipment failure and vehicle performance in unexpected situations | \nSafety, human factors, ethics, user/societal acceptability | \n
18 | \nAcceptable levels of workload—monitoring automation status. | \nSafety, human factors, user acceptability | \n
19 | \nPersonality traits and assisted driving | \nSafety, societal acceptability, ethics | \n
20 | \nDealing with emotions and providing feedback to the driver | \nHealth monitoring, safety, user/societal acceptability, ethics, legal | \n
21 | \nDoes the system provide the driver with feedback about their health? | \nHealth monitoring, safety, user/societal acceptability, ethics, legal | \n
22 | \nSystem and consideration of information available to potential passengers? | \nSafety, driver experience, ethics, legal, user/societal acceptability | \n
23 | \nEnvironmental implications | \nLegal, user/societal acceptability | \n
24 | \nTraining required—changes to existing driver training? | \nSafety, legal | \n
25 | \nRecording of information for crash analysis purposes? Similar to cockpit voice recorder and flight data recorder? | \nSafety, ethics, legal, user/societal acceptability | \n
26 | \nShould self-vehicles be able to operate in normal traffic or in separate lanes? | \nDriver experience, ethics, legal, user/societal acceptability | \n
27 | \nData transmission? Sharing of information with other parties? | \nEthics, legal, user/societal acceptability | \n
28 | \nWhether drivers expect to find it enjoyable or not? Should it be enjoyable? | \nDriver experience | \n
29 | \nShould self-driving vehicles be able to move while unoccupied? | \nEthics, safety, driver experience | \n
30 | \nHow should self-driving vehicles interact with other non-self-driving vehicles? | \nEthics, safety, driver experience | \n
Ethical, legal and societal/user acceptability issues.
At IntechOpen, we not only specialize in the publication of Book Chapters as part of our Edited Volumes, but also the publication and dissemination of longer manuscripts, known as Long Form Monographs. Monographs allow Authors to focus on presenting a single subject or a specific aspect of that subject and publish their research in detail.
\n\nEven if you have an area of research that does not at first sight fit within a previously defined IntechOpen project, we can still offer support and help you in publishing your individual research. Publishing your IntechOpen book in the form of a Long Form Monograph is a viable alternative.
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