",isbn:"978-1-80356-966-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-965-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-967-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f86a9f720cc3ac0f1c385d0367ea89b9",bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11624.jpg",keywords:"Agricultural Waste, Reuse, Reduction, Soil Health, Recycling, Agriculture and Environment, Modelling and Simulation, Agro-Industrial Waste, Bioresource Processing, Processing and Management, Crop Residue, Forest Waste",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"17 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is a researcher in the field of Agricultural Engineering with fifteen years of field and academic experience, currently in charge of the Agricultural Machinery Design Laboratory at Bahauddin Zakariya University. He applied for two patents at the national level.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A renowned researcher in the field of Agricultural Engineering with 14 years of academic experience at Bahauddin Zakariya University. Winner of various prestigious fellowships, awards, and research grants. Published 250+ articles along with several books and chapters. Guest editor of seven ISI-SCI journals for publishers like SAGE, MDPI, and Frontiers.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.png",biography:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad is an assistant professor and lecturer at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan. He obtained his Ph.D. in Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering from Nanjing Agriculture University, China, in 2015, and completed his postdoctorate in Agricultural Engineering from Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China, in 2020. He was awarded a fellowship from the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan for Ph.D. studies and from the Chinese Government for post-doctoral studies. He earned a BSc and MSc (Hons) in Agricultural Engineering from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, in 2004 and 2007, respectively. He is the author of more than fifty journal and conference articles. He has supervised six master’s students to date, and is currently supervising six master and two doctoral students. Dr. Ahmad has completed three research projects with his research interest focusing on the design of agricultural machinery, agricultural waste management, artificial intelligence (AI), and agricultural bioenvironment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.png",biography:"Muhammad Sultan is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural\r\nEngineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan (Pakistan). He completed his Ph.D.\r\nand Postdoc from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy & Environmental\r\nEngineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese\r\nGovernment) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. He also did a Postdoc as\r\na Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advance Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in\r\nthe field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He worked for Kyushu University\r\nInternational Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years.\r\nCurrently, he is working on 4 research projects funded by the Higher Education\r\nCommission (HEC) of Pakistan. He has completed six projects in past in the field of\r\nagricultural engineering. He has supervised 10+ M.Eng. and Ph.D. thesis and 10+\r\nstudents are currently working under his supervision. He has published 120+ journal\r\narticles, 100+ conference articles, 13 book chapters, and 6 books. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
This chapter presents an introductory review about ZnO nanomaterials and nanodevices. ZnO as a wide band gap semiconductor has received a great attention in many research areas. This is due to the electrical, optical and structural properties of the ZnO. These properties make ZnO as one of the major contenders for many photonic applications. ZnO has distinguished electrical and optical properties. ZnO is considered as a potential contender in optoelectronic applications such as solar cells and ultraviolet (UV) emitters. The nanostructured ZnO material has many applications in the area of nano based devices. The UV light can be absorbed by the ZnO based nano material. This can be used in several optical applications. Currently, the nano structures based on ZnO materials devices have attracted attention due to their wide range applications.
\n
\n
\n
2. ZnO properties
\n
ZnO is classified as a negative (n-type) semiconductor material as grown. ZnO is one of group 2–4 semiconductor materials. ZnO has a band gap of 3.37 eV. ZnO also has a high binding energy. The ZnO binding energy is about 60 meV [1]. The ZnO material has a high exciton binding energy and high thermal stability [2]. It also has a high optical gain [2]. These properties made ZnO as one of the most interesting materials for electronic and optoelectronic based devices. On the other hand, the ZnO’s high binding energy permits the fabrication of several photonic devices with a high optical efficiency [3]. Also, the short wavelength optoelectronic devices are being made based on ZnO’s wide band gap [3].
\n
ZnO is a transparent optical material suitable for the visible wavelength region [4]. ZnO is also one of the potential materials for optoelectronic applications [5, 6, 7]. The ZnO’s characteristical properties were investigated by many research groups. That leads to the improvement of the electrical and the optical properties of ZnO. Many other properties of ZnO allow variety of applications. These applications include photovoltaics, LEDs, photodetectors, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMs) [8, 9, 10, 11, 12].
\n
\n
\n
3. ZnO crystalline structure
\n
ZnO normally has a hexagonal structure. The Zinc atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated to four oxygen atoms [13]. Moreover, there are two crystalline structure of ZnO. These structures are the wurtzite and the Zinc-blende. These two structures of ZnO lead to a perfect polar symmetry along the hexagonal axis of the ZnO’s crystalline structure. The ZnO based piezoelectricity and spontaneous polarization are due to these crystalline structures. The two ZnO’s crystalline structures are shown in Figure 1.
\n
Figure 1.
ZnO different crystalline structures [3].
\n
\n
\n
4. ZnO doping
\n
Generally, the doping process is used for enhancing the electrical and the optical characteristics of the material [14]. The undoped n-type ZnO is usually due to the oxygen vacancies in the ZnO structure [15, 16]. This makes the doping process of ZnO as p-type is very difficult. There are several p-type dopants for ZnO nano materials. Lithium is one of the p-type dopants for the ZnO. It takes a centered position by replacing the zinc atoms in the wurtzite structure of the ZnO [17]. GaN can be used with ZnO to bypass the problem of p-type doping of ZnO nano material [18]. GaN is a wide band gap semiconductor with very similar lattice constants to ZnO. The GaN p-type dopant is commonly made with magnesium [18]. Several research groups have reported on the fabrication of ZnO hetero-junction devices. These hetero-junctions devices used materials like silicon [19], aluminum gallium nitride [20], and gallium nitride [21] for the p-type semiconductors. The electrical resistivity is significantly decreasing for ZnO by using doping elements like aluminum [22], gallium [23], and indium [24]. The ZnO doping process is shown in Figure 2.
\n
Figure 2.
ZnO doping process [25].
\n
\n
\n
5. ZnO nanostructured material
\n
Recently, several efforts have been made for developing the ZnO film in different nanoshapes. These nanoshapes include the nanorods, nanowires, and nanocubes [23, 24, 25, 26]. These nanoshapes of ZnO films can be used in several applications including the UV laser emission, photodetector and LEDs devices.
\n
The nanoshapes of ZnO nanowires and nanorods based devices are becoming an important part of many potential applications. These applications include the optoelectronics, electromechanical nano devices [27] and biosensing [28].
\n
There are several applications were reported based on ZnO based nanomaterials. These applications include the transparent electronic devices [29], the UV light emitters [30], the piezoelectric devices [31], the p-n junction devices [32], the field effect devices [33], the sensors [34], the optoelectronics [35], and the field emission devices [36].
\n
\n
\n
6. ZnO nanowires based devices
\n
ZnO nanowires based devices have many research interests. Recently, many devices based on ZnO nanostructured nanowires were reported. This is due to the high surface area and the low cost of fabrication [37, 38, 39, 40]. There are several fabrication methods being used for the growth of the ZnO nanowires. These methods include the vapor liquid solid [41], metal organic chemical vapor deposition [42], chemical bath deposition [43] and hydrothermal method [44] with varied film qualities. The ZnO nanowires image is shown in Figure 3.
\n
Figure 3.
ZnO nanowires [45].
\n
\n
\n
7. ZnO nanorods based devices
\n
ZnO based nanorods have received a good interest in various optoelectronic nanoscale devices. These devices include the photovoltaic cells, UV laser diodes [46], LEDs, optical sensors, and UV photodetectors [47]. Several applications based on ZnO require a large surface area. The simplest method to increase the surface of the ZnO layer is by growing nanorods. The larger the surface area the more photons are expected to be absorbed by ZnO layer [48]. One way to improve the crystalline structure and the photoluminescence spectra of ZnO nanorods is by annealing process [48].
\n
The ZnO nanorods are being fabricated using several methods. These fabrication methods include the hydrothermal method [49], metal oxide chemical vapor deposition method [50], pulsed laser deposition method [51], aqueous solution method [52]. In these methods, the surface morphologies, optical and electrical properties of ZnO nanorods are depending on the fabrication parameters. These parameters include the deposition time, temperature, and post deposition annealing. The ZnO nanorods are shown in Figure 4.
\n
Figure 4.
ZnO nanorods [53].
\n
Other fabrication methods of the ZnO nanoshape films are including the sol-gel technique, RF magnetron sputtering, electron beam evaporation, spray pyrolysis (SP), and molecular beam epitaxy, electrochemical deposition [54]. The electrochemical deposition wet method is a well-established solution based process to obtain ZnO nanoshapes thin films [55]. It has many advantages including the low cost and the temperature deposition over other types of fabrication.
\n
\n
\n
8. ZnO nano based applications
\n
The ZnO material is being used for many optoelectronic based devices applications. These devices applications include the varistors, sensors [13, 56, 57, 58, 59], optical wave guides, UV light emitters [60], LEDs [61], micro-electro-mechanical systems [12], spin electronics [62], solar energies [63], p-n junctions [64], field effect and emissions [65, 66, 67], displays [68], acoustic waves [69], and solar cells [6].
\n
\n\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66694.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66694.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66694",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66694",totalDownloads:846,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:43,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"March 13th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 20th 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 9th 2019",dateFinished:"April 11th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66694",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66694",book:{id:"8446",slug:"zinc-oxide-based-nano-materials-and-devices"},signatures:"Ahmed M. Nahhas",authors:[{id:"140058",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"M.",surname:"Nahhas",fullName:"Ahmed Nahhas",slug:"ahmed-nahhas",email:"anahhas@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/140058/images/system/140058.jpg",institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. ZnO properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. ZnO crystalline structure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. ZnO doping",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. ZnO nanostructured material",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. ZnO nanowires based devices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. ZnO nanorods based devices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. ZnO nano based applications",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Khan I, Khan S, Nongjai R, Ahmed H, Khan W. Hydrothermal synthesis of zinc oxide powders with controllable morphology. Optical Materials. 2013;35:1189-1193'},{id:"B2",body:'Xu H, Wang H, Zhang Y, He W, Zhu M, Wang B, et al. Structural and optical properties of gel-combustion synthesized Zr doped ZnO nanoparticles. Ceramics International. 2004;30:93-97'},{id:"B3",body:'Kung S, Sreenivas K. Defect free C-axis oriented zinc oxide (ZnO) films grown at room temperature using RF magnetron sputtering. AIP Conference Proceedings. 2016;1731:1-3'},{id:"B4",body:'Li Y, Bando Y, Golberg D. ZnO nanoneedles with tip surface perturbations: Excellent field emitters. Applied Physics Letters. 2004;84:3603'},{id:"B5",body:'Saito M, Fujihara S. Large photocurrent generation in dye-sensitized ZnO solar cells. Energy and Environmental Science. 2008;1:280-283'},{id:"B6",body:'Zhou J, Wu X, Xiao D, Zhuo M, Jin H, Luo J, et al. Deposition of aluminum doped ZnO as electrode for transparent ZnO/glass surface acoustic wave devices. Surface and Coating Technology. 2017;320:39-46'},{id:"B7",body:'Choi Y, Kang J, Hwang D, Park S. Recent advances in ZnO based light-emitting diodes. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. 2010;57:26-41'},{id:"B8",body:'Zhang M, Gao X, Barra A, Chang P, Huang L, Hellwarth R, et al. Core-shell structured Si/ZnO photovoltaics. Materials Letters. 2015;140:59-63'},{id:"B9",body:'Hossaini H, Moussavi G, Farrokhi M. Oxidation of diazinon in cns-ZnO/LED photocatalytic process: Catalyst preparation, photocatalytic examination, and toxicity bioassay of oxidation by products. Separation and Purification Technology. 2017;174:320-330'},{id:"B10",body:'Sabah M, Hassan M, Naser M, Al-hardan H, Bououdina M. Fabrication of low cost UV photo detector using ZnO nanorods grown onto nylon substrate. Journal of Materials Science. 2015;26:1322-1331'},{id:"B11",body:'Pandya H, Chandra S, Vyas A. Integration of ZnO nanostructures with MEMS for ethanol sensor. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 2012;161:923-928'},{id:"B12",body:'Taube A, Sochacki M, Kwietniewski N, Werbowy A, Gierałtowska S, Wachnicki L, et al. Electrical properties of isotype and anisotype ZnO/4H-SiC heterojunction diodes. Applied Physics Letters. 2017;110:1120-1124'},{id:"B13",body:'Li L, Zhang Y, Yan L, Jiang J, Han X, Deng G, et al. n-ZnO/p-GaN heterojunction light-emitting diodes featuring a buried polarization-induced tunneling junction. AIP Adances. 2016;6:125204'},{id:"B14",body:'Tvarozek V, Shtereva K, Novotny I, Kovac J, Sutta P, Srnanek R, et al. RF diode reactive sputtering of n- and p-type zinc oxide thin films. Vacuum. 2007;82:166-169'},{id:"B15",body:'Liu G, Rahman E, Ban D. Performance optimization of p-n homojunction nanowire based piezoelectric nanogenerators through control of doping concentration. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2017;118:94307'},{id:"B16",body:'Pemmaraju C, Archer T, Hanafin R, Sanvito S. Investigation of n-type donor defects in Co-doped ZnO. Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. 2007;316:e185-e187'},{id:"B17",body:'Hamid H, Celik-Butler Z. Li-ZnO nanowire carpet as a micro-newton force sensor with nanometer res. In: IEEE Conference on Sensors; 2017. pp. 1-3'},{id:"B18",body:'Saroj R, Dhar S. Relationship between dislocation and the visible luminescence band observed in ZnO epitaxial layers grown on c-plane p-GaN templates by chemical vapor deposition technique. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2016;120:75701'},{id:"B19",body:'Urgessa N, Dobson S, Talla K, Murape D, Venter A, Botha J. Optical and electrical characteristics of ZnO/Si heterojunction. Physica B: Condensed Matter. 2014;439:149-152'},{id:"B20",body:'Alivov R, Kalinina E, Cherenkov A, Look D, Ataev B, Omaev A, et al. Fabrication and characterization of n-ZnO/p-AlGaN n-ZnO/p-AlGaN heterojunction light-emitting diodes on 6H-SiC substrates. 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Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. 2006;6:1797-1801'},{id:"B65",body:'Khachar U, Solanki P, Choudhary R, Phase D, Ganesan V, Kuberkar D. Room temperature positive magnetoresistance and field effect studies of manganite-based heterostructure. Applied Physics A. 2012;108:733-738'},{id:"B66",body:'Boccuzzi F, Chiorino A, Tsubota S, Haruta M. An IR study of CO-sensing mechanism on Au/ZnO. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 1995;25:540-543'},{id:"B67",body:'Singh J, Patil S, More M, Joag D, Tiwari R, Srivastava O. Formation of aligned ZnO nanorods on self grown ZnO template and its enhanced field emission characteristics. Applied Surface Science. 2010;256:6157-6153'},{id:"B68",body:'Alvi M, Al-Ghamdi A, Husain M. Field emission studies of CNTs/ZnO nanostructured thin films for display devices. Physica B: Condensed Matter. 2017;521:312-316'},{id:"B69",body:'Lao C, Gao P, Yang R, Zhang Y, Dai Y, Wang Z. Formation of double side teethed nanocombs of ZnO and self catalysis of Zn terminated polar surface. Chemical Physics Letters. 2006;417:358-362'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ahmed M. Nahhas",address:"amnahhas@uqu.edu.sa",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Understanding the basic anatomy of the horse hoof is essential in order to further investigate the structures’ involvement in the pathogenesis of lameness and in order to help understand disorders such as lameness and laminitis. This chapter aims to show anatomy and physiology of the hoof and bones of the equine foot and relate these back to lameness and laminitis in the horse.
2. Gross anatomy of the equine hoof
The distal extremities of the domestic mammal are encased inside a keratinised capsule [1], which takes the form of a hoof capsule in ungulates and a claw in carnivores [2]. This insensitive horny structure encloses the distal part of the second phalanx (also known as the middle phalanx or short pastern bone), the distal phalanx (also known as the coffin bone or the pedal bone) and the navicular bone, in addition to connective tissues including, for example, the distal interphalangeal joint, medial and lateral hoof cartilage, with the terminal end of the deep digital flexor tendon and navicular bursa [1, 3–5]. These structures are connected to each other in order to provide a coherent and resilient structure within the foot (Figure 1) [6].
Figure 1.
Schematic drawing of a sagittal section of equine hoof. Schematic diagram illustrating the entire structure of the horse hoof. Figure adapted from Budras et al., [7].
The hoof is composed of horn, derived from epidermal tissue which has been keratinised to a varying extent [8]. Horn is largely arranged into a series of parallel microscopic tubules, interconnected by intertubular horn [9]. This structure plays a substantial role in load-bearing, and encapsulates almost the entire circumference of the foot, curling inwards towards the rear to form the bars which provide additional support to the heels [10]. Encasing the palmar/plantar surface of the foot is the sole, which is concave and has a similar, but softer and more flexible, composition to the hoof wall [10]. The hoof joins to the skin at the coronet where it is protected by a waterproof band of soft tubular horn, the periople [11]. Connecting the periphery of the sole to the hoof wall is the white line, which is highly elastic and derived from the epidermal lamellae. Composed of supple, incompletely keratinised horn, the frog is an elastic structure which is essential for shock absorption, blood circulation, and in slip prevention [10]. The frog extends inwards to the digital cushion which, being composed of poorly vascularised adipose tissue embedded in a fibroelastic mesh, is involved in shock absorbance and possesses blood pumping properties [6, 10]. The digital cushion is segregated from the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) by the presence of the distal digital annular ligament [10].
The bones of the equine foot comprise the third phalanx (P3; also called the distal phalanx), the second phalanx (P2), and the navicular bone. P3, also referred to as the pedal or coffin bone, is the foot’s principal bone, occupying its most distal position, and attaching to the hoof capsule via the lamellar and solar coria [6]. P3 supports and stabilises the hoof capsule, and is highly porous due to the prolificacy of nutrient foramina [6]. P2, or short pastern, forms the proximal interphalangeal, or pastern, joint with the first phalanx (P1), and the distal interphalangeal, or coffin, joint with P3 [10]. Its short, nearly cuboidal, composure makes P2 resilient to a broad range of stresses [6]. The navicular, or distal sesamoid bone, is a small, smooth bone located caudal to the distal interphalangeal joint. Coated ventrally in smooth fibrocartilage, it has a pulley-like role, allowing the DDFT to glide smoothly under the distal interphalangeal joint without interference from other bones [10]. The navicular synovial bursa and distal synovial sheathes further aid the smooth action of the DDFT as it secretes synovial fluid which lubricates the area [10].
Along with the DDFT, which descends from the deep digital flexor muscle in the forearm to the flexor surface of P3, the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) forms part of the back tendon pair, thus enabling flexion of the interphalangeal joints [10, 11]. Descending from the superficial digital flexor muscle in the forearm, the SDFT attaches to the proximal surfaces of P1 and P2 [10]. Responsible for the extension of the interphalangeal joints is the common digital extensor tendon (CDET also known as m. extensor digitorum communis in the fore limb and m. extensor digitorum longus on the rear limb) [11]. Stemming from the long digital extensor muscle proximal to the knee, the CDET descends the leg dorsally, terminating at the extensor process of P3 with projections into P1 and P2 [10].
While the DDFT and SDFT permit flexion of the foot’s interphalangeal joints and the CDET allows their extension, the presence of lateral and medial collateral ligaments limits the joints’ adduction and abduction respectively [11]. The collateral ligaments attach to notches on the distal and proximal edges of P1 and P2 correspondingly in the case of those of the proximal interphalangeal joint, and on the distal and proximal edges of P2 and P3 respectively for those of the distal interphalangeal joint [11]. The position of P3 is also maintained by three pairs of chondral ligaments, attaching to the medial and lateral cartilages of P3 [10]. The navicular bone is held in place by the navicular suspensory ligaments which anchor to the distal edge of P1, just dorsal to the collateral ligament attachments, and converge at the navicular bone, forming the distal navicular ligament which terminates at P3 [10].
The coria are the richly vascularised and innervated dermal regions lying between and supporting the skeletal structures and the epidermal hoof capsule [4]. The coronary corium runs along the proximal edge of the hoof wall, with each hoof wall tubule growing around small, finger-like papillae projecting from the coronary corium which provide nourishment to the proliferative epidermal cells, maintaining hoof growth [8]. The solar corium is similar in structure and function to the coronary corium, with papillae enabling the growth of the sole [8]. The lamellae of the lamellar corium, commonly referred to as the sensitive or the dermal lamellae, form, together with the epidermal/insensitive lamellae of the inner hoof wall with which they interlock, the suspensory apparatus of the third phalanx, suspending P3 within the hoof capsule [4]. Distal to each dermal lamella is a set of papillae, the terminal papillae, which form the soft, elastic white line which binds wall to sole [8].
The macroscopic ridge-like primary lamellae, of which there are some 550–600 epidermal/dermal interlocking pairs in parallel descent within each foot, provide a large surface area between the epidermis and the dermis for the suspension of P3 [9]. Each primary lamella bears a further 150–200 microscopic secondary lamellae and, collectively, the primary and secondary lamellae create a surface area for attachment of around 0.8 m2 (Figure 2) [9].
Figure 2.
Haematoxylin and eosin stained lamellae within the horse hoof.
Between the dermal and epidermal tissues of the foot lies the basement membrane (BM), a strong, uninterrupted sheet of extracellular matrix [8]. Epidermal basal cells are attached to the basement membrane (BM) on its border with the hoof epidermis [8]. On its inner, dermis-bordering side, a vast array of collagen-rich connective tissue strands projecting from the periosteum of P3 intertwine with the BM’s lattice, ensuring the structural integrity of the dermal structures [8]. The BM is folded into ridges along the longitudinal axes of the primary lamellae, forming the secondary lamellae, and the coronary and terminal papillae, increasing the surface area for the attachment of proliferative epidermal basal cells [12].
3. Vasculature of the foot
In addition to the bones, ligaments, tendons and other soft tissues of the foot, the vasculature is essential in the equine foot. The blood vessel system is a vital part of transport of dissolved gases, nutrients, waste, signalling chemicals such as hormones, and immune cells to and from other organs [13]. The vast vascular network underlying the hoof capsule and coursing through the bones, fed through branches from the medial and lateral digital arteries and returning to general circulation via the medial and lateral digital veins (Figure 3) [9].
Figure 3.
Vascularisation of the equine foot. Reconstruction of the vasculature of the equine foot from CT images, showing the coronary, sublamellar and solar plexuses, the terminal arch, the circumflex vessels of the sole, and the bulbar vessels.
The vascular blood supply of the hoof originates from the common palmar digital artery and the dorsometatarsal artery, these main branches giving rise to medial and lateral palmar/plantar digital arteries (Figure 4) [14, 15]. In the hind limb, the small plantar common digital arteries contribute to form the digital arteries. At the level of second phalanx, there are branches nourishing to the heel bulbs and coronary region [1].
Figure 4.
Reconstruction of micro CT image illustrating vascularisation of equine foot. Computed tomography (CT) scan images showing the three-dimensional reconstruction of arterial supply of equine foot. (A) Shows arteries distributed throughout the dorsal surface of the distal phalanx and anastomoses located proximally with vessels of the coronet and distally forming the circumflex artery. (B) Represents the arteries distributed in the sole margin.
The vascular arteries of the dermis are divided into three independent arterial blood supplies: the dorsal coronary corium; the palmar/plantar portion of the coronary corium and laminar corium; and the dorsal laminar corium and solar corium, as the blood flow is reversely directed from the distal part to the proximal part within the dermal lamina (also termed lamella/lamellae and lamellar in the literature) [4]. The terminal branches of the blood supply enter the distal phalanx from the medial and lateral aspects and then form several anastomoses within the bone to make the terminal arch. At this arch, there are 8–10 blood vessels emerging distally to nourish the sole margin [1]. This is a highly important organisation of blood vessels in equine feet as the terminal arch and its branches are protected by the bony canal that can be altered in chronic laminitis, leading to ischemia and a decrease in the growth rate of the corium [16].
The capillary network of the equine digit is complex due to the fact that the dorsal and palmar parts of the foot have different blood supplies and drainage routes [2]. For instance, the blood vessels of the dorsal lamella pass through the distal phalanx and the blood supply of these portions is directed in the distal to the proximal way, while the palmar lamella is from the proximal circumflex to dorsal lamella [17]. Thus, haemorrhage from the sublamellar circulation can result in the rotation of P3, as is observed in the case of founder [16, 18, 19]. Consequently, the blood vessels of the equine foot are predisposed to local vasoconstriction and the development of ischemic disease as the arteries from the plexus have thicker walls with small lumens and are unable to auto-regulate the volume variations that are involved in contraction of smooth muscle as well as encompassing arteriovenous shunts [18].
The equine hoof veins are divided into three groups depending on their location: wall dermis veins, which are separated into proximal and distal regions; coronary dermis veins; and frog and sole dermis veins [1]. The dermal lamella is drained by: the coronary vein; the independent superficial vein; the proximal branch of the caudal hoof vein; and the circumflex vein. The toe and quarters are drained via the circumflex vein [2, 20]. An additional feature of the blood circulation of the equine foot is the anastomoses of arteries and veins, which are blood vessels forming shunts [21]. Each dermal papilla in the periople, coronary band, frog, sole and terminal papillae contain a meshwork of anastomosing arteriovenous vessels located at the base of the papillae. These anastomoses are able to withdraw approximately 50% of the whole limb blood flow, and thus can be involved in ischemia due to blood flow diversion [22]. This could explain the relationship between laminitis and ischemia [3].
4. Bone physiology
Bone is a complex, dynamic tissue that has the ability to grow ontogenically, to repair after damage, and to adaptively respond to a variety of exogenous and endogenous stimuli [23]. Composed of a mineralised organic matrix in which the cells responsible for its formation and rejuvenation are embedded, osseous tissue, through its unique physiological and biochemical properties, enables bones to perform a multitude of functions within the animal’s body. The organic matrix, or osteoid [24], is formed principally of type-I collagen (around ~95% type-I [25]) which affords the bone its tensile strength, alongside trace amounts of other collagens, in addition to non-collagenous proteins whose predominant purpose is to permit the mineralisation of the matrix. The chief mineral salt found in osseous tissue is a form of hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2] which, bound to the matrix proteins, renders the tissue resistant to compressive forces [23].
The bone is structured into either cortical or trabecular bone. Cortical, or compact, bone forms the dense outer proportions of the bone and, in the human, accounts for 80% of the total skeletal mass [23, 26]. Cortical osteons (Figure 5), or Haversian systems, are tubular structures consisting of a central channel (Haversian canal), through which a nerve and blood supply are provided, surrounded by coaxial lamellae of mineralised bone matrix which incorporate a number of voids, in the form of lacunae and canaliculi, inhabited by cells [23]. The remaining 20% of the osseous tissue is in the form of trabeculae (from the Latin trabs, meaning “beam” [27]) which provide structural support, in a buttress-like manner, to the surrounding cortex. Trabecular osteons, or packets, are similar in their lamellar architecture to those of the cortex, but are smaller in size and semi-lunar in shape [23]. This hierarchical design, a common (if not omni-existent) phenomenon in biological materials, provides bones with the physical strength they need to fulfil their roles in structural support, the protection of underlying organs, and in providing leverage to muscles and tendons, facilitating movement [23, 28, 29].
Figure 5.
Schematic of a cortical osteon. (A) Represents a Haversian canal incorporating a neurovascular bundle, (B) a lamella, (C) a lacuna containing an osteocyte, and (D) canaliculi.
The remodelling and general renewal of the bone is mediated by three cell types: osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteocytes [30]. Osteoblasts are mononucleated cells formed by the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells, and are responsible for the synthesis of osteoid and its subsequent mineralisation [25]. They reside principally in the endosteum—the vascularised cellular lining of the internal proportions of the bone, covering the walls of the Haversian canals, and the trabeculae and medullary cavity where it separates the bone matrix from the marrow [31]—and, alongside their incompletely-differentiated precursors and fibroblasts, the cambial layer of the periosteum [23]—a vascularised and innervated structure consisting of an outer fibrous layer comprising fibroblasts, collagen and elastin, and the discrete inner cambium that coats the bone’s exterior [32]. Osteoclasts are multinucleated macrophagic cells derived from phagocytes in the haematopoietic bone marrow, and carry out bone resorption in localised areas of the bone surface to which they adhere upon activation [21]. Osteocytes, which inhabit the lacunae of the osteons and have multiple cytoplasmic processes which traverse the osteons’ canaliculi, are the result of the terminal differentiation of osteoblasts that have become entrapped within the bone matrix that they have synthesised [25]. They act as mechanoreceptors, communicating with the osteogenic/osteolytic cells via gap junctions at the extremities of their cytoplasmic processes, and play a regulatory role in the bone synthesis/resorption cycle [25].
Concomitant to the physical need for the bone to be able to remodel for general maintenance, repair, and for increasing structural strength in response to stimuli, are the roles in pH balance and mineral homeostasis that the synthesis/resorption cycle affords [23]. While under normal physiological circumstances the pH of blood and extracellular fluid is maintained within narrow parameters by the removal and excretion of protons by the kidneys and lungs, a multitude of physiologically adverse conditions (e.g. kidney disease or severe exercise) can lead to acidosis [33]. The basicity of hydroxyapatite renders bone an emergency reservoir for base, buffering the acidity with the products of osteoclastic resorption. This mechanism is enabled by the osteoclast’s stimulation at low pH, a peculiarity from a general cellular point of view, and the osteoblast’s synergistic inhibition [33]. In a similar vein, bone acts as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus, making them available for the maintenance of mineral homeostasis. Calcium and phosphorus are vital for a plethora of biological functions, and their homeostasis is under the endocrine regulation of the parathyroid glands, thyroid gland, and the kidney which, through the intermediary of parathyroid hormone, calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, a hormone derived from vitamin D), and calcitonin respectively, affect the intestinal absorption, renal reabsorption and bone synthesis/resorption mechanisms [24, 34]. The parathyroid glands, which express Ca2+-sensing receptors, secrete PTH in response to a reduction in circulating calcium ions. Parathyroid hormone acts in the kidney to decrease phosphate and increase calcium reabsorption, and in the bone by stimulating osteocytic and osteoclastic activity [34].
Bone also acts as reservoir for growth factors and cytokines, which are released during bone resorption and take effect either locally or systemically [14]. Along with the effects that these growth factors and cytokines may exert on other tissue cell types, such as the endothelial cells of the vasculature, they play important roles in bone formation and resorption, including: insulin-like growth factors, transforming growth factors, and bone morphogenic proteins as growth factors promoting osteogenesis; epidermal growth factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, macrophage-colony stimulating factor, and tumour necrosis factor as growth factors stimulating osteolytic resorption; platelet-derived growth factor and fibroblastic growth factor which have contributory effects to both bone formation and resorption; prostaglandins and leukotrienes as osteolysis-stimulating cytokines; and interleukins that may directly or indirectly stimulate either bone formation or resorption depending on the interleukin family in question [35].
Strong links exist between the skeletal and vascular systems and, along with a strong vascular and nerve presence in the periosteum, numerous neurovascular bundles enter the bone through nutrient foramina, descend and ascend the canals of Haversian systems, and enter medullary cavity through Volkmann’s Canals [36]. The two systems are interdependent in that the bone relies on the vasculature for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients and that, modulated by osteoblasts, haematopoiesis takes place in the bone marrow [37].
5. Morphological changes and pathologies in the foot
The external morphology of the hoof capsule is indirectly associated with the function and shape of the internal segments of the hoof [38]. Dyson and colleagues [39] drew attention to the fact that, despite differences in the orientation of the distal phalanx between horses, mainly associated with changes in direction of the dished solar border, the morphology of the distal phalanx is unaffected by the external features of the hoof capsule. It is worth noting here that hoof shape can be altered when trimming and shoeing are considered [40]. The impact of trimming/shoeing on the hoof capsule shape has been explained [41] and the researchers demonstrated that the formation of the hoof wall is physically connected to the loading of the lower limb, thus protecting its optimal balance on the ground [42]. Therefore, the geometrical tendency of the foot components determines the ability of the internal structures to respond to loading through the bearing phase of the stride cycle [43].
The distal phalanx is attached within the hoof capsule through the suspensory apparatus [44], which connects the entire parietal surface of the distal phalanx to the lamellar structures of the internal hoof wall [11]. Preliminary work on equine lamellar connection found that this attachment provides the mechanism by which the weight is transferred between the distal phalanx and the epidermal laminae of the hoof wall [45]. This connection, or attachment, has a substantial role in the biomechanics of healthy foot performance, and may lead to foot lameness if damaged [41]. Indeed, the failure of the connection between the epidermal laminae and the underlying basement membrane of the dermal lamellae would weaken the suspensory apparatus of the distal phalanx [46]. Unsurprisingly, changes in the basement membrane of the suspensory tissue have been suggested to signal the first step of laminar failure [47]. While other research reported that lesions in the basement membrane appear before any clinical signs of foot lameness [48]. The dislocation of the distal phalanx, followed by its rotation, applies pressure, first on the sole at the palmar border of the distal phalanx and, secondly, on the coronet or upper area of the lamellae by the extensor process of the distal phalanx [49]. These deflections lead to impaired blood flow into the basal layers of the hoof wall [18], and can lead to an inhibition of the growth rate of the hoof capsule, affecting its shape over time and induced osteolysis of bone trabeculae in chronic stages [50]. A number of hoof shapes can arise from this chronic condition, including sheared heels, crushed heels, club foot, long-dished toe, and high-heel foot [49, 51].
One of these chronic conditions is the lamellar wedge that develops alongside laminitis and a result can be an anatomical displacement of the distal phalanx within the hoof capsule [52], is a direct consequence of the failure of the suspensory apparatus of the distal phalanx [53]. However, the molecular events involved in the lamellar wedge condition are broadly unknown [54]. In chronically laminitic horses, the lamellar wedge appears as an abnormal horny mass, that is formed between the inner hoof wall and the epidermal lamellae, and is linked to the slight rotation of the distal phalanx [55]. The separation of the distal phalanx inside the capsular wall can change the sole shape to become convex rather than be concave, due to differential growth of the proximal hoof wall portion [55]. The structural and physical appearance of this abnormal keratinized material is comparable to the white line tissue, and is therefore proposed to be an ectopic white line [56]. It was therefore thought that a large quantity of the ectopic white line could be able ultimately to prohibit the straight and normal growth of the hoof capsule (Figure 6) [57].
Figure 6.
The anatomical displacement (indicated by *) of the distal phalanx. (A, B) Longitudinal section of two laminitic feet shows lamellae wedge inside the hoof capsule indicates (*) abnormal tissue, which changed the shape of hoof capsule.
5.1 Lameness
Foot lameness is a physical impairment of a limb that has a negative effect on the freedom of movement of the animal [58, 59]. It is accompanied by clinical signs linked to a disturbance of locomotion that is related to hoof pathologies that can be caused by infection, environmental and/or genetic causes [60, 61]. Lameness can also manifest itself in pain and lesions that, in turn, lead to an abnormal gait [62, 63] with undesirable consequences on performance [64] and welfare [65]. This disruption in gait originates from involuntary and voluntary exertions to diminish the level of discomfort and/or pain that are the result of damage or injury of ligaments, muscles, nerves or integument [59, 60], or could be due to asymmetric and/or uneven feet promoting the development of foot lameness [66].
Virtually all ungulate animals can be affected by foot lameness [67–70]. However, our knowledge concerning the aetiology of the condition is often related to the economic implications of the animal in our society [58, 62]. Foot lameness is classified into acute and chronic types depending on the severity of lesions and the time requirement for healing, if healing is possible [71]. In dairy cows it represents the most important financial and welfare problem faced by the industry [60], as it is responsible for a drop in reproductive efficacy, a decrease in milk production, and increased culling rates [5, 69]. Similarly, in horses, foot lameness is a significant and predominant medical disorder which accounts for about to $1 billion in losses annually for the equine industry in the United States of America [72, 73]. In the UK, the maintenance of each horse is estimated to cost about £2660 annually and much of this in the treatment of foot lameness [74]. Foot lameness in the horse is the most prevalent and frequent medical issue, affecting about 11% of the general equine population in the UK in 2011 [75]. This rose significantly in 2012 to 18.6% [76] and was thought to be due to factors such as differing foot balance, shoeing and trimming techniques. Some subpopulations however, seem to be more affected than others as, for example, it is estimated that nearly 33% of dressage horses in the UK suffer from foot lameness [69]. The clinical diagnosis of foot lameness in the equine population is subdivided into scores ranging from 0 to 5 depending on the degree of the condition, with 5 being the worst outcome [77].
Lame horses adapt their gait to compensate for the pain originating from damaged tissues or foot lesions [78–80]. Accordingly, foot lameness is considered to be one of the most common signs of kinetic disorder affecting the musculoskeletal system [30]. As forelimb foot lameness is more common than hind limb foot lameness [81], it has been suggested that conformations of the distal limbs may have a substantial impact in the development of front and rear limb foot lameness [66]. The relatively high prevalence of forelimb foot lameness [81] which reaches to more than 75% of equine foot lameness being found in a forelimb particularly in breeds such as Thoroughbred horses and 40% in Standardbred racehorses [82]. This may be explained by that fact that the centre of gravity of the horse is closer to the front limbs than the rear limbs, as the loading ratio is spread approximately 60% forelimbs: 40% hind limbs [66]. Other research [80] has shown that horses with severe foot lameness in the front limb display an untrue foot lameness in the contralateral rear limb, whereas horses with a real rear limb foot lameness exhibit an incorrect foot lameness in the ipsilateral front limb.
Although the aetiology of equine foot lameness is still an active research area, recent efforts have also tried to determine whether the hoof shape is a disposing factor for foot lameness-causing lesions. The investigation of variations between foot lameness and non-foot lameness affected horses [51], demonstrated that the angle between the capsular wall and the ground is larger in the lame horse with an enlarged heel, curved or misshapen coronary band, that diverging growth lines can occur, and that the tubular horns differ from non-lame horses. It was suggested that hereditary influences and trimming are factors contributing to the asymmetrical shape of the hoof [83, 84].
In chronic foot lameness, the hoof capsule of the lame foot can be more distorted than in the non-lame one [85], as a result of altered loading forces applied to the hoof, hence affecting the shape of the hoof and the internal structures of the foot [86, 87]. These variations in the shape of the capsule are triggered by biological sources causing autolysis of the collagen fibres connecting the epithelium to the bone [68]. The role of these fibres is to support and suspend the weight of the horse via the distal phalanx, as well as to maintain the shape of the capsule constant [88, 89]. Another cause that could lead to hoof distortion is the ability of the foot to produce keratinous material proximally [90]. A number of chronic foot lameness states can be related to sheared heels causing palmar foot pain and hoof deviation [34]. Sheared heels are considered as one of the main causes of foot lameness in the equine genus, which results from an abnormal stride and persistent uneven weight bearing [91]. This leads to higher soft tissue strains that predispose the hoof capsule to deformation [92].
The hoof conformation seems to be a two-way process whereby the hoof shape is a key factor in foot lameness [54, 93] and foot deformation can arise as a consequence of foot lameness [85]. However, there has been little evidence showing that malformation is one of the predisposing factors for foot soreness and foot lameness. Dyson and colleagues [39] highlighted that, despite the differences in the shape of the distal phalanx between horses, lameness is mainly associated with changes in the direction of the dorsal hoof wall. For example, constant shoeing has an impact on the way in which the hoof grows and can, over time; result in a different foot conformation/capsular shape, which can have an effect on foot lameness [15, 40]. Recent bovine work using micro CT has shown that lame cows can present with additional bone growth on the distal phalanx [94]. It is important to remember that comparative findings in other animals could provide crucial evidence which may be applicable to horses and is therefore a further consideration for work in this area.
The methodologies which are used are also being developed over time and giving new insights into anatomy and physiology. In a recent study looking at foals with osteomyelitis it was shown how important newer techniques such as CT could be used to compliment traditional radiography whilst also providing novel information about disorders [95], the emerging evidence indicating that CT may be superior at detecting osseous changes in general in comparison to traditional techniques. The number of studies comparing MRI methods to more traditional methods is also highlighting the knowledge that can be gained in not only osseous tissue but also in soft tissue. For example in recent studies in equine limbs lesions where MRI was considered against retrospective patient data/ultrasonography radiography [96, 97]. In addition anatomical knowledge and imaging are becoming increasingly important for new discoveries and techniques in relation to stem cell and gene therapy as highlighted by recent studies using gene therapy to treat equine lameness [78, 98].
6. Conclusions
There is no doubt that understanding the anatomy, histology and physiology of the equine foot and limb is essential in treating a wide range of disorders. Advances in technology such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography and other imaging techniques also play a role in assisting both anatomical knowledge and understanding equine conditions [99]. Coupled with more traditional techniques recent research has used these techniques to show bone conformation and growth, vascularisation and a number of other factors which could help inform us about anatomy and limb disorders. Although much is known about equine anatomy and histology, more is being discovered in both the normal and pathologically affected horse. In addition, new information from cellular and molecular studies is advancing not only the anatomical and histological sides but also the physiology and function of the equine limbs and the disorders they are prone to.
Acknowledgments
The work was funded by PetPlan, Waltham, The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research of Iraq, Western Scholarship and The University of Nottingham School of veterinary Medicine and Science. We also thank Mr. Craig Sturrock CIPB, Hounsfield Building, University of Nottingham with whom the computed tomography imaging was carried out. Catrin Rutland Orcid: 0000-0002-2009-4898. Cyril Rauch Orcid: 0000-0001-8584-420X.F. Emily Paul Orcid: 0000-0001-8518-4205.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
Nomenclature observes Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria terminology [100].
Acronyms and abbreviations
BM
basement membrane
CDET
common digital extensor tendon
CT
computed tomography
DDFT
deep digital flexor tendon
P1
first phalanx
P2
second phalanx
P3
third phalanx
SDFT
superficial digital flexor tendon.
\n',keywords:"equine, anatomy, histology, healthy, lame, vasculature",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65570.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65570.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65570",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65570",totalDownloads:2124,totalViews:1085,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"June 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 17th 2019",datePrePublished:"February 8th 2019",datePublished:"March 13th 2019",dateFinished:"February 8th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Satisfactory investigations of the equine foot appear to be limited by the histo-morphological complexity of internal hoof structures. Foot lameness is considered to be one of the most debilitating pathological disorders of the equine foot. In most species, foot lameness is traditionally linked to hoof deformity, and a set of molecular events have been defined in relation to the disease. So far, there is controversy regarding the incidence of foot lameness in horses, as it is unclear whether it is foot lameness that triggers hoof distortions or vice-versa. In order to develop a better understanding of foot lameness, we review both the healthy and lame foot anatomy, cell biology and vascularisation and using micro-computed tomography show new methods of visualising internal structures within the equine foot.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65570",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65570",signatures:"Ramzi Al-Agele, Emily Paul, Valentina Kubale Dvojmoc, Craig J. Sturrock,\nCyril Rauch and Catrin Sian Rutland",book:{id:"7144",type:"book",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-706-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-705-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-072-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",email:"catrin.rutland@nottingham.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",email:"valentina.kubaledvojmoc@vf.uni-lj.si",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"261698",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramzi",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Agele",fullName:"Ramzi Al-Agele",slug:"ramzi-al-agele",email:"ramzi.alagele@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"261699",title:"MSc.",name:"Emily",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",fullName:"Emily Paul",slug:"emily-paul",email:"stxekp@exmail.nottingham.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"261701",title:"Prof.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Rauch",fullName:"Cyril Rauch",slug:"cyril-rauch",email:"cyril.rauch@exmail.nottingham.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"276603",title:"Mr.",name:"Craig",middleName:null,surname:"Sturrock",fullName:"Craig Sturrock",slug:"craig-sturrock",email:"craig.sturrock@nottingham.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Gross anatomy of the equine hoof",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Vasculature of the foot",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Bone physiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Morphological changes and pathologies in the foot",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Lameness",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Nomenclature",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acronyms and abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bragulla H, Konig HE, Liebich H-G. Veterinary Anatomy of Domestic Mammals: Textbook and Colour Atlas. Germany: Schattauer Verlag; 2007'},{id:"B2",body:'Konig HE, Liebich H-G. Veterinary Anatomy of Domestic Mammals: Textbook and Color Atlas. Germany: Schattauer; 2007'},{id:"B3",body:'Stewart J. Understanding the Horse’s Feet. UK: The Crowood Press; 2013'},{id:"B4",body:'Pollitt CC. 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Gene therapy using plasmid DNA encoding VEGF164 and FGF2 genes: A novel treatment of naturally occurring tendinitis and desmitis in horses. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2018;9:978'},{id:"B79",body:'Weishaupt MA, Wiestner T, Hogg HP, Jordan P, Auer JA. Compensatory load redistribution of horses with induced weightbearing hindlimb lameness trotting on a treadmill. Equine Veterinary Journal. 2004;36(8):727-733'},{id:"B80",body:'Uhlir C, Lica T, Kubber P, Peham C, Scheidl M, Girtler D. Compensatory movements of horses with a stance phase foot lameness. Equine Veterinary Journal. 1997;29:102-105'},{id:"B81",body:'Keegan KG, Dent EV, Wilson DA, Janicek J, Kramer J, Lacarrubba A, et al. Repeatability of subjective evaluation of lameness in horses. Equine Veterinary Journal. 2010;42(2):92-97'},{id:"B82",body:'Malikides N, McGowan T, Pead M. Equine and canine foot lameness. In: McGowan C, Goff L, Stubbs N, editors. Animal Physiotherapy: Assessment, Treatment and Rehabilitation of Animals. 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Equine Veterinary Journal. 2018;50(2):172-178'},{id:"B98",body:'Kovac M, Litvin YA, Aliev RO, Zakirova EY, Rutland CS, Kiyasov AP, et al. Gene therapy using plasmid DNA encoding vascular endothelial growth factor 164 and fibroblast growth factor 2 genes for the treatment of horse tendinitis and desmitis: Case reports. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 2017;4:168'},{id:"B99",body:'Keane M, Paul E, Sturrock C, Rauch C, Rutland C. Computed tomography in veterinary medicine: Currently published and tomorrow’s vision. In: Halefoglu A, editor. Computed Tomography—Advanced Applications. Rijeka, Croatia: InTechOpen; 2017'},{id:"B100",body:'ICoVGAN (I.C.V.G.A.N). Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria. 6th revised edn. 2017. Available from: http://www.wava-amav.org/ [Accessed: December 5, 2017]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ramzi Al-Agele",address:null,affiliation:'
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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