A general summary of a few methods used to collect air samples to measure whole animal enteric methane emissions or solely eructated emissions
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2346",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Herbivory",title:"Herbivory",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Studies of herbivory provide important insights into fundamental questions in many areas of the biological sciences. The focus on natural systems is more effective for the prediction of potential changes in ecosystems, given that agricultural systems are designed to create an equilibrium that optimizes the productive process. Given the ramifications of the processes related to herbivory, studies based on complementary approaches are necessary for a better understanding of the different aspects of the ecological process. This book attempts to expand on these different aspects of herbivory by presenting a multidisciplinary approach to a number of different themes, focusing on topics that range from basic research in natural habitats to the intrinsic relationships between animals and plants in agricultural systems.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1052-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5359-7",doi:"10.5772/2718",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"herbivory",numberOfPages:88,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"68d3b1d66c7204c79bf288aca1b728c4",bookSignature:"Breno Barros and Marcus E. B. 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He has entered the Hiroshima University (Japan) in 2005, where he has achieved his M.Sc. degree in Marine Ecology at the Laboratory of Aquatic Resources (2007). In 2012, he has concluded his Ph.D. in Environmental Biology at the Institute of Coastal Studies (IECOS), Federal University of Pará, Brazil, with a brief sandwich period in the Laboratory of Aquatic Resources, Hiroshima University, Japan. Dr. Barros has been studying teleost fish feeding behavior, focusing on the Family Ephippidae, establishing comparative studies on behavioral ecology of Ephippid fish from both Pacific and Atlantic oceans, having published a number of papers dealing with feeding behavior and mimetic behavior by representants of that group. Currently, he is working as adjunct professor at the Federal Rural University of Amazonia, Brazil; being also a collaborator professor at the Institute of Coastal Studies (IECOS), Federal University of Pará, Brazil.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"143345",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Emanuel Barroncas",surname:"Fernandes",slug:"marcus-fernandes",fullName:"Marcus Fernandes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/143345/images/3795_n.jpg",biography:"Marcus E. B. Fernandes is Professor of Ecology at the Federal University of Pará, in Bragança, Brazil. He did his undergraduate degree at the Federal University of Amazonas, Brazil, in 1985, a Masters degree in Experimental Psychology from the University of São Paulo - Brazil, in 1989, followed by a DPhil project on the ecology and productivity of mangroves in the Brazilian Amazon region at the University of York, England, in 1998. From 1998 to 2001 he worked as a Lecturer at the Federal University of Maranhão, Eastern Brazilian Amazon, concentrating on distribution and structural features of mangrove and cerrado tree species. In 2002, he moved to the Federal University of Pará, where he focused on forest productivity and the occurrence and the habitat function of mangroves for terrestrial and marine fauna. 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\r\n\tAccording to WHO, 2.3 billion people worldwide, suffer from permanent teeth caries. The prevalence of primary teeth is estimated at 530 million. Untreated dental caries is being considered the actual most common health condition. Dental caries affects people throughout their lifetime, being a major factor for oral pain, aesthetic impairment, edentulism. Untreated dental caries results in affecting adjoining oral tissues, and, finally, may lead to systemic complications.
\r\n\tPrevention represents a key factor in managing this condition and includes public health measures, addressing the risk factors, as well as access to oral health services. A regular dental examination is crucial for detecting early signs of caries, and timely treatment. Materials choice and proper handling, if restorative treatment is needed, are of utmost importance, to prevent a recurrence. State-of-the-art new types of restorative materials, such as antimicrobial composites, stimuli-responsive composites, or self-healing composites, together with the use of nanotechnology, represent some future choices for restorative biomaterials.
Ruminant livestock systems contribute significantly to global anthropogenic methane emissions, with about 50% or more of the GHG emissions produced coming from enteric fermentation [1]. The loss of dietary energy in the form of methane has been extensively researched and reviewed [2, 3, 4]. Microorganisms called methanogens produce methane (methanogenesis) in the digestive tract as a by-product of anaerobic fermentation. Briefly, the process of methanogenesis [see 5, 6 for a more detailed summary] consists of:
Glucose equivalents from plant polymers or starch (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, starch, sucrose, fructans and pentosans) are hydrolysed by extracellular microbial enzymes to form pyruvate in the presence of protozoa and fungi in the digestive tract:
The fermentation of pyruvate involves oxidation reactions under anaerobic conditions producing reduced co-factors such as NADH. Reduced co-factors such as NADH are then re-oxidised to NAD to complete the synthesis of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) with the main products being acetate, butyrate and propionate (anions of acetic, butyric and propionic VFAs):
The VFAs are then available to be absorbed through the digestive mucosa into the animal’s blood stream. The production of acetate and butyrate production provides a net source of hydrogen or alternatively propionate can utilise any available hydrogen Methanogens eliminate the available hydrogen by using carbon dioxide (CO2) to produce methane:
In ruminants, some 87 to 93% of methane production occurs in the foregut, with the highest rate of production being after eating [7]. In sheep, almost 90% of the methane produced in the hindgut has been found to be absorbed and expired through the lungs, with the remainder being excreted through the rectum [8]. Rectum enteric methane losses have been estimated at 7% [9] and 8% [10] of methane output in dairy cows compared to the 1% found in sheep [8].
Reductions in enteric methane production from ruminants can result from a reduction in rumen fermentation rate (suppression in microbial activity) or a shift in VFA production [11]. An inverse relationship exists between the production of methane in the rumen and the presence of propionate. If the ratio of acetate to propionate was greater than 0.5, then hydrogen would become available to form methane [12]. If the hydrogen produced is not correctly used by methanogens, such as when large amounts of fermentable carbohydrate are fed, ethanol or lactate can form, which inhibits microbial growth, forage digestion, and any further production of VFAs [13]. In practice, ethanol or lactate may form, but any excess hydrogen is simply eructated.
The methods for sampling, measuring and predicting enteric methane production (using studies on dairy cattle as an example), and the influence of dietary components on methane production are reviewed.
Estimates of methane output from livestock can be costly and difficult to make, especially from larger ruminants. Standard methods for measuring the methane concentration in air are by infrared spectroscopy, gas chromatography, mass spectroscopy or a tuneable laser diode. In a controlled and enclosed environment (i.e. chamber) the gas concentration can be calculated directly from the difference between ingoing and outgoing air, but in less contained environments a tracer gas is required as a marker, which is often the inert sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas.
Of the methods summarised [from the reviews of 7, 12] in Table 1 that can be used to sample air for its methane concentration, the open-circuit indirect respiration calorimeter (chamber) is acknowledged as currently providing the most reliable and repeatable method of obtaining an estimate of individual whole animal enteric methane emissions (including eructated and flatulence emissions) over a continuous sampling period [7]. If this method becomes less costly to implement, direct selection of animals on methane output could become possible. In some cases, there are suggestions that this technique may affect the behaviour of the animal causing depression of appetite [14, 15], which may be avoided by making the walls of the enclosed environment transparent. A more mobile chamber that has been used is a polythene tunnel. Due to the polythene tunnel being mobile it is adaptable to different feeding systems such as grazing animals [14, 16]. However, difficulties in controlling the tunnel’s temperature and humidity have been found, resulting in a lower estimate of methane production compared to chamber measurements [14, 16].
Method of measurement | Description |
Chamber | Open-circuit indirect respiration calorimeter. Air blown in and extracted out of a chamber. Air concentrations between the incoming and outgoing air are continuously monitored using gas analysers. Chamber conditions are controlled and monitored usually for 48 hours. |
Polythene tunnel | Air blown in and extracted out of tunnel. Air concentrations between the incoming and outgoing air are continuously monitored. |
Room tracer gas | Tracer gas is released into a ventilated room until a steady concentration is reached, after which air samples can be collected. Background air samples are required. |
Mass balance micrometerological | Background air samples and a high precision gas analyser are required. Sampling downwind (and up) of the source. |
Head box, hood or mask | Respired gas volume can be sampled at regular intervals. |
ERUCT (Emissions from ruminants using a calibrated tracer) | Typically using the inert sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) tracer gas. Assumes that the emitted tracer gas from a permeation tube in the rumen simulates the diffusion of any methane emitted. Respired air collected via a capillary tube near the animal\'s nostrils into a vessel. |
A general summary of a few methods used to collect air samples to measure whole animal enteric methane emissions or solely eructated emissions
In comparison to methods that use a controlled and enclosed environment, methods that use a tracer gas such as SF6 as a marker tend to be less costly and more applicable to use on a greater number of animals. The room tracer [17] and mass balance micrometerological methods, where a known amount of gas i.e. a tracer gas or the gas of interest are released from fixed points [18, 19, 20], both require careful monitoring of the sampling environment and diffusion of the gas of interest (in this case methane) needs to be tested prior to commencing sampling. The temperature, air pressure, humidity and air speed should also be monitored for their consistency in a non-enclosed sampling environment. Controlling the sampling environment would make replicating these techniques consistently on commercial farms difficult. Also, in some countries the use of SF6 is not permitted and there may be a withdrawal period on products from animals exposed to the gas [7]. The ERUCT (emissions from ruminants using a calibrated tracer) technique [9, 21] or a head box, hood or mask [22, 23] estimate eructated methane emissions from individual animals. This ignores enteric methane from the rectum, which could be 1 to 8% of total enteric methane production of an animal as previously discussed. The ERUCT technique was devised to allow measurement of methane emissions from free ranging and feedlot animals. The ERUCT technique has been found to be suitable for estimating respired methane emissions from high forage fed animals and not with animals on diets that result in greater post-ruminal digestion [21, 24]. Even though the ERUCT technique is more open to errors in estimates compared to using a chamber, these errors could be reduced by removal of outlying estimates and replicating sampling over several days [10]. More invasive methods of estimating methane production from rumen fluid involve injecting radioactively labelled methane (isotope dilution technique) [8, 25] or ethane [26] into the rumen.
Studies measuring the methane production of livestock have been carried out for over 80 years (Table 2). In the last 20 years the number of studies globally that have measured enteric methane have increased, as have the range of sampling methods used.
In cattle, the use of high energy dense diets has increased the amount of dry matter (DM) that an animal can consume, as a result of improved efficiencies in rumen fermentation and feed digestibility [42]. The level of intake of feed (more specifically organic matter) influences methane production. Dairy cows ranging in live weight from 385 to 747 kg were found to produce between 45 and 199 kg methane/head/yr (14 to 31 g/kg DM intake) of methane and beef cattle of 364 to 627 kg live weight produced between 40 and 92 kg methane/head/yr (13 to 35 g/kg DM intake), with the difference attributed to the amount of DM consumed [43]. Notably in Table 2 the highest DM intake measured was 29 kg/day in two of the studies [33, 41] and the methane production was also the same at 19 g/kg DM intake. Where a high energy dense diet is formulated to meet the nutrient requirements of a high milk yielding animal, it would appear that the methane output per kg DM intake could average about 19 g/kg, but this would be slightly more for high forage diets where potential intake is lower (0.21 g/kg DM or more [44]). As well as the influence of the composition of the diet, reductions in methane losses per kg DM intake appear to be possible by an incremental increase in the level of feed intake, brought about by increasing the proportion of concentrate feed in the diet. It has been suggested that this decrease in the percentage of dietary GE intake lost as methane occurs at an average of 1.6% per unit increase in feed level [12].
Reference | Dry matter intake (kg/day) | Body weight (kg) | Methane (kg/hd/yr) | Sampling method |
[10] | 18 | 496 | 120 | ERUCT / Chamber |
[17] | 25 | - | 102 | Room tracer (SF6) |
[18] | - | 600 | 142 | Micrometeorological mass balance |
[27] | 1 - 15 | 162 - 655 | 39 | Chamber |
[28] | 9 | - | 79 | Chamber |
[29] | - | - | 40 | Chamber |
[30] | 8 - 18 | - | 68 - 122 | Chamber |
[31] | 18 | 602 | 137 | Micrometeorological mass balance |
[32] | - | 450 - 700 | 112 | Chamber |
[33] | 4 - 29 | 426 - 852 | 24 - 198 | Chamber |
[34] | 13 | 402 - 562 | 96 | ERUCT |
[35] | 13 | 517 | 95 | Chamber |
[36] | 14 - 16 | 595 | 138 | Chamber |
[37] | 14 | - | 109 | ERUCT |
[38] | 12 | 526 | 84 | Chamber / mask / ERUCT / micrometeorological mass balance |
[39] | 20 | 572 | 137 | Chamber |
[40] | 8 - 25 | 379 - 733 | 72 - 210 | Chamber |
[41] | 2 - 29 | 173 - 826 | 13 - 197 | Chamber |
Some of the key experiments globally that have measured methane output from dairy cattle
Prediction methods can be either empirical or mechanistic. Several reviews have studied the use and performance of different methane output prediction equations [11, 12, 33, 38, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49].
Mechanistic equations estimate methane output using mathematical descriptions of rumen fermentation. Even though mechanistic equations at present appear to show the greatest degree of adaptability across diet types and intake level [48, 50, 51], they require detailed and complex dietary input values. Published mechanistic equations are not presented in this review but are described in [52] (recommended in [50] and [46]), [53], [54], [55], [56], [57], [58], [59] (recommended in [50]) and [60].
Empirical equations such as those shown in Table 3 offer a more practical solution to predicting methane output using input variables such as digestibility, carbohydrate content, energy and nitrogen intake, milk production and live weight. Table 3 and Figure 1 present empirical prediction equations for methane output developed using animals that included dairy cattle, with a range of intakes and different diets. Of the empirical prediction equations shown in Table 3, studies have compared the predictions of an equation against methane measurements, with some being recommended such as [29] (recommended in [33]), [61] (recommended in [33], [12], [46] and [47]), [62] (recommended in [63]) and the non-linear equations using DM intake and metabolisable energy (ME) intake by [47] (recommended in [48] and [38]).
Reference | Units | Equation |
[27] | g/day | = 18 + 22.5 × DMI |
[28] | MJ/day | = -2.07 + 2.63 × DMI - 0.105 × DMI2 |
[29] | MJ/day | = [1.3 + 0.112 × D + FL × (2.37 - 0.05 × D)/100] × GEI |
[32] | g/day | = 10.0 + 4.9 × MY + 1.5 × LWGT0.75 |
[37] | g/day | = 17.1 × DMI + 97.4 |
g/day | = 84 + 47 × C + 32 × S + 62 × DS | |
g/day | = 91 + 50 × C + 40 × HC + 24 × S + 67 × DS | |
g/day | = 123 + 84 × C - 30 × HC + 58 × S + 73 × DS - 95 × L | |
[38] | MJ/day | = 8.56 + 0.14 × FP |
MJ/day | = 3.23 + 0.81 × DMI | |
[41] | MJ/day | = 74.43 - (74.43 + 0) × e[−0.0163 × DMI] |
MJ/day | = 74.43 - (74.43 + 0) × e[cx]; cx = -0.0187 + 0.0059 / [1 + exp (S/TADF - 3.1003)]/0.6127 × DMI | |
MJ/day | = (7.16 - 0.101 × DMI)/100 × GEI | |
MJ/day | = 2.6861 + 0.0779 × DEI | |
[47] | MJ/day | = 5.93 + 0.92 × DMI |
MJ/day | = 8.25 + 0.07 × MEI | |
MJ/day | = 7.30 + 13.13 × N + 2.04 TADF + 0.33 × S | |
MJ/day | = 1.06 + 10.27 × FP + 0.87 × DMI | |
MJ/day | = 56.27 - (56.27 + 0) × e[−0.028 × DMI] | |
MJ/day | = 45.89 - (45.89 + 0) × e[−0.003 × MEI] | |
MJ/day | = 45.98 - (45.98 + 0) × e[cx]; cx = -0.0011 × (S/TADF) + 0.0045 × MEI | |
[61] | MJ/day | = 3.38 + 0.51 × NFC + 1.74 × HC + 2.652 × C |
[62] | MJ/day | = DEI × [0.094 + 0.028 × (FADF/TADF)] - 2.453 × (FL-1) |
MJ/day | = DEI × [0.096 + 0.035 × (FDMI/DMI)] - 2.298 × (FL-1) | |
[64] | g/day | = 4.012 × TC + 17.68 |
[65] | % GEI | = 2.898 - 0.0631 × MY + 0.297 × MF - 1.587 × MP + 0.0891 × CP + 0.1010 × [(FADF/DMI) × 100] + 0.l02 × DMI - 0.131 × F + 0.116 × DMD - 0.0737 × CPD |
% GEI | = 2.927 - 0.0405 × MY + 0.335 × MF - 1.225 × MP + 0.248 × CP - 0.448 × [(ADF/DMI) × 100] + 0.502 × [(FADF/DMI) × 100) + 0.0352 × ADFD | |
% GEI | = 227.099 - 2.783 × [(ADFD/DMI) × 100] - 6.0176 × ADFD + 3.607 × CPD + 1.751 × NDSD - 1.423 × CD + 1.203 × HD | |
[66] | g/day | = 41 + 30 × DS + 6 × S + 51 × DCW |
[67] | MJ/day | = 1.36 + 1.21 × DMI - 0.825 × CDMI + 12.8 × NDF |
[68] | L/day | = 38.92 + 26.44 × DMI |
[69] | L/day | = 47.82 × DMI - 0.762 × DMI2 - 41 |
[70] | L/day | = 38.2 + 4.89 × FP × DMI - 0.719 × DMI2 – 20 |
L/day | = 0.666 × LWGT + 2.868 × MY + 75 | |
L/day | = 39.2 × DMI - 0.588 × DMI2 + 0.370 × LWGT - 1.698 × MY – 134 |
Empirical equations from the literature that predict enteric methane output from dietary inputs and production values for dairy cattle
The success or suitability of an empirical prediction equation for implementation on a data set is dependent on the range of values that the equation was developed on. A comparison of empirical prediction equations from Table 3, which were tested over a range of DM intakes from 1 to 35 kg/d (beyond the range they would have been developed on) for lactating dairy cows fed diets with a high and low proportion of forage content, suggest that the relationship between methane output and intake may be linear up to an average intake of 15 kg DM/d. Above this level of intake, which is more achievable by feeding a higher proportion of concentrates in the diet, the majority of equations showed a decline in methane output per unit intake (due to the increase in the level of intake by feeding a higher proportion of concentrate feed as has been suggested [12]; Fig. 1). This depression in methane lost per kg DM intake at high levels of intake in cattle has also been shown in other studies (reported in [71]). The main difference amongst the performances of methane prediction equations is their ability to give a sensible estimate of methane losses at low (approaching the origin) and high dry matter intakes. Even though some of the variation in the predictive ability of an equation in Figure 1 may be explained by the equation being used on a range of values outside the range it was developed on and the complexity of an equation, there is still considerable variation in methane output for a given level of DM intake [71].
In addition to dynamic and statistical prediction methods, methane output can be estimated based on an animal’s predicted energy requirements, which is the technique used in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methodology [72, 73]. This energy balance approach is suitable as an estimate over a period of time (as used in national inventories based on IPCC methodology) such as a year or lactation [74]. The IPCC methodology is based on production variables that are generally more easily obtained than those used in empirical or even more dynamic enteric methane prediction equations.
Average methane output polynomial trend lines for methane output predictions by published equations (in
As suggested in Figure 1 and proposed by others [29], increased intake of less digestible feeds such as forage has little effect on methane production per DM intake, whereas an increase in more digestible feeds such as concentrate results in a reduction in methane losses per DM intake. This improvement in the quality of food fed to a ruminant is an effective way to manipulate the diet (particularly in terms of digestible organic matter) to get better animal performance and reduced methane production [40, 45, 70, 75].
Individual feeds can vary considerably in their methanogenic effect based on their chemical composition. An evaluation of chamber measurements of methane from sheep fed different feeds found a range for percentage of GE lost as methane from 3.8% for distillers grains to 12.8% for peas [76]. The authors found that 92% of the variation in methane emission was explained by the equation:
Methane output (% GE) = -10.5 + 0.192 × DE – 0.0567 × EE + 0.00651 × S + 0.00647 × CP + 0.0111 × NDF
where, DE is digestible energy (% of gross energy, GE), EE is ether extract, S is starch, CP is crude protein and NDF is neutral detergent fibre (all in g/kg DM).
The above equation shows the relative response in methane output to each dietary component, with increases in DE, S, CP increasing methane emissions and increasing EE reducing methane. These parameters and their positive or negative effect on methane are common inputs to equations in Table 3. However, this would suggest that high starch feeds such as cereal grain would increase methane emissions. But when fed at an increasing level of intake cereal grains have a curvilinear effect on fibre digestion in mixed rations ([71]; expressed as a ratio of starch to acid detergent fibre content in [41, 47]) and result in a depression in methane per unit DM (as in Fig.1 in [47]) and per unit product.
Diet composition can influence rumen fermentation and reduce methane production as a result of more propionate present or less degradation of food consumed in the rumen. Post-ruminal digestion, particularly in the small intestine, is energetically more efficient with lower methane losses than digestion in the rumen, which can be encouraged by more digestible and higher quality food. The amount and type of dietary carbohydrate fermented affects the fermentation rate and rumen retention time of substrate, in addition to the hydrogen supply due to the ratio of acetate to propionate. The passage rate of substrate and rumen fluid dilution rate (influencing the ratio of acetate to propionate) have been found to explain 28% and 25% of variation in an animal’s methane production [77]. Cellulose ferments more slowly than hemicellulose, but both these structural carbohydrates ferment more slowly than non-structural and more soluble carbohydrates such as starch and sugars [2]. With regard to forages, increasing the digestibility of forage fed by reducing fibre content can reduce methane production. Feeding maize silage [78] or a legume-based silage [45] rather than grass silage has been found to reduce methane production. Also, silage is generally more digestible than hay [45] and adding molasses or urea to straw made it more digestible [79], which in both cases reduced methane production. Forage methane production can be minimised by lower fibre content and high soluble carbohydrate (influenced by maturity), and C3 grasses rather than C4 [2]. The grinding or pelleting of forage to increase its surface area and digestibility could also help reduce methane production [12, 80].
The additions of feed additives to a ruminant’s diet have been and are still being extensively evaluated for their effect on reducing methane emissions. The benefit in animal productivity and reduction in methane production relative to the cost of using different additives is continually being assessed. As previously suggested, the supplementation of diets with additives such as fats can reduce methane production [12, 44, 65, 81, 82, 83, 84] particularly fats with C8 to C16 chain length such as coconut oil [56, 85], however the effect, which is a suppression on fermentation appears to not always last [17, 37]. Suppressing fermentation by supplementing the diet with fat inhibits methanogens and protozoa, and subsequent fibre digestion with a shift towards more propionate present rather than acetate [2]. Likewise, the use of ionophores in feed (particularly monensin and salinomycin) and spices [86] that modify the rumen microflora [87] can reduce methane losses [6, 7, 88, 89] and encourage a shift towards propionogenesis. However eventually the rumen microflora would appear to show some resistance and the suppression ceases [90, 91, 92]. The inconsistent effects of monensin on methane in dairy cattle on forage and grain supplemented diets have also been found [93, 94]. Notably, ionophores are banned within the European Union due to the fears of residues appearing in the milk.
Other feed additives tested include the use of plant compounds such as tannins (inhibiting methanogens) [95] and saponins (inhibiting protozoa), which reduce the digestibility of dietary fibre [96], and organic acids such as fumarate, malate and acrylate which act as an alternative hydrogen acceptor [97], but results for effects on methane production and animal performance are variable [3]. Probiotics (acetogens and yeast) have been found to reduce methane output, mainly through improving digestion efficiency [88] but not by others [3]. Overall, unless yeast by-products can reliably be used to reduce methane production, the most cost-effective additive for reducing production appears to be the addition of cellulase and hemicellulase enzymes to a ruminant’s diet, which not only improved fibre digestion but also productivity [98].
With the increased importance now attached to enteric methane emissions from ruminants, due its global warming potential, there has been and will continue to be improvements in our understanding of methanogenesis and abatement options. Chamber measurements are costly in comparison to other measurement techniques and prediction methods, and therefore methane predictions using mechanistic models describing rumen fermentation are recognised at present as being more applicable to different feeds and animal species. The methane output from different feeds and animals has been extensively measured, predicted and tested but a robust empirical prediction of enteric methane emissions that can be applied to any ruminant production system is still to be developed. This is partly due to the need for the effect of feeding level to be better defined.
The important variables for predicting enteric methane output are the contents of fermentable carbohydrate, fibre, fat, digestible energy and intake level of a diet. Low enteric methane losses per unit DM appear possible by mechanisms that promote the passage of organic matter to post-rumen digestion and reduce rumen fermentation by high intakes of digestible feed and addition of fats, whilst also reducing emissions per unit product.
AcknowledgementThis work was supported by funding from Dairy Australia, Meat and Livestock Australia and the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry under its Australia’s Farming Future Climate Change Research Program.
A green renewable era for novel biomass materials application is approaching due to the continuous shortage of petroleum and environmental pollution caused by non-biodegradable synthetic polymers. Biomass with inherent advantages of renewability, biodegradation, low cost, and zero carbon dioxide emissions has attracted great interest in academic and industrial fields to effectively mitigate environmental pollution, global warming, and energy crisis. Cellulose (CE), extracted from various biomass sources including wood, bamboo, cotton, flax, hemp, crop straws, bagasse, leaf, fruit, and other microorganisms [1], is the most abundant and widely distributed natural biopolymer in the world with an estimated annual production of 7.5 × 1010 tons [2]. The chains of cellulose consist of the repeating β-(1–4)-linked-D-glucose units, which assemble into microfibrils via the interactions of hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces [3]. Cellulose has been widely used in the paper, textile, and chemical industries for several centuries.
The rapid development of nanotechnology and wood industry has ushered in a new global nano era in different fields. Nanocelluloses isolated by various physical, chemical, and mechanical methods as well as their combinations facilitate the formation of nanocrystals and nanofibrils. Compared with conventional celluloses, nanocelluloses with outstanding properties including high specific surface area, excellent tensile strength and Young’s modulus, thermal stability, easy adaptability and processing, high barrier, and interesting optical properties [4], have drawn considerable attention in various cross fields of wood industry, such as construction, composite fabrication, wood adhesives, gas barrier materials, filtration systems, sensors systems, energy storage, and other environmental-friendly products. Nanocellulose has been considered as a critical renewable high-added-value bioresources for the development of novel functional bio-products in future wood industry. According to the Global Industry Analysts, the market for nanocellulose-based materials exceeded a billion dollars by 2020.
Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a long polymer chain with ringed glucose molecules and a ribbon-like conformation [5]. The unique properties of cellulose such as hydrophilicity, insolubility in aqueous solvents, infusibility, and ease of functionalization are attributed to the intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bond as well as polymer chain length [6], as shown in Figure 1.
Schematic representation of the chemical structure and intra-, intermolecular hydrogen bonds in cellulose [
Cellulose molecules are usually assembled into elementary nanofibrils (protofibrils). The protofibrils are further assembled via hydrogen bonding into microfibrils corresponding to dimensions varying from 2 to 20 nm [5]. These inter- and intra-hydrogen bonding networks enhance the durability and the axial rigidity of cellulose fibrils. There are two major domains of native cellulose corresponding to crystalline and amorphous regions. The crystallinity ranges from 40 to 70% depending on the biomass source and the extraction method with enhanced resistance to chemical, mechanical, and enzymatic effects [2]. Furthermore, cellulose can form different crystal types via molecular orientations, intramolecular and intermolecular interactions, and van der Waals forces, and they can transform into each other by different forms of isolation and treatment [7, 8]. The amorphous region exhibits a lower density and easily reacts with other chemical groups [9].
The term “nano” originates from the Greek word “nanos” or Latin word “nanus,” which generally means “dwarf.” “Nano” represents a tiny scale of one in a billion. Generally, cellulose measuring nanometers in size in at least one dimension is considered nanocellulose. The basic properties of nanocellulose are similar to common cellulose including weak water solubility and ease of chemical modification despite various micro-morphologies under different physical, chemical, and biological treatments. However, they show outstanding mechanical properties, excellent thermal stability, large specific surface area, unique rheological and optical properties. The common nanocellulose can be categorized in two major types, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) depending on their preparation methods, micro-morphology, and characteristics. The specific structures, properties, and yields of nanocellulose are closely related to the source of cellulose and isolation conditions [10].
The isolation of cellulose into nanocellulose generally entails two major stages: pretreatment of lignocellulosic feedstocks to obtain pure cellulose and transformation of cellulose to nanocellulose. Specifically, the hemicelluloses and lignin as well as extracts including fat, sugar, rosin, tannins, resin, terpenoids, terpene, flavonoids, waxes, and fatty acids in various biomass feedstocks are eliminated by different pretreatments [11]. The pure cellulose is then isolated by top-down methods such as physical, chemical, and mechanical techniques and their combinations. In addition, bacterial cellulose (BC) and cellulose nanofibers obtained by electrospinning (ECNF), which are generated by bottom-up methods, are also considered as nanocellulose. BC is self-assembled from low-molecular-weight sugars via bacterial metabolism, whereas ECNF are formed by electrospinning using different solvents of cellulose [12].
CNCs are also known as cellulose nanowhiskers or nanocrystalline celluloses. CNCs are rigid with a high modulus of elasticity (about 140 GPa) owing to their inherent crystallinity and orientation of hydrogen bonding, which is a rod-like or needle-like microstructure. The diameter and length of CNCs are less than 100 nm and around 100–400 nm, respectively. The degree of crystallinity usually changes from 54 to 84% [2]. Acid hydrolysis is a facile process used primarily. The crystallinity and size of CNCs are determined by the types of cellulose, the methods of isolation, and the corresponding parameters (hydrolysis time and temperature). The short rod-like CNCs with high degree of crystallinity originate mainly in the woody biomass and are obtained by acid hydrolysis. However, the CNCs with higher aspect ratios are typically obtained from bacteria and tunicates [13], as seen in Figure 2.
Transmission electron microscope (TEM) images of cellulose nanocrystals derived from (a) wood, (b) bamboo, (c) straw, and (d) tunicate [
Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) with the same name, such as cellulose nanofibers, nanofibrillar cellulose, microfibrillated cellulose, and cellulose microfibrils, are long and flexible nanofibers, entangled into a mesh, which can be isolated mechanically (Figure 3). Their diameter and length range from 2 to 50 nm and 500 nm to several microns, respectively [10]. CNFs exhibit a stable configuration mainly due to their cellulosic molecular chains connected by hydrogen bonds. Typical mechanical ways including homogenization, refining, grinding, microfluidization, cryocrushing, and ultrasonication are used to defibrillate the cellulose, thus producing CNFs [12]. Some chemical pretreatments can be introduced to synergistically break the cellulose hydrogen bonds, resulting in enhanced accessibility of hydroxyl groups, which change the crystallinity and promote the reactivity of fibers. The inherent mechanical properties of CNFs are excellent corresponding to the ultimate strength of 2–6 GPa and an elastic modulus of 138 GPa in the crystalline region [18, 19]. The longer length with the higher aspect ratio and surface area as well as additional hydroxyl groups, which are easily modified on the surface of CNFs compared with CNCs. CNFs also exhibit outstanding thermal stability, optical transmittance, and gas barrier properties.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of cellulose nanofibrils from hardwood kraft pulp [
Electrospinning is a novel, facile, and efficient way to fabricate continuous submicron or nanocellulose fiber. They have great potential for various applications due to their unique interwoven porous structure, low carbon footprint, and green synthesis. Electrospinning can be also used for the orientation and assembly of nanofibers to decrease the Gibbs free energy. During the electrospinning process, the cellulose solution is in a high voltage electric field. The droplets overcome the surface tension and then jet in a filament to the collection device through the air during solvent evaporation. The electrospinning process is influenced by the source of cellulose, concentration, viscosity, and surface tension of cellulose solution as well as electric field intensity, the receiving distance, and air temperature and humidity. In recent decades, the ECNFs and their derivatives have attracted great interest. The selection and development of the appropriate solvent system are the most important prerequisite and guarantee for the preparation of high-quality cellulose nanofibers by electrospinning.
Bacterial cellulose (BC) is synthesized by specific microorganisms in the sugar source. Its chemical structure contains linear glucan molecules connected via hydrogen bonds, similar to the plant cellulose, and is free of lignin, hemicelluloses, and pectin. BC is assembled by twisting ribbons with cross-sectional area of 210–420 nm2 and length of 1–9 μm. The degree of polymerization and crystallinity of BC are about 3000–9000 and 80–90%, respectively [20, 21]. Approximately 200,000 glucose molecules are formed via polymerization by a single
See Figure 4.
Preparation method of nanocellulose.
Mechanical isolation of CNF is usually performed after chemical pretreatment of cellulose. An appropriate pretreatment changes the crystallinity of cellulose and increases its reactivity. Cellulosic nanofibers are usually prepared under high-speed shear force and friction to dissociate the raw material into microfilament bundles with nanometer width and micron length. The main processing equipment utilizes high-pressure homogenization (HPH), microfluidization, grinding, ball milling, and cryocrushing. The first three techniques are the most common methods of mechanical isolation, as shown in Figure 5.
The most common mechanical method for preparing CNF: (a) homogenization, (b) microfluidization, (c) grinding [
HPH is the most widely utilized method for preparing CNFs. It was first used to prepare CNFs from wood pulp in 1983 [26]. HPH is performed by sending the fiber slurry suspension into the container through a small nozzle, which generates high shear in the suspension under high speed, high pressure, and fluid impact, thereby reducing the fiber size to the nanometer scale [27]. HPH is a highly efficient isolation technique for refining cellulose fiber sheets owing to its simplicity and lack of organic solvents. Many researchers have attempted to use various feedstocks in HPH. Sugar beet was successfully isolated at 30 MPa for 10–15 cycles by Leitner et al. [28]. Habibi et al. [29] used bleached cellulose residues to extract about 2–5 nm wide CNFs through HPH of 15 times at 50 MPa. Clogging is one of the most significant limitations of HPH. Due to uneven particle distribution, small orifice size, and high homogenization pressure, homogenization often leads to pipe clogging and pump wear. In addition, the homogenization time is prolonged and the energy consumption is increased. To overcome the disadvantages of clogging and wearing, the size is usually reduced prior to HPH. Therefore, a series of experiments were carried out using kenaf bast fibers to produce nanofibers [30]. Kenaf bast fibers were pretreated by refining and low-temperature crushing to obtain 10–90 nm wide nanofibers. CNFs with a width of 20–25 nm and 15–80 nm were obtained by pretreatment of kenaf core and stem by grinding. Zimmermann et al. [31] used milling pretreatment of wheat straw and wood fiber prior to homogenization of 150 MPa to obtain the nanofibrous cellulose.
Microfluidization is also a common method used to produce CNFs from pretreated cellulose based on a principle similar to HPH. Microfluidization is mainly conducted in a homogeneous cavity under a pressurizing mechanism, with usually “N” and “Y” types inside the homogeneous chamber. The microfluidizer combines the advantages of microfluidization and ultrahigh pressure (>300 MPa). Cellulose is passed through an N-shaped or Y-shaped channel at Mach speed in a pressurized chamber. It is simultaneously subjected to shear force, high-frequency oscillation, cavitation, and shocking, resulting in the breakdown of intermolecular hydrogen bonds of cellulose and the fibrillation [32].
Grinding is a facile and low energy consumption method. It facilitates the possibility of industrial manufacture of CNFs. Generally, slurry is passed through static and rotating grinding stones in the instrument. The process of fibrillation in the shredder disrupts the hydrogen bonds and destroys the cell wall structures using shear forces to turn cellulose raw materials into nanoscale fibers [33]. Compared with HPH, traditional disc grinding has a lower efficiency due to the difficulty in tuning the gap of the two disks after gradually reducing the cellulose size. Meanwhile, the improper adjustment of the two grinding disks at a high speed of rotation results in collision and friction with the metal or inorganic fragments. In addition, the cellulose is easily embedded in the grooves of grinding discs during the grinding process, resulting in uneven scale. New grinding methods such as supermasscolloider and planetary ball milling have been shown to overcome the disadvantage of low efficiency. Furthermore, due to the presence of holes inside the chamber, it is easy to incorporate cellulose during the grinding process. The grinding procedure, however, is difficult to clog, and a large quantity of raw materials can be treated simultaneously. However, heat is easily generated by high-speed rotating disc grinding and cannot be dissipated rapidly (Figure 6).
Schematic diagram of the preparation of CNF by ball milling [
The cryocrushing technique is used to obtain CNFs at low temperature via mechanical fibrillation. Cryocrushing of fibers is generally preceded after chemical pretreatment. The celluloses are rapidly frozen under liquid nitrogen, followed by treatment with high shear force, resulting in longitudinal decomposition and formation of CNFs [12]. The width of the CNFs extracted by cryocrushing is between 5 and 80 nm, and the length is several thousands of nanometers [35]. This technique is rarely used in commercial applications due to its limited ability to produce CNFs.
Oxidation via 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) is used for surface modification of native cellulose, which results in the oxidation of hydroxyl groups into carboxyl groups in mild aqueous systems. This method preserves the fibrous morphology of native cellulose, and the oxidation reaction only occurs on the cellulose surface. The surface negative charges lead to mutual repulsion between fibers, which facilitates the disintegration of fine fiber bundles and nanofibrillation. The most common oxidation method used is TEMPO/NaBr/NaClO in the aqueous system at pH = 9–11, TEMPO and NaBr play a catalytic role, and NaClO oxidizes the fiber surface [36]. Saito et al. used TEMPO for carboxylation of cellulose surface and successfully obtained fibers with a width of 3–4 nm and a length of several micrometers with a mechanical method involving pure nanofibrils [37]. To prevent side reactions, such as the degradation or discoloration of oxidized cellulose due to aldehyde groups, Hirota et al. utilized a TEMPO/NaClO/NaClO2 oxidation system in neutral or slightly acidic conditions at pH 4.8–6.8 and a reaction temperature of 60°C, the carboxyl content can reach 1.87 mmol g-1 [38]. Further, the TEMPO/NaClO/NaClO2 oxidation system can maintain the original polymerization of cellulose with uniform diameter and basically no aldehyde groups. Although the TEMPO oxidation method introduces a large number of carboxyl groups, which may reduce the degree of cellulose molecule polymerization, the crystal structure and crystallinity of cellulose are basically unchanged. The nanofibrils are uniformly dispersed in water, and the aspect ratio of the fibers is larger possibly due to many functional groups such as carboxyl groups on the surface.
Acid hydrolysis is used as a facile process for the isolation of cellulose nanocrystals. This process involves acid-induced decomposition with the diffusion of acid molecules into cellulose microfibrils. The preparation of CNC via acid hydrolysis is mainly based on the difference in hydrolysis kinetics between the amorphous and the crystalline regions. It disrupts the glycosidic bonds in the cellulose molecular chain along the amorphous domains of the cellulose fibers, resulting in fracture of the hierarchical structure of cellulose bundles into CNCs. Acid hydrolysis decreases the degree of polymerization of CNCs. When the cellulose is partially hydrolyzed, a large amount of water is added for dilution, and the residual acid and impurities are removed by centrifugal dialysis.
Historically, sulfonated cellulose nanocrystals (SCNCs) were successfully prepared for the first time in 1947 via sulfuric acid hydrolysis by Nickerson [39]. The concentration, temperature, and time of sulfuric acid hydrolysis play an important role in particle size, morphology, and physicochemical properties of CNCs [40]. Therefore, the reaction parameters and cellulose raw materials should be considered. Nagarajan et al. [41] reported incomplete hydrolysis when sulfuric acid concentration is less than 63 wt%. In this process, particles with low crystallinity are produced and small amounts of amorphous and aromatic polymers are dissolved. The productivity is enhanced when the sulfuric acid concentration ranges between 63% and 64% and the temperature is between 45°C and 60°C for 30–120 min [40, 42]. Similarly, when the concentration of sulfuric acid is greater than 65 wt%, there is a possibility of swelling of the crystalline region [43]. Sulfuric acid hydrolysis occurs between sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxyl groups on the surface of the crystal sulfate of electric charge. When the sulfate group is introduced into the surface of nano crystal, its dispersibility in water is improved, but its thermal stability is reduced.
Hydrochloric acid hydrolysis is another available method for preparing CNCs. The efficiency of hydrochloric acid hydrolysis of CNCs is enhanced at an acid concentration of 2.5–6.0 N and a temperature of 60–105°C for 2–4 h [44, 45]. Compared with sulfuric acid hydrolysis, CNCs hydrolyzed by hydrochloric acid carry no charged groups on the surface, so the dispersibility of the product in water is limited, resulting in easy aggregation and flocculation. The rheological properties of the two acid-hydrolyzed cellulose nanocrystals are different. The viscosity of nanocrystal suspensions obtained by hydrolysis of sulfuric acid is not correlated with time. However, the nanocrystal suspension hydrolyzed by hydrochloric acid exhibits thixotropy when the mass fraction is above 0.5 wt%, and anti-thixotropy when the mass fraction is below 0.3 wt% [45]. The nanocrystals obtained by blending sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid have the same size as the nanocrystals hydrolyzed by sulfuric acid. However, the surface charge of the nanocrystals can be adjusted by changing the ratio of the two components.
Phosphoric acid hydrolysis is a mild method. The CNCs prepared via phosphoric acid hydrolysis were thermally stable than those obtained by sulfuric acid [46]. Nevertheless, the colloidal stability of the suspension obtained after hydrolysis is not comparable to that of sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Acid concentration of 70–75 wt%, duration between 80 and 120 min, and temperatures from 100 to 120°C resulted in higher efficiency of phosphoric acid hydrolysis [47]. In addition, the phosphoric-acid-hydrolyzed CNCs exhibited better dispersibility in polar solvents than sulfuric-acid-hydrolyzed CNCs, and it can also be used as flame retardants and bio-bone scaffold materials [48].
Organic acids are recyclable, milder, and environmentally friendlier than other classical inorganic acids. Xie et al. [49] reported that 91 ± 2% of oxalic acid was recycled when sulfuric acid/oxalic acid mixture was used to prepare CNCs. Further, these organic acids are less corrosive to the processing equipment. Therefore, organic acid hydrolysis will be increasingly utilized in industrial manufacture of CNCs. Li et al. [50] reported a method of CNC synthesis from formic acid under mild conditions. Initially, the amorphous domains of cellulose are destroyed by formic acid (FA), releasing CNCs. Further oxidation using TEMPO increased the charge density on the CNC surface. The CNCs hydrolyzed by formic acid and modified by TEMPO exhibit higher crystallinity and surface charge density. The hydrolytic efficiency was further improved by Du et al. using FeCl3 addition to the formic acid hydrolysis system [51]. The results indicated that the particle size of the synthesized CNCs was decreased with increasing ferric chloride dosage in the formic acid hydrolysis.
Although most reports of the preparation of nanocellulose crystals entail inorganic acid hydrolysis, the method has disadvantages such as easy corrosion of equipment, environmental pollution, difficult to control the degree of hydrolysis, and low yield. The strong acid cation exchange resin in the solid acid catalyst can be used to replace the homogeneous acid catalysts such as sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid. The preparation of CNCs via solid acid hydrolysis is environmentally friendly and increases the recoverable yield. Tang et al. [52] used solid acid hydrolysis to prepare CNC from MCC by mixing the strong acid cation exchange resin with water in a ratio of 1:12 with continuous stirring. The crystallinity of the CNCs is higher than that of the CNCs prepared by sulfuric acid. However, the reaction time is long and the reaction efficiency is low due to the limited contact area between solid acid and cellulose. Therefore, it is still in the stage of laboratory research.
Enzymatic hydrolysis of CNCs is a cheaper alternative to acid hydrolysis, which eliminates harsh chemicals and requires less energy consumption for fibrillation. Cellulose can be selectively degraded by the enzyme in the amorphous or crystalline regions. Cellulase is a multicomponent enzyme system with synergistic actions. It comprises endoglucanases (EGs), cellobiohydrolases (CBHs), and β-glucosidase (GBs) depending on the different catalytic reactions. EGs randomly cleave the amorphous regions within the cellulose polysaccharide chain, producing oligosaccharides of different lengths and new chain ends [53]. CBH acts on the ends of cellulosic polysaccharide chains to release glucose or cellobiose. GB hydrolyzes cellobiose to yield two molecules of glucose [12]. Under the action of cellulase, not only the amorphous region is cleaved by EG but also the crystalline region is destroyed by CBHs. Therefore, the degradation of CBHs to the cellulose crystal region should be avoided during enzymatic hydrolysis. The three components of cellulase are separated from each other by pretreatment. Amorphous regions of cellulose are maintained for EG hydrolysis, while additional crystalline regions are preserved during enzymatic hydrolysis.
Wood adhesive is the one of the most important components in the manufacture of wood-based composites such as medium-density fiberboards (MDF), particle boards (PB), and plywoods, which directly determines the comprehensive properties of panels. Urea-formaldehyde (UF), phenolic-formaldehyde (PF), and melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) adhesives are widely used in the wood industry. Several studies reported chemical modification of wood adhesive but few described modifications of nanocellulose [54]. Surface morphology, chemistry, and adhesive properties affect the interfacial bonding and sufficient cross-linking reaction between wood and adhesives during the curing process. Nanocellulose with an inherent advantage of high stiffness and specific surface area at an appropriate amount improves the viscosity and stiffness of the wood adhesives. Nanocellulose can also fill the rough surface and hole in wood-unit surface, resulting in decreased porosity [55]. Nanocelluloses generated via various methods of isolation and modification exhibit differential effects on the bonding between wood and adhesive. The entangled microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) was prepared by a strong mechanical shearing resulted in high viscosity of adhesive [56]. TEMPO-CNF with long fibrillated morphology and negatively charged surface improves the CNF dispersion in the polar adhesive. Surface wettability of wood adhesive can be altered by various levels of energy dissipation with the addition of the modified nanocellulose. Aminopropyltriethoxysilane modification effectively reduced the surface energy of CNC, leading to a remarkable increase in the contact angle of CNC and urea formaldehyde resin [57].
Stress concentration at the bonding interface of wood and brittle adhesives (UF, PF, and MUF) is high corresponding to the density of cross-linked methylene and the degree of crystallinity. The reaction of hydroxyl groups and methylol groups in nanocellulose and UF promotes the ductility of adhesives. The crystalline regions improve the hydrolytic stability, resulting in reduced release of formaldehyde. The formaldehyde emission can be reduced by 13% by adding the modified CNCs at optimum levels (1 wt%) [57]. The major challenge for the adhesive modification by nanocellulose is the suspension of nanocellulose during the synthesis [58]. The higher the content of nanocellulose suspension incorporated, the higher the content of water in the adhesive, which reduces the solid content, resulting in slow curing process. The UF resin can be synthesized in various reaction conditions including weak acid, alkaline, and strong acids. Therefore, positively charged or uncharged nanocellulose under strong acid environment is essential due to the easy agglomeration of TEMPO-CNF at pKa = 3.50 via hydrogen bonding. The addition of nanocellulose or other cross-linkers such as poly(vinyl alcohol) effectively promotes the adhesive properties [59]. This provides a novel way to produce eco-friendly wood adhesives and reduce the use of petroleum-based polymers in wood adhesives in the future.
Nanocellulose for novel energy storage application has received considerable attention due to its inherent structure and properties. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with excellent properties including high energy density, non-memory effect, long-life cycles and low self-discharge rates, are key contributors to green energy storage [60]. Carbonaceous materials pyrolyzed by various precursors are the most utilized anodes industrially in lithium-ion batteries, resulting in low cost and various allotropic forms and morphologies [61]. Most anodes derived from natural cellulose are based on modified or synthetic porous carbon using chemical solvents or metals.
Nevertheless, directly pyrolyzed natural cellulose is an alternative candidate with acceptable electrochemical performance. The CNF carbon as anode in LIBs exhibited higher capacity but a weaker rate compared with CNC carbon. The disordered carbons used as LIB anodes were obtained by pyrolysis of microcrystalline cellulose in the temperature range of 950–1100°C [62]. Natural bacterial cellulose-based carbon treated by freeze-drying and carbonization showed good properties because of low charge transfer resistance and high specific surface area. To effectively promote the electronic conductivity of carbonaceous materials, nitrogen (N) doping in carbonaceous materials with similar atomic radii leads to desirable lattice mismatch, improves interfacial characteristics of the electrolyte and electrode, which facilitate electrical conductivity [63]. Unlike the traditional petroleum-based precursors from melamine or polyacrylonitrile for synthesizing N-doped carbons, novel chitosan (CS) contains 40% carbon and 8% nitrogen [64]. The N-doped porous carbon anodes derived from chitosan for the supercapacitance were successfully prepared by fine-tuning the hydrothermal carbonization parameters [65].
The natural nitrogen-doped porous carbon anode in LIBs was prepared by CS/CNC biocomposites using a facile procedure [60]. The N-doping content, the interfacial compatibility, and the pyrolysis temperature have a synergistic effect on the electrochemical performance of anodes. The outstanding cycling stability and coulombic efficiency of anodes are found at a pyrolyzed temperature of 1200°C. The addition of CNC has a positive effect on the rate retention and cycling performance. The CS/CNC anodes at the ratio of 10 wt% have high porosity, C/N ratio, and the multiscale pore distribution, resulting in an average specific capacity of 333 mAh g−1 at 100 mA g−1, retention capacity of 251 mAh g−1 at 2000 mA g−1, and almost constant capacity of 327 mAh g−1 after cycling. The CE/CS composite nanofibrous mats were obtained by single-nozzle and coaxial-nozzle electrospinning and then pyrolyzed at 900°C. The porous structure of carbon nanofibrous mats releases partial mechanical stress generated by the insertion and extraction of lithium ions. Their rough surface was conductive to the formation of solid electrolyte film, reducing the co-intercalation of solvent molecules and improving the cycling stability. The conventional carbon nanofibrous mats with a CE/CS ratio of 5:5 showed optimum electrochemical performance including a good rate performance (399 mAh g−1 at 30 mA g−1), a high specific capacity (327 mAh g−1 at 100 mA g−1), and an excellent cycling stability after 300 cycles. The carbon nanofibrous mats with the core-shell structure (CE as core and CS as shell) and the same ratio of CE/CS had higher pyridinic-N and pyrrolic-N content but a lower degree of graphitization and specific surface area in comparison with the common one. The N was more uniformly doped into the carbon nanofibrous mats via single-nozzle electrospinning compared with the coaxial technique, leading to a promotion for comprehensive electrochemical performance [66].
The separator of LIBs has two major functions: (1) preventing the direct contact of two electrodes; (2) enabling lithium-ion transportation by the electrolyte reservoir. It plays a significant role in LIB performance, such as cycle life, safety, and power density. The CNF film as a separator for LIBs exhibits high mechanical strength, thermal stability, and electrolytic property. Further, the CNF separator effectively promotes electrolyte wettability, ionic conductivity, and dimensional stability compared with commercialized separators fabricated from polypropylene/polyethylene/polypropylene. The CNF separators derived from
The role of nanocellulose in reinforcing polylactic acid (PLA)-based composites has been studied in recent decades. Most studies report that the mechanical strength and elastic modulus are improved after the incorporation of appropriate levels of nanocellulose. The poor interfacial compatibility between the nanocellulose with hydrophilic groups and the thermoplastic resins with hydrophobic groups limits the addition of nanocellulose in PLA. The ideal addition level of nanocellulose required to reinforce polymers is only 0.5–2 wt%. The surface properties of nanocellulose are generally modified by chemical or physical methods, which improved their dispersion and compatibility in PLA matrix. The CNC-graft-PLA/PLA nanocomposites modified by dicumyl peroxide were fabricated via reactive extrusion with a high grafting efficiency of 66% [69], which effectively promoted the interfacial bonding between CNCs and the PLA matrix, as well as the thermal stability of composites. The tensile strength of the composites increased by 40%, and its Young’s modulus significantly rose by 490%.
Compared with the rigid CNCs, CNFs with flexible long chains exhibit possible entanglement with the resin matrix. A novel micro encapsulation-mixing and melt-compression technique to obtain CNF-reinforced PLA composites with uniform dispersion was reported by Wang and Drzal [70]. The PLA microparticles were obtained via solvent evaporation and mixed with CNFs generated by HPH. The dense PLA/CNFs composite sheets were prepared by membrane filtration and compression molding. This approach prompted the dispersion of the CNFs in the matrix even at high levels (32 wt%), which increased the modulus by 58% and the strength by 210%, respectively. The introduction of CNFs alters the crystallization of the PLA. Homogeneous and stable crystals can be obtained by increasing CNF loading, where CNFs act as the nucleating agents to accelerate crystallization of PLA particles and reduce the cold crystallization temperature [71]. An electrospinning technique incorporating CNCs with PLA improved the dispersion of CNCs in the composites [72]. A CNC loading of 2–3 wt% can effectively increase the elastic modulus by 17% and tensile strength by 14%, as well as contribute to stable ductility of the CNC/PLA composites.
Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin is a typical and widely used thermosetting polymer. The mechanical properties of micro- and nanocellulose fibers as reinforcements for PF composites were compared [73]. The nanocomposite showed better mechanical properties than the micro-composites. The CNFs facilitate stress transfer in composites. The hydrophilicity of CNF enhanced the interfacial compatibility between CNF and PF. The CNFs immersed and dispersed in PF before polymerization, resulting in strong bonding in the outer layer of CNFs corresponding to strong fiber-matrix adhesion, which explains the higher strength of the CNF-reinforced PF composites compared with cellulose microfibril-reinforced PF composites. The commercial glass fibers with addition amount of 20 wt% promote the mechanical strengths of PF. However, the incorporation of natural CNF into the PF significantly elevated the tensile strength, flexural strength, and impact strength of CNF/PF composites by 142, 280, and 133%, respectively, at low CNF loading [73, 74]. The TEMPO-CNF/PF composites were prepared by a three-step procedure including mixing of CNFs and resin, ultrafiltration, and hot molding. The special processes of ultrafiltration and drying effectively adsorbed the moisture and then released the residual stress of the composite films. The obtained films were flexible with an average elongation at break of 13–17%. The neutral pH, the high polymerization of CNF, and the special composite method may contribute to the excellent mechanical strength of the TEMPO-CNF/PF composites. The TEMPO-CNF/PF composite flexible films were obtained via impregnation of TEMPO-CNF with aqueous PF resin, which yielded a tensile stress and toughness of 248 MPa and 26 MJ m-3, respectively [75].
The traditional activated carbon and zeolites are two most widely used adsorbents for the wasted water and air treatment. Nanocellulose, as a potential bio-adsorbent with the advantages of sustainability, nontoxicity, biodegradation, tiny size, large specific surface area, and the numerous choices to surface functionalization, has attracted tremendous interests in environmental remediation including metal ions, anionic and cationic dyes, and air pollutants.
The CNFs modified by carboxylate groups have been proved to be an effective adsorbent to several metal ions such as Pb2+, Cd2+, and Ni2+, even the radioactive UO22+ [76], which is attributed to the attraction of negative charges [77]. The maximum adsorption capacity (167 mg g−1) for UO22+ can be achieved with a three times higher than other popular adsorbents including montmorillonite, silica, and hydrogels. The CNFs modified by 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane showed a positive effect on adsorbing Ni2+, Cu2+, and Cd2+ in solutions [78]. The adsorption performance depends on the pH range. The mercerized nanocellulose modified by succinic anhydride can quickly adsorb Zn2+, Cd2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, and Co2+ above 50% within 5 min. The maximum adsorption capacities correspond to 1.6, 2, 2, 0.8, and 1.3 mmol g−1 [79]. CNC is also proved to be available for adsorption of Cd2+, Ni2+, and Pb2+ but corresponding to a low adsorption capacity of 8.55, 9.42, and 9.7 mg g−1 in 25 mg L−1 aqueous solutions [80]. The adsorption capacities of Ag+, Cu2+, and Fe3+ by CNC are 56, 20, and 6.5 mg g−1. The modification of CNC using phosphate groups effectively improved the adsorption capacity for several metal ions, corresponding to 136, 117, and 115 mg g−1, respectively [81]. The modification effect of CNC by succinic anhydride on the adsorption of Pb2+ and Cd2+ was investigated. There was a about 10-fold adsorption capacity higher for modified CNC than the control one. The CNC adsorbent can regenerate using a saturated sodium chloride solution without any loss of adsorption capacity after two recycles [82].
CNF and CNC were also investigated in the adsorption of anionic and cationic dyes. CNF obtained from kenaf by a combination of acidified-chlorite pretreatment, which was proved to have a good adsorption capacity on methylene blue (MB). The parameters for maximum adsorption capacity (123 mg g−1) are at 20°C and pH of 9 within 1 min. CNF can be regenerated by an acidic medium and has a six adsorption-desorption available cycles [83]. CNCs can also remove the MB from aqueous solutions. The maximum adsorption equilibrium capacity fitted by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models was 118 mg dye g-1 when the temperature and pH were set at 25°C and 9. The TEMPO-oxidized CNC corresponds to a higher adsorption capacity (769 mg dye g-1) [84]. Sodium-periodate-oxidized CNC modified by ethylenediamine has an effective adsorption capacity for acid red, light yellow K-4G, and Congo red 4BS anionic dyes corresponding to the adsorption capacities of 135, 183, and 200 mg g−1, respectively [85].
In addition, the toxic hydrogen sulfide (H2S) adsorption performance was also studied by modified microfibrillated cellulose, such as aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APS) and hydroxycarbonated apatite (HAP) [86]. The H2S adsorption capacity corresponding to 103.95 and 13.38 mg g−1 for APS/MFC and HAP/MFC can be achieved when the initial concentration was 80 mg L−1. Compared with activated carbons, montmorillonites, silica-aluminas, and mixed zinc/cobalt hydroxides with the maximum adsorption capacities of 2–70, 0.5–12, 117–207, and 24–228 mg g−1 [79], APS/MFC is considered a promising bio-adsorbent.
Nanocellulose shows a great potential and brilliant prospect to be a novel functional bio-product with many inherent advantages including excellent mechanical properties and thermal stability, high specific surface area, available tailorability, and other special properties in the future of wood industry and its industrial cross fields, such as wood construction, wood adhesives, fabrication and reinforcement of composites, green energy storage and adsorption system. The nanocellulose-based composites with the functional polymers, inorganics, and metals are also a promising direction for the developing green novel bio-products with the low or even zero carbon footprint in the future. However, the most important issue on nanocelluloses is its manufacture on a large scale due to the limited transition technology from lab-scale products to industrial production. Future works should focus on optimizing the industrial process and continuously developing new or combining methods to produce nanocellulose with the low energy consumption and high efficiency. Also, the life cycle assessment, regulation, and standardization of nanocellulose for safety and environmental properties will be necessary for next commercialization.
This work is supported by the following grants and programs: 1. Yunnan Provincial Applied and Basic Research Grants (202201AT070058, 2019FB067); 2. National Natural Science Foundation of China (32060381); 3. the High Level Innovative One-Ten-Thousand Youth Talents of Yunnan Province (YNWR-QNBJ-2020-203); 4. 111 Project (D21027).
There is no conflict of interest in this field.
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",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
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\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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Pungent Chili varieties are grown for their food value, health-promoting properties and as a source of capsaicinoids that have a variety of medicinal uses. Accessions of the cultivated species (Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, and C. pubescens) have not all been analyzed for their capsaicinoids content. Identifying Capsicum species and accessions (genotypes) within species with high levels of antioxidants and bioactive compounds (capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, vitamin C, vitamin E, phenols, and β-carotene) that contribute to human disease therapy is the focus of this investigation. The main objectives of this chapter are to compile an overview of most recent achievements of the pharmacological properties of hot pepper compounds and provide a rationale for their use as analgesics and to present an evidence that supports the use of capsaicinoids in the treatment of neuropathic pain and other top leading death of worldwide human diseases.",book:{id:"6810",slug:"capsaicin-and-its-human-therapeutic-development",title:"Capsaicin and its Human Therapeutic Development",fullTitle:"Capsaicin and its Human Therapeutic Development"},signatures:"George F. Antonious",authors:[{id:"174916",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:"Fouad",surname:"Antonious",slug:"george-antonious",fullName:"George Antonious"}]},{id:"25781",doi:"10.5772/26078",title:"Selecting Medicinal Plants for Development of Phytomedicine and Use in Primary Health Care",slug:"selecting-medicinal-plants-for-development-of-phytomedicine-and-use-in-primary-health-care",totalDownloads:7604,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1957",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-phytomedicine",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Phytomedicine",fullTitle:"Bioactive Compounds in Phytomedicine"},signatures:"Wagner Luiz Ramos Barbosa, Myrth Soares do Nascimento, Lucianna do Nascimento Pinto, Fernando Luiz Costa Maia, Antonio Jorge Ataíde Sousa, José Otávio Carréra Silva Júnior, Maurícia Melo Monteiro and Danilo Ribeiro de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"38525",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Otavio Carrera",middleName:null,surname:"Silva Junior",slug:"jose-otavio-carrera-silva-junior",fullName:"Jose Otavio Carrera Silva Junior"},{id:"38833",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Wagner",middleName:"Luiz Ramos",surname:"Barbosa",slug:"wagner-barbosa",fullName:"Wagner Barbosa"},{id:"65477",title:"MSc.",name:"Lucianna",middleName:null,surname:"Pinto",slug:"lucianna-pinto",fullName:"Lucianna Pinto"},{id:"72437",title:"MSc.",name:"Fernando Luiz",middleName:null,surname:"Costa Maia",slug:"fernando-luiz-costa-maia",fullName:"Fernando Luiz Costa Maia"},{id:"75403",title:"MSc.",name:"Antonio Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Ataide Souza",slug:"antonio-jorge-ataide-souza",fullName:"Antonio Jorge Ataide Souza"},{id:"115432",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"danilo-oliveira",fullName:"Danilo Oliveira"},{id:"115433",title:"Mrs.",name:"Myrth",middleName:null,surname:"Soares De Nascimento",slug:"myrth-soares-de-nascimento",fullName:"Myrth Soares De Nascimento"},{id:"120234",title:"MSc.",name:"Mauricia",middleName:null,surname:"Melo Monteiro",slug:"mauricia-melo-monteiro",fullName:"Mauricia Melo Monteiro"},{id:"120235",title:"BSc.",name:"Amiraldo",middleName:null,surname:"Peres",slug:"amiraldo-peres",fullName:"Amiraldo Peres"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"25790",title:"Zanthoxylum Genus as Potential Source of Bioactive Compounds",slug:"zanthoxylum-genus-as-potential-source-of-bioactive-compounds",totalDownloads:7001,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"1957",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-phytomedicine",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Phytomedicine",fullTitle:"Bioactive Compounds in Phytomedicine"},signatures:"L. Oscar Javier Patiño, R. Juliet Angélica Prieto and S. Luis Enrique Cuca",authors:[{id:"65330",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Patiño",slug:"oscar-patino",fullName:"Oscar Patiño"},{id:"76143",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Cuca Suárez",slug:"luis-enrique-cuca-suarez",fullName:"Luis Enrique Cuca Suárez"},{id:"76144",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliet",middleName:"Angélica",surname:"Prieto Rodríguez",slug:"juliet-prieto-rodriguez",fullName:"Juliet Prieto Rodríguez"}]},{id:"25789",title:"Erythrina, a Potential Source of Chemicals from the Neotropics",slug:"erythrina-a-potential-source-of-chemicals-from-the-neotropics",totalDownloads:5923,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"1957",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-phytomedicine",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Phytomedicine",fullTitle:"Bioactive Compounds in Phytomedicine"},signatures:"R. Marcos Soto-Hernández, Rosario García-Mateos, Rubén San Miguel-Chávez, Geoffrey Kite, Mariano Martínez-Vázquez and Ana C. Ramos-Valdivia",authors:[{id:"65790",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Soto-Hernández",slug:"marcos-soto-hernandez",fullName:"Marcos Soto-Hernández"}]},{id:"61858",title:"Capsaicinoids and Vitamins in Hot Pepper and Their Role in Disease Therapy",slug:"capsaicinoids-and-vitamins-in-hot-pepper-and-their-role-in-disease-therapy",totalDownloads:1784,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Members of the genus Capsicum (Family: Solanaceae), which belongs to a dicotyledonous group of flowering plants, show fluctuating degrees of spiciness that mirror the relative concentrations of capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, and other analogs (nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, and homodihydrocapsaicin) collectively known as capsaicinoids present in the fruit placenta. Pungent Chili varieties are grown for their food value, health-promoting properties and as a source of capsaicinoids that have a variety of medicinal uses. Accessions of the cultivated species (Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, and C. pubescens) have not all been analyzed for their capsaicinoids content. Identifying Capsicum species and accessions (genotypes) within species with high levels of antioxidants and bioactive compounds (capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, vitamin C, vitamin E, phenols, and β-carotene) that contribute to human disease therapy is the focus of this investigation. The main objectives of this chapter are to compile an overview of most recent achievements of the pharmacological properties of hot pepper compounds and provide a rationale for their use as analgesics and to present an evidence that supports the use of capsaicinoids in the treatment of neuropathic pain and other top leading death of worldwide human diseases.",book:{id:"6810",slug:"capsaicin-and-its-human-therapeutic-development",title:"Capsaicin and its Human Therapeutic Development",fullTitle:"Capsaicin and its Human Therapeutic Development"},signatures:"George F. Antonious",authors:[{id:"174916",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:"Fouad",surname:"Antonious",slug:"george-antonious",fullName:"George Antonious"}]},{id:"62311",title:"CAP and Metabolic Diseases: A Mini Review on Preclinical Mechanisms and Clinical Efficacy",slug:"cap-and-metabolic-diseases-a-mini-review-on-preclinical-mechanisms-and-clinical-efficacy",totalDownloads:1347,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Capsaicin (CAP) is the chief active ingredient of natural chili peppers. It has culinary and medicinal benefits. CAP activates its receptor, transient receptor potential vanilloid subfamily 1 (TRPV1), which is expressed in the sensory and motor neurons, adipocytes, liver, vascular smooth muscle cells, neuromuscular junction, skeletal muscle, heart and brain. The specificity of CAP to activate TRPV1 is the fundamental mechanism for its medicinal benefits to treat pain, obesity, hypertension, and other diseases. Preclinical data from rodent model of high fat diet-induced obesity collectively suggest that CAP exerts its effects by activating TRPV1 signaling pathway, which stimulates thermogenic mechanisms in the white and brown adipose tissues to induce browning of white adipose tissues and brown adipose tissue thermogenesis. This leads to enhancement of metabolic activity and thermogenesis to counter obesity. Although CAP and its pungent and non-pungent analogs are used in human clinical studies, their effects on satiety and energy expenditure have been the highlights of such studies. The precise mechanism of action of CAP has not been evaluated in humans. This article summarizes these data and suggests that long-term safety and tolerance studies are important for advancing CAP to treat human obesity.",book:{id:"6810",slug:"capsaicin-and-its-human-therapeutic-development",title:"Capsaicin and its Human Therapeutic Development",fullTitle:"Capsaicin and its Human Therapeutic Development"},signatures:"Baskaran Thyagarajan, Vivek Krishnan and Padmamalini Baskaran",authors:null},{id:"61453",title:"A Matter of Taste: Capsaicinoid Diversity in Chile Peppers and the Importance to Human Food Preference",slug:"a-matter-of-taste-capsaicinoid-diversity-in-chile-peppers-and-the-importance-to-human-food-preferenc",totalDownloads:1301,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Chile peppers are valued worldwide for their distinct capsaicinoid compounds that have been used traditionally in medicine and culinary practices. With 32 known species, five of them domesticated, they provide unique chemical profiles, when consumed by humans. Capsaicinoids, the spicy compounds, are alkaloids used to deter herbivory in the wild, offering protection to the chile pepper fruit seeds. Among the 22 known capsaicinoid structures, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin are normally the most abundant. In humans, capsaicin binds to nociceptor TRPV1 that generates a heat sensation. Capsaicin also mitigates inflammation responses in the digestive tract and has the potential to aid in nutrient absorption. Distinct heat profiles were recently described for the five domesticated Capsicum species showing a difference in heat sensations specific to species and pod type. Due to the many capsaicinoid structures, we explore the implications and opportunities of having a diverse array of heat profiles in genetically diverse Capsicum species.",book:{id:"6810",slug:"capsaicin-and-its-human-therapeutic-development",title:"Capsaicin and its Human Therapeutic Development",fullTitle:"Capsaicin and its Human Therapeutic Development"},signatures:"Ivette Guzmán and Paul W. 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His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. 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He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"