\r\n
\r\nCoverage included:
\r\n- Preparation NiO catalyst on FeCrAl Subtrate Using Various Technique at Higher Oxidation Process
\r\n- Electrochemical properties of carbon- supported metal nanoparticle prepared by electroplating methods
\r\n- Fabrication of InGaN-Based Vertical Light Emitting Diodes Using Electroplating
\r\n- Integration Of Electrografted Layers for the Metallization of Deep Through Silicon Vias
\r\n- Biomass adsorbent for removal of toxic metal ions from electroplating industry wastewater
\r\n- Resistant fungal biodiversity of electroplating effluent and their metal tolerance index
\r\n- Experimental design and response surface analysis as available tools for statistical modeling and optimization of electrodeposition processes",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0471-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4991-0",doi:"10.5772/1913",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"electroplating",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"18ec8cf0e50c5e8170a9d0b20af09b7f",bookSignature:"Darwin Sebayang and Sulaiman Bin Haji Hasan",publishedDate:"April 11th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1455.jpg",numberOfDownloads:24504,numberOfWosCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:61,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 14th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 13th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"92970",title:"Prof.",name:"Darwin",middleName:null,surname:"Sebayang",slug:"darwin-sebayang",fullName:"Darwin Sebayang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92970/images/3175_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Darwin Sebayang was graduated from Rheinisch Westfaelische \nTechnische Hochschule Aachen- Germany (RWTH Aachen- Germany) on Light Structure. He is a professor in Faculty of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering at the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. The research focuses on light structure, engineering design and advance material and since five years ago he has been active on development of catalytic converter and exploring the application of electroplating of nickel to FeCrAl for catalytic converter.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Tun Hussein Onn University of Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"121404",title:"Prof.",name:"Sulaiman",middleName:null,surname:"Hasan",slug:"sulaiman-hasan",fullName:"Sulaiman Hasan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/121404/images/system/121404.jpg",biography:"Professor Dr Sulaiman Haji Hasan has been teaching Manufacturing Engineering since 1980. 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Mahbub Hossain, Dr. Neeraj Sharma and Dr. Manju Pilania",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11911.jpg",keywords:"Scientometrics, Research Evaluation, Bibliometrics, Science Policy, International Collaboration, Research Impact, LMIC, Academia, Patent Analysis, H-index, Network Effectiveness, Scientific Funding Agencies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 24th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in the area of people-centered health services with a focus on evidence-based public health, bibliometric studies, and data analytics. A medical doctor and faculty at the Centre for Community Medicine, Dr. Bairwa was previously the Faculty In-charge of the Johns Hopkins-IIHMR co-operative MPH program at IIHMR University, India.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. M. Mahbub Hossain is a physician, public health scientist, and academician working at Texas A&M University Health Science Center, Texas, USA. His work focuses on addressing population health inequities using evidence-based multilevel interventions.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Neeraj Sharma is a Program Officer and MPH graduate from Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, US, pursuing his Ph.D. in Public Health. He is a specialist researcher in implementation science, road traffic injuries, and evidence building – systematic review and meta-analysis, scientometrics, and data analytics.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Dr. Manju Pilania is a mental health researcher, Epidemiologist, and Assistant Professor at the Department of Community Medicine and has previously been associated with Rajasthan University of Health Sciences, India. Her research interest areas include mental health, evidence-based public health practice, systematic review, and bibliometric studies.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"181864",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Bairwa",slug:"mohan-bairwa",fullName:"Mohan Bairwa",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSAcYQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-07T16:12:15.jpg",biography:"Dr Bairwa is a medical doctor, educator, and public health specialist. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor at the Centre for Community Medicine at All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi. In the past, Dr Bairwa has worked as faculty for Public Health and Epidemiology in the Institute of Health Management Research at IIHMR Univesity, Jaipur, India. He has been awarded the Doctor of Medicine (MD; Community Medicine) from Pt. B. D. Sharma Post Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Rohtak (Haryana), India and MBBS from SMS Medical College, Jaipur, India.\r\n \r\nHis research interests include chronic disease epidemiology, cause of death and disease burden, people-centered health care and health systems, and evidence-based public health practice and bibliometric studies. He is a part of the AIIMS Technical Support Unit to provide technical assistance to the Registrar General of India for estimation of the cause of death, SEAR NCD Service Delivery Network (a network of lead medical and health education institutions in the WHO South-East Asia region), under the ambit of WHO SEARO for strengthening people-centered NCD service delivery in the region, and PHC Support Initiative for India's primary healthcare systems. He has over 60 publications to his credit.",institutionString:"All India Institute of Medical Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"All India Institute of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"477301",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahbub",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"m.-mahbub-hossain",fullName:"M. Mahbub Hossain",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003SbnPjQAJ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-07T16:01:34.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Texas A&M University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Texas A&M University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"235759",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeraj",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"neeraj-sharma",fullName:"Neeraj Sharma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRRakQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-07T16:03:20.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Society of Applied Studies, New Delhi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:{id:"181868",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Pilania",slug:"manju-pilania",fullName:"Manju Pilania",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHYJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-07T16:03:40.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Kalpana Chawla Government Medical College, Karnal",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"IIHMR University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429341",firstName:"Paula",lastName:"Gavran",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"paula@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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This is complementary to various traditional treatment techniques, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery. It is used for the treatment of both neoplastic diseases and miscellaneous noncancerous illnesses. Although many ancient civilizations utilized phototherapy, it appeared again as the treatment procedure in the last century [1–3]. It seems that the success of this particular treatment procedure depends on both the further development of novel photosensitizers and light sources as well as schemes of cooperation between specialists and an interdisciplinary team. Figure 1 presents the professions of which expertise is essential for photodynamic therapy and which are able to undertake various actions to increase the effectiveness of treatment.
\nProfessionals indispensable for carrying out PDT, based on Ref. [
PDT is based on a multi-stage procedure, and its success depends upon a number of procedure components. In addition, successful treatment requires the cooperation of an interdisciplinary team of specialists belonging to different fields of medical sciences: physicians, nurses, and pharmacists, but also at certain stages: chemists, physicists, biophysicists, and biologists [4]. Many advantages resulting from cooperation between laboratory and clinical researchers have been raised by Sieroń and Kwiatek [5], who summarized laboratory and clinical research on PDT and photodynamic diagnosis (PDD) in Poland. Benefits resulting from cooperation between various specialists have been noted for several years of PDT treatment in Brazil, stressing that the cooperation between specialists helps to improve the results and the quality of treatment. The patient potential for PDT treatment in Brazil needed to be initially assessed by the physician, nurse, and a physicist. The role of nurses is of great importance in this system, as they participate in the PDT procedures and have the closest contact with patients. Each case is discussed by specialists in order to assess potential benefits and consequences of therapy [4]. Researchers implementing the photodynamic therapy in patients with lung cancer have described an effective collaborative team consisting of a surgeon, oncologist, nurse, and pharmacist. For each patient, they elaborated the so-called schedule of photodynamic therapy. As light delivery requires special skills, during PDT treatment the presence of a “laser specialist” was found necessary [6].
\nThe nurse’s role in PDT treatment of patients is apparent and for example might be given a procedure utilized in the treatment of patients with neovascular (wet) age-related macular degeneration which was summarized in excellent review by Rich et al. [7]. Moreover, Collins and Garner stressed at least two points when nurse-pharmacist cooperation would be beneficial for patient in PDT therapy: (i) in the planning of PDT therapy before the patient arrives in the acute care environment, (ii) and in the prevention of medication being exposed to light and its dilution before administration [6].
\nOn the one hand, access to PDT is often insufficient. On the other hand, operating costs would be astronomical for each hospital. Therefore, a mobile PDT unit designed to be put into operation by the Yorkshire Laser Centre is the solution to this problem. This unit allows more patients to benefit from PDT treatment. The personnel in such units consist of a driver/technician, a PDT physician, a nurse or a carer, and coordinator [8].
\nThe legitimacy of the established interdisciplinary team justifies the photodynamic reaction mechanism, which is the basis of PDT. It is well known that PDT is a suitable combination of three components: the drug—photosensitizer, light, and oxygen. Photosensitizer is a drug, which, when introduced to the body, accumulates in the tissue. Drugs used in PDT treatments belong to different chemical classes and are of different structures and properties. After the tissue has been irradiated with light in an appropriate wavelength and intensity, the photosensitizer is activated. Reactive oxygen species are generated, which effectively causes apoptotic or necrotic death of the diseased tissues [9–11].
\nPhotosensitizer and light are both necessary for PDT. After parenteral or topical application, photosensitizers are mainly present in cancer cells and also to some extent in surrounding healthy tissue (Figure 2). The subcellular localization of the photosensitizers in cells embraces various organelles including plasma membranes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, lysosomes, and Golgi apparatus [12, 13]. Up to that point, photosensitizer occurs in an unexcited singlet state which has two electrons with different spins in the low energy orbital. Light is necessary for the activation of the photosensitizer and the induction of the photodynamic reaction [14]. For this reason, the photosensitizer is irradiated with light in an appropriate wavelength generated by precise sources, e.g., diode lasers or, considering the relatively high cost of lasers, the much cheaper, and portable light emitting diodes (LED). Fiber optics, or LED portable arrays illuminating light, are used for various types of cancer, including pulmonary tumors and fit through a bronchoscope or CT-guided needle or catheters [15]. A very important problem to be addressed is the suitable drug-light interval: as the photosensitizer is introduced into the body, and the vascular supply circulates as long as it accumulates in the tumor. Early illumination, after photosensitizer introduction, causes predominantly vascular effects, whereas later illumination favors tumor-cell effect. As a result, the photosensitizer when illuminated is “boosted” from its ground state to a higher energy state singlet-excited state. This state is an extremely short-lived, so an excess of accumulated energy has to be released in two different ways: the first one, which is the basis of PDD, involves the emission of light called fluorescence and corresponding to the relaxation of a molecule from the excited to ground state. The second alternative is an intersystem crossing which undergoes without energy emission and results in the formation of the triplet-excited state of the photosensitizer. Note that the half-life of the triplet-excited state is much longer than that of the singlet-excited state. In this case, photosensitizers can very rarely return to their ground state through the emission of energy called phosphorescence. In the comparison of the singlet and triplet excited states, it can be ascertained that both of them are utilized in photodynamic therapy. However, the contribution of the triplet state is much greater. As the energy is released by the excited photosensitizer, the initiation of the photodynamic reaction processes may result in the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which are known to be toxic to neoplastic cells [12, 16].
\nMechanism of photodynamic reaction and photodynamic therapy.
The three main types of photodynamic reactions can be identified, among which two are extremely important in PDT. In the first type of reaction, energy from the excited photosensitizer is transferred to an electron or hydrogen atom of a substrate or another molecule and anion or cation radicals may be obtained. Afterwards, they interact with the surrounding oxygen which is transformed into toxic oxygenated species. Water molecules are the main target of this attack with a hydroxyl radical and superoxide anion radical formed as the products of the reaction. The mechanism of the second type of photodynamic reaction consists of a reaction of the photosensitizer with molecular oxygen (3O2) and singlet oxygen (1O2) formation. As singlet oxygen is thought to play a main role in destroying cancer cells, the type II PDT mechanism is known as an appropriate photodynamic reaction (PDR). Although in both types, I and II, reactions may occur simultaneously, in most cases, one of them is more common, depending on the structure and physicochemical properties of photosensitizers. The newest photosensitizers are designed to generate as much singlet oxygen as possible (preferring type II). There is also another type of photodynamic therapy mechanism called the type III PDT mechanism. However, it is based on the direct interaction of excited photosensitizers, which is toxic to the target cancer cells without oxygen species being involved [12, 15, 17].
\nThe singlet oxygen obtained during PDT is thought to be a very reactive derivative of the oxygen species. It is able to initiate a cascade of molecular effects resulting in the selective destruction of lesions, indirect vascular damaging effects (vascular shutdown), and the influence on immune systems (inflammation induction and other tumor-specific immune reactions) [10]. Its half-life is 40 ns and the range of action is 20 nm [9, 18]. The amount of singlet oxygen species produced by photosensitizers has to be sufficient to destroy even large lesions. The toxic character of radicals and singlet oxygen species results in apoptotic (via signal transduction pathways) and/or necrotic cell death. The destructive influence on the vascular system is a result of vasoconstriction, thrombosis, ischemia or necrosis connected with the singlet oxygen lethal effect to the nearest cells [19].
\nThere are few important requirements that chemical compound meets to serve as a photosensitizer for PDT. One of the first requirements is its synthetic purity and stability. A photosensitizer should be water-soluble and easily distribute in the body. It should not exhibit toxicity or mutagenicity in the human organism without light activation; therefore, it should be inert until activation by light. Ideal photosensitizers should also selectively accumulate in tumor tissue and be characterized by the clearance from healthy tissue, so therapy would only involve pathologically altered cells. In addition, they should be non-toxic to non-illuminated bystander regions. Photosensitizers should be activated by light in an appropriate wavelength that penetrates tissue deeper, and efficiently generates reactive oxygen species (especially singlet oxygen). Therefore, the repeated generation of type II reactions with a clinically successful photosensitizer is very important. The ideal photosensitizer does not induce pain during and after therapy and may be used in outpatient care. The drug, photosensitizer, should be transported in a stable state and its reconstitution should be performed by trained pharmacists without specialized laboratories. Generally, clinicians and chemists have different views concerning the ideal photosensitizer. Chemists put more stress on a high extinction coefficient and a high quantum yield of singlet oxygen, whereas clinicians emphasize low toxicity and high selectivity [3, 15, 17, 20, 21].
\nMost of the currently used photosensitizers in clinical PDT belong to the porphyrinoid family. These aromatic, macrocyclic compounds consist usually of four pyrrole rings linked together by methine or azomethine bridges. The first clinically applied photosensitizer and, parallel to which, a representative of the first generation of photosensitizers approved for photodynamic therapy, is Photofrin®. It is a complex mixture of porphyrin monomers, dimers, and oligomers obtained by chemical processing of hematoporphyrin with a Q1 band at 630 nm in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and a very low singlet oxygen generation
Chemical structures of clinically used photosensitizers: (
Aside from the photosensitizers described above, which are commercially available and participate directly in the photodynamic reaction, there is also another approach to PDT. 5-Aminolevulinic acid (ALA, Levulan®)
Although second generation photosensitizers are effective PDT agents, there is a constant need for further development and improvements. Many potential PDT active pharmaceutical substances are under clinical trials, as well as many research reports, and embrace the very promising properties of the newly obtained compounds. The main paths of research have involved the elaboration of tumor selective agents by conjugating photosensitizers with biologically active moieties, e.g., carbohydrates [28], folate molecules [29], or antibodies targeting cancer cells [30]. This can increase the uptake of photosensitizers in cancerous cells and make PDT more effective and less harmful to healthy tissue. A huge challenge may bring the development of nanosized carriers for photosensitizers, including polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, niosomes, micelles, nanocrystals, microcapsules, and dendrimers. It should improve the efficiency of photodynamic activity and, in this way, overcome many side effects associated with classic PDT. Huge success noted in this field is connected with two liposomal formulations of photosensitizers, such as Verteporfin (Visudyne®) and Temoporfin (Foslip®) [31, 32].
\nInterdisciplinary team, including medicinal chemists, chemists, biologists, biochemists, and physicists conducts preliminary step of photodynamic therapy (Figure 4). Medicinal chemists and chemists are engaged in the design and chemical synthesis of compounds that may have the potential for photodynamic therapy. The production process should be efficient and easy to reproduce. As far as PDT is concerned, an important measurement is also the assessment of light absorption and emission by a photosensitizer, solubility, aggregation tendency, its chemical, and photostabilities (photobleaching). This research is usually performed by physicist and chemical physicist. In the area of biochemistry, biology, and molecular pharmacology, researchers look into the activity of the compounds. They conduct tests on cell cultures
Health care providers and associated specialists in photodynamic therapy team.
The role of team members listed herein is, therefore, to produce a medicine, that, when used during PDT should possess features such as: chemical purity, chemo- and photostability, a lack of activity in the dark, selective accumulation in target tissue (e.g., neoplasms), a lack of toxicity, and mutagenicity in healthy tissues. The rate of the elimination of the substances from the body and its availability to patients are apparent. One of the most important issues is also the reduction or overcoming of the adverse effects caused by photosensitizers such as photosensitivity lasting up to several weeks after treatment or elimination of pain associated with treatment [20]. Sieroń and Kwiatek [5] discussed the work carried out by an interdisciplinary team consisting of physicists and chemists, whose aim was to develop an optimal structure of a novel photosensitizer. They performed chemical synthesis in a novel potential photosensitizer and its physicochemical characterization with the detailed assessment of spectroscopic properties. Part of the team consisted of physicists focused on the determination of crystalline and electronic structures and the chemical composition of novel photosensitizers. The presence of physicists in the PDT team is recommended also for another reason. The necessary condition for the photodynamic therapy is the activation of the photosensitizer through light in the appropriate wavelength. In practice, laser and nonlaser light sources are used. Physicists are responsible for providing a source of light, establishing the wavelength, and dose of the photosensitizer suitable for irradiation during treatment. Further studies on cell and molecular aspects of PDT action with the newly elaborated photosensitizers are necessary on various cells
Health care providers, such as physicians, nurses, and pharmacists, work closely with patients in photodynamic therapy processes.
\nAmong specialists in the interdisciplinary team of health care providers conducting photodynamic therapy, an important task falls on the doctor’s shoulders. His knowledge and skills are used in each stage of PDT in the treatment of neoplastic and nonneoplastic diseases. His main task is to carry out the treatment itself and to take responsibility for the whole therapy. The doctor assesses the patient’s state of health before treatment and decides on the patient’s qualification for PDT, informs about the procedure and possible adverse effects [6, 7]. In Brazil, a physician consults a nurse and physicist and considers the potential benefits and consequences of therapy for each patient. Doctors and nurses spend a lot of time in explaining details with the patient and answering his questions [4].
\nThe cooperation within the interdisciplinary PDT team has been professionally elaborated by researchers from the Laser Center, Thompson Cancer Survival Center of Knoxville. Their conclusions concerned the treatment of Barrett’s esophagus using endoscopic ablation of Barrett’s esophagectomy with PDT. The method applied is based on the medication followed by the endoscopy procedure during which the laser light is emitted to the so-called Barrett\'s esophagus through an endoscope. This technique requires the coordinated work of a physician, an endoscopic nurse, a laser expert, and, an endoscopic assistant. The authors of this paper, Overholt and Panjehpour [35] clearly demonstrated that the proposed construction of the “PDT team of excellence” is necessary for professional and successful treatment of the patient.
\nNurses are professionally active and involved in the care of patients treated through phototherapy following tasks resulting from four functions of nursing: (i) health care provision, (ii) patient education, (iii) active action in health care team, and (iv) the development of nursing practice standards (Figure 5). As far as the above-mentioned nursing features are concerned, a nurse performs a number of tasks that contribute to improving the quality of services provided through which the most dominant feature is the provision of nursing care. The term health service means measures to strengthen, maintain, restore, or improve health, resulting from the process of diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation. In order to optimize health care services, specific tasks performed by nurses need to be taken on: (i) assessing the needs of patients treated with phototherapy, and the recognition of their condition and existing health problems, (ii) creation of conditions for aware patient participation in the planned form of treatment, (iii) planning and implementing nursing care during treatment and after its completion, and (iv) documenting the activities of nursing (medical history, results of preclinical examinations such as the BP intervals, heart rate, body weight, height, respiratory-rate) [36–39]. Particularly important is the provision of health care to chronically ill patients whose bio-psycho-social welfare has been violated. Therefore, the principal activity carried out by nurses as health care providers is to conduct an interview with a person who is to undergo photodynamic therapy. The interview should include elements concerning the health and social situation of the family. Before the provision of health services prior to therapy, a nurse takes the height and weight measurements of patient, assesses visual acuity, heart-rate, blood pressure, and the respiratory-rate. The tasks of the nurse participating in the therapy are drug administration and observation of the patient to acute allergic reactions or other adverse effects during the course of treatment. As an essential topic in the interview, it should cover the kind of existing treatment and possibilities of occurrence of contraindications to phototherapy i.e., existing allergy, liver diseases, hypersensitivity to sunlight or pregnancy. Noteworthy, as porfimer sodium is classified as a chemotherapy agent, only a registered nurse can administer the medication [6, 40, 41]. Excellent examples concerning PDT as a treatment option for two groups of patients utilizing its curative or palliative effect for lung cancer (nonsmall cell lung cancer) patients were discussed by Collins and Garner [6]. They presented the cooperation model in a PDT team consisting of a nurse, a surgeon, an oncologist, and a pharmacist. As emphasized by Rich et al. [7], included in the nurses’ tasks before treatment, a detailed interview with the patient aimed at obtaining a medical history of treatment is necessary. It is important to collect a complete medical and surgical history, including current medications used and an ophthalmologic history. Particular attention should be paid to the presence of contraindications to photodynamic therapy with Verteporfin (Visudyne), such as allergies, hypersensitivity to sunlight, liver disease, or pregnancy. Prior to the surgery, nursing personnel tests the visual acuity, blood pressure, pulse, respirations, and body weight and height of the patient for BSA (body surface area).
\nGeneral duties of nurses during PDT [
During surgery, the nurse, according to the doctor’s recommendation, administers medication (eye drops) to the patient and starts the infusion line with use of a No. 22 angio safety catheter. The nurse also has to make sure that the patient has knowledge of the entire procedure. It is also important for the patient throughout the procedure to remain in the correct position, so that the doctor can accurately direct the laser light on the treated area. After treatment, the patient receives detailed instructions about potential side effects, the optimization of pain management, and precautions that must be taken. Mainly the patient should be told to protect skin and eyes from sunlight and other so-called sources of bright light and warned that nonadherence to these instructions may result in skin burns or eye damage. It is very important to assure that patient understands the necessity for light precautions for 5 days, even in terms of avoiding bright lights, like surgical and dental lighting. Thus, nurses are significant members of the professional team and fulfill an important role in the patient assessment including pretreatment and posttreatment teaching [7, 42].
\nSimilarly, the nurse’s role is depicted in disease therapy of lung or esophageal cancers. Also, in this case, they are responsible for informing the patient about the effects of photosensitivity and explaining how and for how long patient’s skin and eyes should be protected, as the illumination is connected with extreme photosensitivity, including ocular sensitivity. It is also worth mentioning that education about the procedure, side effects, and precautions should be extended to all patient family members. These subjects are of immense interest for nurses and have been included in many oncology nursing treatment schemes [6, 42, 43]. Allison et al. [44] while discussing PDT for chest wall recurrence from breast cancer analyzed many specific precautions accompanying this kind of treatment, including photosensitivity, illumination, pain control, photosensitivity reaction, posttreatment, patient selection, curing wounds, and retreatment. Some of them are under the direct control of a physician, but many need the supervision of other medical team members. Although photosensitivity is a common problem, patients must be informed that even minimal light levels as those coming from a light bulb or fireplace or light reflected from a car window can cause photosensitivity reaction. Interestingly, giving consent to PDT therapy according to information about sunlight precautions has not prevented any patient from photosensitivity, Therefore, patients found to be unable to accept sunlight precautions should not be offered PDT. Pain may accompany the PDT therapy, therefore patient should be given narcotic or nonnarcotic pain pills prior to illumination. In some cases, patients subjected to PDT for the recurrence of breast cancer in the chest wall, pain control resulting from lesion diminishment can be seen within 2 weeks of the PDT session. Nevertheless, even at that time continued narcotic or nonnarcotic analgesia is recommended. It is very important as to how the problem is recognized when the photosensitivity reaction occurs. Although the treatment of the sign and symptoms of skin burns may be easily treated with, e.g., steroids, ice/cold compresses, the treatment of, e.g., airway and neck is more complicated and a proper intensive care approach may be required, often on an inpatient basis. Posttreatment patient management is a major therapeutic challenge. Patients need to drink plenty of fluids and be protected from light. Some patients may need steroids, while others oral narcotic and nonnarcotic analgesia, and many, in the course of treatment, antibiotics [44, 45].
\nNurses take on many tasks in the PDT treatment procedure; therefore, they should know the principles of photodynamic therapy. Later after treatment, the nurse actively participates in the patient recovery process or motivating patients to continue therapy using PDT and other health procedures [40, 41]. Meticulous patient monitoring and the evaluation of the effectiveness of nursing care taken will allow the nurse to implement the next health service function, which is health education. The purpose of health education is for people with disabilities and the chronically ill to be motivated to take responsibility for their own health and to prepare for self-care. Educational activities are closely linked with health promotion, the main objective of which is to strengthen and enhance health, and, without a doubt, improve their quality of life. The concept of health promotion in relation to chronic diseases may often be as a contradiction misunderstood, in other words illogical. However, it must be kept in mind that the purpose of the promotion is to improve and control one’s own health. Therefore, especially those who are ill should take care of the development of their bio-psycho-social opportunities, because no illness limits human functioning to the extent that it was impossible to creatively use the remaining potential [46]. It is important that nurses use their knowledge of health promotion to motivate patients in the field of their health protection and restoring them to health by activating compensatory mechanisms. In the nursing care process, it is important to have permanent psychotherapeutic impact, by which a positive effect on the patient and the creation of a therapeutic relationship nurse-patient is meant. An important element is to establish a relationship between the nurse and the patient and sends a “positive support message” containing, uplifting and at the same time mobilizing to action. Mutual understanding, creating an atmosphere of releasing a suffering person from negative feelings allows the nurse to establish efficient communication, as it was discussed during the PDT lung cancer treatment and AMD patients. Moreover, a nurse acts not only as the patient’s teacher, but also an advocate [6, 47].
\nConsidering their educational activities, nurses conduct the following tasks: (i) they collect information at the request of patients for educational and advisory activities, (ii) they set targets for educational activities, and preventional promotion actions involving the provision of behavioral information after PDT treatment. The topic of education regards behavior after illumination. Nurses should recommend avoiding sunlight, wearing headgear, clothing with long sleeves, and sunglasses. Patient should be informed that their entire skin must be covered and that daily activities, including driving should be done at night. In the case of some photosensitizers, patients should be house-bound up to 3 months. Nurses should also report any reactions to medication. Significant to patient education is learning how to cope with any stress resulting from the disease and how to control stress. Some emotional problems experienced by patients are not symptoms of their disease, but are related to a manifestation of some “adaptation efforts” arising from attempts to cope with the existing situation. It should be emphasized that all educational activities undertaken by the nurse should be tailored to the level of the recipient, and so communicated in a clear and simple manner without medical jargon. In fulfilling the role, the nurses should work with other members of the therapeutic team, who will help them and give advice. In Brazil, nurses participate not only in the whole procedure at each stage of therapy but are also in very close contact with the patient. They are responsible for education concerning the course of treatment and risk minimization of side effects. They also observe the patient during surgery for adverse events [4, 6, 48].
\nAnother feature of nursing is the active involvement in health care organization. Care for patients undergoing photodynamic therapy is exercised by different professionals (physician, nurse, and pharmacist) and therefore their close cooperation is required, including the exchange of experiences and information on patients. This is important because of the deliberate planning and organizing health care. Due to the frequent contact of nurses to patients, it is advisable for them to function as a link between patients and other members of the therapeutic team. Nurses cooperate with other professionals, the patient’s family, and the local community. This allows them to work together with a team to come up with the optimum therapeutic care plan for the patient treated with PDT and to provide comprehensive assistance in line with the expectations of the patient. In order to fulfill this function, nurses begin work with both the team caring for the patient and with his family (through contact with a health visitor, primary care physician). The consequence of cooperation with such people is the exchange of insights and experiences on the patient’s health and social situation in order to improve the quality of health services [6, 7].
\nBased on these experiences and research conducted on persons undergoing phototherapy, nurses should develop innovative ways of working with patients, in order to achieve better care results. It should allow them to fulfill the fourth nursing function which is the development of nursing skills. In carrying out this function, nurses should undertake the following tasks: (i) take an active part in training through participation in conferences and courses on phototherapy, which will enable them to broaden their knowledge, (ii) keeping up to date through the self-study and analysis of the latest medical reports in the field of PDT, (iii) develop standard of nursing care for patients being treated with photodynamic therapy, implement the above-mentioned standards, and evaluate the effectiveness of nursing actions taken. Photodynamic therapy of age-related macular degeneration is a stage process, which includes intravenous administration of the photosensitizer followed by the use of lasers to activate the drug. The role of the care providers consists in administration, evaluation, and monitoring of the patient for acute drug reactions during the procedure or patient education. It is noteworthy that the implementation of formalized, proactive interdisciplinary approaches in treating other diseases, like chronic kidney disease, was found to have a positive impact on patients’ well-being [49, 50].
\nMany pharmacists have expressed a desire to become more involved in patient care and in providing services traditionally offered by physicians and nurse practitioners [51]. The role of the pharmacists in patient-centered medical home practices revealed knowledge and skills that can complement the care provided by other health care team members [52]. Moreover, many studies emphasize that the cooperation between general practitioners, pharmacists, and nurses is necessary to effectively dispense drugs to the patient [53]. A very interesting report concerning approaches in improving the outcome of the patient and health care system through advanced pharmaceutical experience and have recently been reviewed by Giberson et al. [54]. Moreover, Makowsky et al. [55] recently discussed working relationships in the inpatient medical setting between pharmacists, physicians, and nurse practitioners. The integration of pharmacists into the nurse practitioners and physicians teams was positively felt in terms of patient well-being (drug-therapy decision-making, continuity of care, patient safety).
\nPharmacists as specialist—team players in the field of medicinal chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology—are responsible for the preparation of drugs for both topical and systemic administration. They are also responsible for the proper drug storage, i.e., temperature control and protection against solar radiation and other light sources. Pharmacists cooperate with physicians and nurses during the procedure to ensure the adequate preparation of the drug directly before the administration to the patient [4, 6]. In this regard, it is especially important that the specialized team cooperates on the various aspects of specific medications at various stages of the procedure, such as narcotic and nonnarcotic medications including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs analgesics, acetaminophen, metamizole or topical pain relievers, antibiotics, steroids, and nausea-suppressing agents. Moreover, some patients require parenteral nutrition or hydration. Hypersensitivity to light requires specific precautions. Failure to comply with these rules may result in skin burns, peeling of the treated skin, local edema, erythema, dysuria, urethral irritation which requires the use of additional therapeutic agents [6, 20, 35, 56].
\nThe researchers emphasize the important role of pharmacists and cooperation with the pharmacy. The application of each drug should be preceded by their compatibility studies with other medications. It is also used to assess the properties of the drug formulations considering patient’s light hypersensitivity. Scientists dealing with modifications of oral drug forms turned their attention to the possibility of cooperation of physicians, pharmacists, and nurses. They conducted the survey among representatives of these three professions. It turned out that the personnel working in the public health centers employing specialists in various fields, for example hospitals often cooperate with each other discussing and exchanging views and experiences [6, 53].
\nAnother expertise area of pharmacists includes drug formulation. It seems that the development of novel photosensitizers depends on both the development of novel photosensitizers, as well as novel formulations including the latest achievements of nanomedicine. Very interesting pharmaceutical studies were conducted for 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) that is a photosensitizer with broad applications in photodynamic therapy and photodynamic diagnosis. This compound is a prodrug/prometabolite which is converted into protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) and possesses photosensitizing properties [44]. Its topical formulations are used in the treatment of neoplastic and nonneoplastic diseases. Unfortunately, ALA-PDT treatment has certain drawbacks. One of them is low skin permeability, limiting this treatment only to surface skin lesions, e.g., malignant skin tumors [5, 20]. Researchers, who rely on their knowledge and clinical experience, are attempting to modify the drug formulations containing this compound [57]. Therefore, a 20% topical solution of 5-aminolevulinic under the brand name of Levulan® Kerastick® is being used. A lack in the stability of the substance in solution requires combining the drug with a solvent just before application. Another product called Metvix® is a 16% cream containing the methyl ester of 5-aminolevulinic acid (methyl aminolevulinate) as hydrochloride, which in comparison to the parent compound should penetrate the skin more effectively. In searching for another stable formulation, a precise dose to the affected area was provided by Donnelly et al. [57] and E.P. Patent No. 1467706 B1 [58]. They described an adhesion patch based on Eudragit® NE that contains ALA dispersed in the adhesive matrix and requires moisture for activation. It is also of interest that mucoadhesive Carbopol® 941- and Poloxamer® PF127-based polymeric mucoadhesive thermoresponsive gel containing ALA was described by Tsui-Min [59]. Promising data was obtained for 20% oil-in-water emulsion formulations of 5-aminolevulinic acid. These drugs were administered topically to patients with various types of skin diseases [60]. Interesting experiments that compared the efficacy of 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) and its methyl ester (mALA) were performed for Lutrol F-127-based thermolabile gel 10% formulation in treatment of basal cell carcinomas of the skin [61].
\nA very interesting study on pharmaceutical development, composition, and quantitative analysis of the phthalocyanine photosensitizer for cancer photodynamic therapy has recently been presented by Jiang et al. [62]. The authors discussed phthalocyanine derivatives in terms of pharmaceutical development and molecular modification in order to enhance drug effectiveness and to improve its intracellular localization. Therefore, various approaches concerning the conjugation of photosensitizers to various antibodies, proteins, and peptides have also been described. In addition, various strategies concerning an improvement of pharmaceutical properties utilizing direct formulations of phthalocyanines were discussed.
\nThe aim of this short review was to present the topic of photodynamic therapy and activities taken by health care providers and associated specialists working together with patients during the photodynamic therapy. The expert literature indicates that the effective implementation of photodynamic therapy requires intensive cooperation within the interdisciplinary team and possesses a broad knowledge in various fields. Coordinated actions of representatives possessing expertise in various fields of medical and natural sciences, especially doctors, nurses, pharmacists, chemists, physicists, biologists, and biochemists, are necessary both during joint research, development and during the course of the PDT procedure.
\nDuring therapy, the patient plays the most important role and is responsible for acting in accordance with the schedule set by the physician, nurse, and pharmacist. Activities aimed to increase the effectiveness of treatment conducted by the physician or surgeon, minimizing side effects, and ensuring of the comprehensive care to patients also require the participation of physicians, nurses, and pharmacists. In conclusion, only the effective interaction between professionals and clear sharing of responsibilities at different stages of therapy should guarantee successful treatment.
\nTomasz Goslinski and Magdalena Stolarska acknowledge the Polish National Science Centre for the Grant No. 2012/05/E/NZ7/01204.
UNESCO [1] defined
The recently introduced term “
UNESCO [1] further notes that cultural heritage is not only a source for business and economy, but a fundamental condition for the maintenance and development of society and its economy. In terms of value, cultural heritage assets comprise both economic and cultural value. Cultural value is a complex concept that spans several dimensions: aesthetic, spiritual/religious, social, historical, symbolic and authenticity value [8]. Accordingly, “the
The most readily accessible experience of cultural heritage is in the realm of
McKercher et al. [14] stress the complexity of cultural tourism, as reflected in the variety of perspectives adopted for its definition: tourism-derived, motivational, experiential and operational. ICOMOS [15] describes cultural tourism as a form of tourism whose object includes the discovery of monuments and sites. Richards [16] defines
There are different types of
Cultural tourists in growing numbers pursue an in-depth appreciation and understanding of different aspects of the culture and heritage of the places they visit. Cultural heritage tourists are in search of authentic experiences associated with a variety of cultural traits that are linked to distinct geographic locations. Dallen [19] highlights this diversity, stating that cultural heritage tourism “encompasses
Recent years have seen the growing digitisation of cultural heritage, leveraged by innovative information technologies (imaging technologies, multimedia, virtual reality etc.). Advanced digitisation, and digital preservation and accessibility have been instrumental in transforming conservation and scientific research methods in the field of cultural heritage, as well as people’s experience of cultural heritage assets, relics, and monuments. Digitisation and immersion technologies are already in use in the context of cultural tourism in museums and on location. At the same time, a manifold of new applications and services can be generated from the adoption and adaptation of relevant technologies already applied in other sectors (e.g. 2D/3D digital scanning technologies applied in the construction industry).
On the consumer side, technology is driving change in lifestyles. New forms of tourism are emerging in the place of conventional tourism. Alsos et al. [13] note a transition of the tourism sector towards more experience-based products. Experiences are inherently personal. When a person buys an experience, they pay for a memorable event staged by the experience provider to engage them in an inherently personal way, on an emotional, physical, intellectual, or even spiritual level [21]. Stamboulis, and Skayannis [22] further explain that in this experience-based exchange the tourist enters into a multifaceted interaction with the actors and the setting of a narrative staged by the local community.
The United Nations World Tourism Organisation [23] concluded that “Culture and tourism have a symbiotic relationship”. This symbiotic relationship is increasingly facilitated by information and communication technologies. Overall, the economic valorisation of cultural heritage through tourism implies incorporating cultural heritage into the tourism supply [24], which means viewing cultural heritage as a component in the production of heritage-related tourism products and services. Given the high market interest of cultural tourism, local destinations strive to leverage what makes their societies unique, promote the region’s cultural identity, in order to boost economic growth. According to Opačić [24], tourism valorisation of cultural heritage includes several steps, starting with the identification of cultural heritage suitable for conversion into tourism attractions.
Advanced digital technologies for cultural heritage management, study and analysis, conservation, restoration, and preservation, access and communication, are transforming conservation and scientific research methods in cultural heritage, as well as people’s experience of cultural heritage relics, monuments and events. At the same time, digital technologies are enhancing the experiential and interpretive dynamics of the cultural heritage representations and creating innovative environments for consumers to discover, capture and experience cultural heritage and events, thus promoting the creation of new value chains for tourism through the digitisation of cultural heritage. Integral to this is the combined use of innovative digitisation technologies and affordable consumer electronic equipment, which is making innovative cultural heritage experiences accessible to all.
Following a literature review methodology, in the subsequent sections, our research will provide a critical appraisal of carefully selected work from recent scientific literature and contribute to the systematisation of the current knowledge in the field towards the identification of key challenges and the extraction of new insights in terms of potential for practical applications and future research directions in the area.
The methodology applied for this research was exploratory in nature, based on an extensive review of the available literature. In recent years, there has been an increasing number of studies linking cultural heritage with digital technologies. To offer a broad overview of this emerging research domain, a review of academic literature was undertaken to examine relevant publications in the Web of Science database. The purpose of this study was to review the existing literature to describe the state-of-the-art in key areas of interest and to identify key challenges, in order to extract new insights in terms of potential for practical applications and future research directions in the area.
Scope of literature review:
Literature sources: all corpora included in the Web of Science database
Timeframe: 2017–2021 (covering all eligible literature in last 5 years)
Geographical coverage: all-inclusive
Literature selection: the literature search (covering a time window of the last 5 years) used two groups of keywords. The first group included the terms “heritage experience”. The second group referred to ADR detection and included the terms: “Technology”, “Digital”, “Virtual” etc. Thus, the literature search query for article selection had the logical form of: {heritage experience} AND {digital technology, or equiv.}.
An electronic search of Web of Science (3 June 2021) was performed using the following search string:
The initial search resulted in a total of 824 articles. All search results were subsequently scanned, based on the title and abstract, to determine whether the respective article should be included or not in the study. Following screening, 246 documents were excluded as they were not directly linked to the specific topic of the present study. This resulted in a final collection of a total of 578 articles. Additional records were identified through their list of references and other sources. Extracted information included [25] article title, author and publication year; [26] area of focus; [13] technology; [21] quality-related information; and [9] results and significant findings from the application.
We also reviewed research action under the EU Horizon 2020 programme (2014–2020) [27]. The Horizon 2020 programme featured initiatives aimed at the preservation and valorisation of cultural heritage, specifically targeting areas such as the curation of digital assets and advanced digitisation, cost-effective technologies for advanced 3D modelling, Virtual Museums etc. [7].
With regards to museums, the study revealed a strong correlation with digitisation, followed by a strong interest in immersive technologies (virtual/augmented reality) and the development of specific applications for museum visitors to experience the exhibits. Mobile access is also among the focus points, while 3D representation is gaining ground. Less discussion is made about web portals in the present time frame, as this was strongly pursued in earlier times.
The most significant insights drawn are outlined in the following sections. Section 3 provides an overview of the study results, Section 4 discusses the application of advanced digitisation technologies for powering cultural heritage experiences, while Section 5 summarises the current challenges and examines the way forward.
With regards to the application of digital technologies in cultural heritage, the study revealed a broad scope: (a) to promote the preservation of cultural heritage and assist scientific research, and (b) to enhance the communication of digital heritage. The following Figure (Figure 1) provides an example of key applications of advanced digitisation technologies and applications in the context of cultural heritage. Three main areas have been identified: preservation, research on, and communication of cultural heritage. The first two relate to making sense of and interpreting cultural heritage. The latter is about how cultural heritage is divulged and experienced.
Key applications of advanced digitisation in cultural heritage.
Accommodating cultural heritage experiences mainly falls under communication of cultural heritage and cultural tourism, but also draws from advances in cultural heritage preservation. The study revealed that digital technologies are reshaping the cultural heritage value chains, by affecting both the
In the following section we discuss critical developments in the back office and front end.
The research results identified several novel digital transformation approaches to improve the preservation of cultural heritage in the back-office. Focal point is the digital preservation of cultural heritage.
Digitisation and archiving constitute the foundations for the development of virtual heritage applications and services. Recent advancements in information and communication technologies have made it possible for heritage artefacts to be preserved and made available in digital form. Already in 2011, the European Commission’s Recommendation on the Digitisation and Online Accessibility of Cultural Material (2011/711/EU) emphasised [30] the importance of bringing Europe’s cultural heritage online, for improving access to and promoting the re-use of digitised cultural heritage material, e.g. by the creative sector. Recent years have seen a growing trend towards the
Cloud computing technologies facilitate the aggregation, storage and reuse of digital content. A wide array of national and international, thematic or domain-specific cultural heritage
Nonetheless, challenges to aggregation continue to persist, referring to issues that range from the lack of granular and rich descriptive metadata [32], to technical interoperability and copyright [33, 34].
Organised memory institutions (e.g. museums, libraries, archives) hold disparate collections of heritage resources, in terms of format, organisation and storage. Digitisation efforts are often fragmented and ineffective, with smaller organisations lacking the knowledge and resources needed, and further being unable to attract significant visibility to impact tourism and the local economy. To ensure the quality of digitised materials, digitisation standards and specifications, as well as guidelines concerning interoperability and metadata descriptions. Several domain-specific standards have been adopted, such as LIDO for museums, EAD for archives and METS for digital libraries. Led by Europeana, standardisation and common approaches for content and metadata management represent an on-going priority for Europe. The Europeana Data Model (EDM) is a cross-domain metadata standard that enables content interoperability, exchange and aggregation.
The need to improve the quality of cultural heritage metadata and collection management systems (CMSs) is stressed [35]. Metadata enrichment through crowdsourcing annotation services [32] and machine learning techniques [36, 37, 38, 39] is recommended.
Digitisation goes beyond the transposition of analog objects into the digital space. A key concern is the
Cultural heritage is not limited to culture repositories and digital collections. Intangible cultural assets include the living arts, traditional folklore culture and crafts [40]. Furthermore, the largely untapped potential of cultural heritage embedded in individual memory needs to be harnessed through citizen’s collection and interpretation of digital heritage [41, 42, 43]. Nowadays, we are witnessing a transition towards social engagement in culture that is driven by the rise of digital content production and digital connectivity. Crowdsourcing and digital storytelling can help capture the
In recent years, numerous initiatives have been launched, involving the modelling and rendering of digital cultural heritage in 3D for research and preservation and/or communication purposes. Cultural heritage artefacts that traditionally were presented in two-dimensional form are increasingly captured, modelled and visualised in three dimensions and/or in 3D virtual environments [45]. The 3-D model can be realised from physical objects (according to a “reverse modelling” process) or directly assembling 3-D digital forms. It could provide a photorealistic image or a symbolic representation of the original artefact, depending on the object and the scope of the representation. Advanced digitisation technologies have been instrumental in transforming conservation and scientific research methods in cultural heritage, as well as people’s experience of cultural heritage relics, monuments and events [28, 29, 46, 47, 48, 49].
New technologies and techniques, such as photogrammetry [50] and laser scanning [51], allow for more accurate digital capture of 3-dimensional objects and surfaces. Early efforts included modelling and rendering of artefacts and architecture from photographs (e.g. [52]). Current applications employ advanced non-contact close or long range scanning, modelling, analysis and computer-based visualisation tools to produce: three-dimensional (3D) recordings of archaeological sites and buildings (e.g. [53]) and of small objects (e.g. [54]) and three-dimensional visualisations of cultural heritage sites, using airborne scanning and imaging [55] or from geospatial information [56].
Digitisation technologies are already in use in the field of heritage (e.g. in museums or monuments). Limited research and solutions can be found regarding the interaction between cultural heritage, scan/photo and immersive technologies, potential customers and visitors’ experiences in the cultural tourism locations, events and attractions. The use of advanced 2D/3D digital scanning of small and large-scale objects and surroundings and the valorisation of the digital spatial models produced has the potential to create unique, immersive cultural experiences, using affordable consumer electronics.
The introduction of technologies for cultural heritage communication has revolutionised the concept of “museum experience” and “historic site experience”, leading to the emergence of novel services powered by the
Digital technologies have the potential to redefine the way visitors experience and connect with museums and cultural sites, as well as expand the on-site visit with prior and post experiences [61]. Most heritage sites are multidimensional and dense with meaning. Different cultural heritage contexts can coexist and serve as a backdrop for many overlapping services and experiences, suitable for diverse audiences. As the motivations, interests and degree of engagement of audiences vary, creating relevant cultural heritage experiences that engage and resonate with each visitor represents a challenge for the sector. The early “electronic” tour guide model was based on predefined itineraries, complemented by the synchronised delivery of textual and/or multimedia content that was curated by museum experts. The evolution of Ubiquitous Computing technologies enabled the introduction of context-aware and location-aware features that offer the user increased degrees of freedom (e.g. through the combined use of mobile phones and RFID technologies). Traditional linear narratives (e.g. in the form of typical guided tours) are thus replaced by
Digital storytelling represents an effective way to deliver content in cultural heritage [68], achieve emotional resonance and create human connection. Immersive experiences can put the visitor in control of the content and make them feel as if they are a part of the exhibit or program [63, 64]. The combination of advanced immersive technologies with storytelling techniques, can help create
For example, the GIFT project developed a portfolio of free, open-source tools and methods that museums can use to enrich the physical experiences of their visitors, such as a Mobile Game to encourage collaborative storytelling within the museum [70]. The EMOTIVE project developed immersive storylines using a range of technologies including virtual and augmented reality and mobile phone apps, to create more ‘emotive’ cultural site visits [69].
Digital technologies can help enrich a physical visit to a cultural site or a museum, with rich complementary content tailored to the needs of the visitor. Heritage sites can be enriched by scanning and overlaying virtual annotations on top of these places. Devices can be directed at the point of interest, and 2D/3D e.g. texts, sounds, icons, videos are added to the users’ view. These applications provide visitors with immediate cultural location-based information regarding specific points of interest [72], they allow them to explore personal cultural locations and points of interest [73] and give them opportunities to discover new or unknown knowledge [74]. Every cultural site has a specific “wow-factor” that has to be captured and transported via digital technology and digital communication channels. From the provider view, new business models and opportunities can be identified and initiated using novel digitisation technologies [75], which can help increase the competitiveness of the cultural site [76] with significant spillover effects on the local economy. Recent research efforts go beyond visual, sound, or narrative enhancements, to provide visitors with multisensory stimulations [77].
For people with
The online presence of museums is changing, with traditional museum websites evolving into
Ambient intelligence technologies (AmI) provide the means for personalizing content and user interfaces (UIs) to each individual user [86].
Virtual museums have also emerged. The term
For example, the “Underwater Malta”, virtual museum for submerged cultural heritage, provides access to numerous inaccessible underwater archaeological sites [95]. This is facilitated by recent advances in underwater imaging and processing software and the development of 3D photogrammetry of submerged sites. The GRAVITATE project developed software tools to allow archaeologists and curators to reconstruct shattered or broken cultural objects and to identify and re-unify parts of a cultural object that has been separated across collections [96]. Similarly, the Time Machine project [25] combines digitised archives from museums and libraries, with Artificial Intelligence and Big Data mining, to offer richer interpretations of our past. The project developed a 4D (3D plus time) engine which ‘recreates’ past cities, as digital twins of our cities (‘Mirror Worlds’) that is accessible from mobile phones or through specific Augmented Reality interfaces. 3D models can “
In the last two years the Covid-19 pandemic, which disrupted the daily routine of museums and brought the global tourism industry to a standstill prompted the adoption of innovative approaches building on digital instruments, such as
Advances in digital technologies are helping connect a person’s cultural heritage experiences to their “daily” life, i.e. they provide the means to enhance other experiences outside the museum site, based on experiences at the museum site [61].
Overall, immersive experiences for cultural heritage can take shape in a variety of forms, including the use of augmented reality, virtual reality, serious games and gamification, embodied interaction etc. Central ls the role of Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality which allow for new ways of experiencing cultural heritage. Augmented reality can overlay additional information onto existing artefacts, while virtual reality facilitates fully immersive virtual explorations [104]. Virtual Reality head-mounted displays (HMD) provide a first-person stereoscopic view of the environment and the ability to physically change the looking direction with head rotations. Mixed reality and semi-immersive VR applications combine the real and virtual environments [26]. Audio augmented environments, featuring concepts like sonic narratives, soundscapes and binaural spatialisation are also being explored in the cultural heritage context [71].
Central to this shift is the rise of mobile communications and the rapid uptake of smartphone technology. Users today are increasingly connected to the world of digital information while “on the go” via mobile devices. GSMA [105] estimates that the number of unique mobile subscribers will reach 5.8 billion by 2025, equivalent to 70% of the world’s population. Τhe European Travel Commission (ETC) stressing that ownership of mobile devices and mobile online access is high and increasing, reached the conclusion that in the future those travelling within and to Europe will be smartphone-equipped and will have both the technological capability and the online access to engage with online content that will make their travel and experiences richer and smoother. Smartphones, tablets and other mobile and handheld technologies are increasingly playing a central role in touristic experience mediation [106] and as a travel tool during all stages of tourism consumption [84]. Wang et al. [106] noted that “the instant information support of smartphones enables tourists to more effectively solve problems, share experiences, and “store”memories”. Dickinson et al. [84] concluded that smartphones are enhancing temporal and spatial awareness, i.e. are evolving society’s contemporary understandings of time and relationships with place and things in significant ways for travel by (a) enhancing the temporal alignment between people, the things they need, destinations and attractions, and activity options and (b) providing tourists with enhanced spatial tools and awareness (place-related information and content), ultimately leading to knowledge-rich visitors.
The present chapter discussed the emerging paradigm of cultural heritage experience, as shaped by the continuous advances in information technologies. Cultural heritage experiences can benefit greatly from the current trend towards digitalisation, systematisation and accessibility of digital cultural resources. Advancements in technology are creating new opportunities to digitise cultural heritage for preservation, conservation, restoration, research, as well as for broader online access and re-use by citizens and various sectors, such as tourism. The amount of digitised cultural material is growing very rapidly, also thanks to numerous initiatives for the digitisation of cultural heritage content belonging to museums, libraries, archives etc. The experience of cultural heritage is constantly evolving and is expected to continue to develop in complexity and sophistication, as new opportunities for the technological representation and communication of culture emerge and the types of transaction and encounter with tangible and intangible cultural heritage increase.
The experience of cultural heritage will continue to develop in complexity [9]. The shift towards more sophisticated technology-enhanced cultural heritage experiences is facilitated by the growing digitisation of cultural heritage, continuous innovations in 2D/3D digital scanning, in image enhancement and 3D reproduction, and in immersion technologies, the emergence of advanced equipment (such as head-mounted displays (HMD), the affordances of ubiquitous computing and mobile applications and novel easy-to-use authoring tools. Advanced digitisation, and digital preservation and accessibility have been instrumental in transforming people’s experience of cultural heritage assets, relics, and monuments, as well as of intangible heritage. The ViMM project concluded that harnessing additional technologies will have increasing relevance for museums and cultural heritage institutions, including: artificial intelligence; computer vision; deep learning/machine learning; and adaptive cognitive methods [107].
Given the strong economic spill over effect of cultural heritage, interest in advancing the communication of cultural heritage goes beyond the traditional players of the sector: GLAM organisations (i.e. Galleries, Libraries, Archives, and Museums), cultural and historic sites etc.
Regions and local communities increasingly pursue the valorisation of their local heritage, leveraging what makes their societies unique, to promote their cultural identity and boost economic growth. Communicating cultural heritage to visitors in understandable and engaging ways is challenging, yet it represents an increasingly important aspect of tourism destination marketing. Presently, the relationship between tourism and culture is transformed by the affordances of new technologies. Advanced digital technologies can accommodate the provision of value-added learning experiences to visitors to increase the attractiveness of heritage sites.
Developing cultural heritage experiences is a
Required technical capabilities thus range from back-office infrastructures for digitisation, standardisation, storage and retrieval, computing, connectivity, instrumentation and online accessibility of cultural materia, to authoring, service development and collaboration tools, to digital solutions for the technology-enabled experiencing of cultural events, arts and heritage and the creation of new applications on new devices, for different audiences and for different purposes.
Offerings should be expert-driven and
Of particular importance is to increase awareness and acceptance of the “Digital Turn” within the cultural heritage community. Increasingly cultural institutions will have to incorporate technology solutions within their day-to-day responsibilities. Skills requirements and organisational aspects also need to be considered.
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\\n\\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\\n\\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\\n\\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\\n\\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\\n\\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\\n\\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\\n\\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\\n\\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\\n\\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\\n\\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\\n\\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\\n\\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
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\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
\n\nBez prethodne privole i izričite pisane dozvole, ne možete stvarati okvire oko naših stranica ili koristiti druge tehnike koje na bilo koji način mogu promijeniti prezentaciju ili izgled naše stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
\n\nOve Odredbe i uvjeti su sastavljeni u skladu s odredbama prava Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, a za sve sporove nadležan je sud u Londonu, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Gnade and Manuel A. Quevedo-Lopez",authors:[{id:"27411",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Quevedo-Lopez",slug:"manuel-quevedo-lopez",fullName:"Manuel Quevedo-Lopez"},{id:"42809",title:"Dr.",name:"Duo",middleName:null,surname:"Mao",slug:"duo-mao",fullName:"Duo Mao"},{id:"357726",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruce E.",middleName:null,surname:"Gnade",slug:"bruce-e.-gnade",fullName:"Bruce E. Gnade"}]},{id:"52889",doi:"10.5772/66074",title:"Spinel Ferrite Nanoparticles: Correlation of Structure and Magnetism",slug:"spinel-ferrite-nanoparticles-correlation-of-structure-and-magnetism",totalDownloads:3735,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the relationship between structural and magnetic properties of cubic spinel ferrite MFe2O4 (M = Mg, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn) nanoparticles (NPs). First, a brief overview of the preparation methods yielding well‐developed NPs is given. Then, key parameters of magnetic NPs representing their structural and magnetic properties are summarized with link to the relevant methods of characterization. Peculiar features of magnetism in real systems of the NPs at atomic, single‐particle, and mesoscopic level, respectively, are also discussed. Finally, the significant part of the chapter is devoted to the discussion of the structural and magnetic properties of the NPs in the context of the relevant preparation routes. Future outlooks in the field profiting from tailoring of the NP properties by doping or design of core‐shell spinel‐only particles are given.",book:{id:"5514",slug:"magnetic-spinels-synthesis-properties-and-applications",title:"Magnetic Spinels",fullTitle:"Magnetic Spinels - Synthesis, Properties and Applications"},signatures:"Barbara Pacakova, Simona Kubickova, Alice Reznickova, Daniel\nNiznansky and Jana Vejpravova",authors:[{id:"191237",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Vejpravova",slug:"jana-vejpravova",fullName:"Jana Vejpravova"},{id:"195334",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Niznansky",slug:"daniel-niznansky",fullName:"Daniel Niznansky"},{id:"195336",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Pacakova",slug:"barbara-pacakova",fullName:"Barbara Pacakova"},{id:"195337",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Kubickova",slug:"simona-kubickova",fullName:"Simona Kubickova"},{id:"195338",title:"Mrs.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Reznickova",slug:"alice-reznickova",fullName:"Alice Reznickova"}]},{id:"16751",doi:"10.5772/18165",title:"Charge Transport in Ferroelectric Thin Films",slug:"charge-transport-in-ferroelectric-thin-films",totalDownloads:5234,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:null,book:{id:"424",slug:"ferroelectrics-physical-effects",title:"Ferroelectrics",fullTitle:"Ferroelectrics - Physical Effects"},signatures:"Lucian Pintilie",authors:[{id:"21029",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Pintilie",slug:"lucian-pintilie",fullName:"Lucian Pintilie"}]},{id:"41273",doi:"10.5772/52149",title:"Relaxor Behaviour in Ferroelectric Ceramics",slug:"relaxor-behavior-in-ferroelectric-ceramics",totalDownloads:5183,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:null,book:{id:"3210",slug:"advances-in-ferroelectrics",title:"Advances in Ferroelectrics",fullTitle:"Advances in Ferroelectrics"},signatures:"A. 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Considering the energy consumption in real applications, lightweight EMI shielding materials has been attentive in this field of research. In this chapter, first of all, the EM theory will be briefly discussed. Secondly, the EMI shielding performance and corresponding mechanisms of three categories of lightweight materials, such as polymer-based composites, foams and aerogels, are reviewed. Finally, the summary and conclusions of this field will be addressed.",book:{id:"8653",slug:"electromagnetic-materials-and-devices",title:"Electromagnetic Materials and Devices",fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Materials and Devices"},signatures:"Liying Zhang, Shuguang Bi and Ming Liu",authors:[{id:"268866",title:"Prof.",name:"Liying",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"liying-zhang",fullName:"Liying Zhang"},{id:"268868",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuguang",middleName:null,surname:"Bi",slug:"shuguang-bi",fullName:"Shuguang Bi"},{id:"268869",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"ming-liu",fullName:"Ming Liu"}]},{id:"53689",title:"Optimizing Processing Conditions to Produce Cobalt Ferrite Nanoparticles of Desired Size and Magnetic Properties",slug:"optimizing-processing-conditions-to-produce-cobalt-ferrite-nanoparticles-of-desired-size-and-magneti",totalDownloads:1997,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The excellent chemical stability, good mechanical hardness, and a large positive first order magnetocrystalline anisotropy constant of cobalt ferrite (CoFe2O4) make it a promising candidate for magneto‐optical recording media. For practical applications, the capability to control particle size at the nanoscale is required in addition to precise control of the composition and structure of CoFe2O4. It has been well established that a fine tuning in cobalt ferrite nanocrystal size within the magnetic single domain region would lead to the achievement of extremely high coercivity values at room temperature. The development of a size‐sensitive phase separation method for cobalt ferrite that is based on a selective dissolution of the superparamagnetic fraction and subsequent size‐sensitive magnetic separation of single‐domain nanoparticles is presented. The attained room temperature coercivity value (11.9 kOe) was mainly attributed to the enlargement of the average crystal size within the single domain region coupled with the removal of the superparamagnetic fraction. The strong influence of crystal size, ferrite composition, and cation distribution in the ferrite lattice on the corresponding magnetic properties at the nanoscale was also confirmed. The superparamagnetic and magnetic single domain limits were experimentally determined.",book:{id:"5514",slug:"magnetic-spinels-synthesis-properties-and-applications",title:"Magnetic Spinels",fullTitle:"Magnetic Spinels - Synthesis, Properties and Applications"},signatures:"Oscar Perales-Pérez and Yarilyn Cedeño-Mattei",authors:[{id:"192961",title:"Prof.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Perales-Perez",slug:"oscar-perales-perez",fullName:"Oscar Perales-Perez"},{id:"192969",title:"Dr.",name:"Yarilyn",middleName:null,surname:"Cedeño-Mattei",slug:"yarilyn-cedeno-mattei",fullName:"Yarilyn Cedeño-Mattei"}]},{id:"52889",title:"Spinel Ferrite Nanoparticles: Correlation of Structure and Magnetism",slug:"spinel-ferrite-nanoparticles-correlation-of-structure-and-magnetism",totalDownloads:3739,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the relationship between structural and magnetic properties of cubic spinel ferrite MFe2O4 (M = Mg, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn) nanoparticles (NPs). First, a brief overview of the preparation methods yielding well‐developed NPs is given. Then, key parameters of magnetic NPs representing their structural and magnetic properties are summarized with link to the relevant methods of characterization. Peculiar features of magnetism in real systems of the NPs at atomic, single‐particle, and mesoscopic level, respectively, are also discussed. Finally, the significant part of the chapter is devoted to the discussion of the structural and magnetic properties of the NPs in the context of the relevant preparation routes. Future outlooks in the field profiting from tailoring of the NP properties by doping or design of core‐shell spinel‐only particles are given.",book:{id:"5514",slug:"magnetic-spinels-synthesis-properties-and-applications",title:"Magnetic Spinels",fullTitle:"Magnetic Spinels - Synthesis, Properties and Applications"},signatures:"Barbara Pacakova, Simona Kubickova, Alice Reznickova, Daniel\nNiznansky and Jana Vejpravova",authors:[{id:"191237",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Vejpravova",slug:"jana-vejpravova",fullName:"Jana Vejpravova"},{id:"195334",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Niznansky",slug:"daniel-niznansky",fullName:"Daniel Niznansky"},{id:"195336",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Pacakova",slug:"barbara-pacakova",fullName:"Barbara Pacakova"},{id:"195337",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Kubickova",slug:"simona-kubickova",fullName:"Simona Kubickova"},{id:"195338",title:"Mrs.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Reznickova",slug:"alice-reznickova",fullName:"Alice Reznickova"}]},{id:"41380",title:"Thin-Film Process Technology for Ferroelectric Application",slug:"thin-film-process-technology-for-ferroelectric-application",totalDownloads:3515,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"3210",slug:"advances-in-ferroelectrics",title:"Advances in Ferroelectrics",fullTitle:"Advances in Ferroelectrics"},signatures:"Koukou Suu",authors:[{id:"30547",title:"Dr.",name:"Koukou",middleName:null,surname:"Suu",slug:"koukou-suu",fullName:"Koukou Suu"}]},{id:"57295",title:"Nanoscale Magnetic Domain Memory",slug:"nanoscale-magnetic-domain-memory",totalDownloads:1235,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Magnetic domain memory (MDM) is the ability exhibited by certain magnetic materials to reproduce the exact same nanoscale magnetic domain pattern, even after it has been completely erased by an external magnetic field. In this chapter, we review the various circumstances under which this unusual phenomenon occurs. We explain how partial MDM was first observed in rough Co/Pt multilayers with perpendicular magnetization as a result of structural defects. We then show how 100 % MDM was achieved, even in smooth ferromagnetic films, by coupling Co/Pd multilayers to an antiferromagnetic IrMn template via exchange interactions. We describe how high MDM, extending throughout nearly the entirety of the magnetization process, is obtained when zero-field-cooling the material below its blocking temperature where exchange couplings occur. We also review the persistence of MDM through field cycling and while warming the material all the way up to the blocking temperature. Additionally, we discuss the spatial dependence of MDM, highlighting intriguing oscillatory behaviors suggesting magnetic correlations and rotational symmetries at the nanoscopic scales. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"15",type:"subseries",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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