Some reported effects of production methods on the phenolic composition of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines.
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9430",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Energy Investment - Technical, Market and Policy Innovations to Address Risk",title:"Sustainable Energy Investment",subtitle:"Technical, Market and Policy Innovations to Address Risk",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book examines the technical, market, and policy innovations for unlocking sustainable investment in the energy sector. While finalizing this book, the COVID-19 pandemic is cutting a devastating swath through the global economy, causing the biggest fall in energy sector investment, exacerbating the global trade finance gap, worsening signs of growing income inequality, and devastating the health and livelihoods of millions. What is the parallel between the COVID-19 pandemic and the climate change crisis? The impacts of the global pandemic are expected to last for a few years, whereas those associated with the climate crisis will play out over several decades with potentially irreversible consequences. However, both show that the cost of inaction or delay in addressing the risks can lead to devastating outcomes or a greater probability of irreversible, catastrophic damages. In the context of sustainable energy investment and the transition to a low-carbon, climate-resilient economy, what ways can financial markets and institutions support net-zero-emission activities and the shift to a sustainable economy, including investment in energy efficiency, low-carbon and renewable energy technologies? This book provides students, policymakers, and energy investment professionals with the knowledge and theoretical tools necessary to address related questions in sustainable energy investment, risk management, and energy innovation agendas.",isbn:"978-1-83880-198-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-197-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-508-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86093",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sustainable-energy-investment-technical-market-and-policy-innovations-to-address-risk",numberOfPages:260,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"944911e9a2154a0bf8b358cafc971f42",bookSignature:"Joseph Nyangon and John Byrne",publishedDate:"March 10th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9430.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3793,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:13,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 30th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"225597",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Nyangon",slug:"joseph-nyangon",fullName:"Joseph Nyangon",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225597/images/system/225597.jpg",biography:"Dr. Joseph Nyangon is a senior researcher at the Center for Energy and Environmental Policy, University of Delaware. He is also a senior research fellow at the Foundation for Renewable Energy and Environment, a non-resident fellow of the Payne Institute at the Colorado School of Mines, and a research fellow in the Initiative for Sustainable Energy Policy at the Johns Hopkins University’s School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS). He holds a Ph.D., two master’s degrees, and an undergraduate degree focusing on energy economics, public policy, energy systems engineering and computing systems from Columbia University, the University of Delaware, among others. Dr. Nyangon’s practice focuses on applying optimization methods and econometric modeling techniques to evaluate electricity systems and generate insights to inform policy, risk pricing strategies, and planning decisions.",institutionString:"University of Delaware",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Delaware",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"245796",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Byrne",slug:"john-byrne",fullName:"John Byrne",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245796/images/system/245796.jpeg",biography:"Dr. John Byrne has contributed to Working Group III of the United Nations-sponsored Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) since 1992. Dr. Byrne is an advisor to the “Solar City Seoul” initiative, which is building 1 GWp of solar power on public buildings, parking facilities, and residential and commercial buildings. He is co-editor-in-chief of the invitation-only journal, WIREs Energy and Environment. He has published nineteen books and more than 170 research articles.",institutionString:"University of Delaware",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Delaware",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"770",title:"Renewable Energy",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-renewable-energy"}],chapters:[{id:"73728",title:"Introductory Chapter: Sustainable Energy Investment and the Transition to Renewable Energy-Powered Futures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94320",slug:"introductory-chapter-sustainable-energy-investment-and-the-transition-to-renewable-energy-powered-fu",totalDownloads:320,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Joseph Nyangon and John Byrne",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73728",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73728",authors:[{id:"225597",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Nyangon",slug:"joseph-nyangon",fullName:"Joseph Nyangon"},{id:"245796",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Byrne",slug:"john-byrne",fullName:"John Byrne"}],corrections:null},{id:"73085",title:"Tackling the Risk of Stranded Electricity Assets with Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93488",slug:"tackling-the-risk-of-stranded-electricity-assets-with-machine-learning-and-artificial-intelligence",totalDownloads:369,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The Paris Agreement on climate change requires nations to keep the global temperature within the 2°C carbon budget. Achieving this temperature target means stranding more than 80% of all proven fossil energy reserves as well as resulting in investments in such resources becoming stranded assets. At the implementation level, governments are experiencing technical, economic, and legal challenges in transitioning their economies to meet the 2°C temperature commitment through the nationally determined contributions (NDCs), let alone striving for the 1.5°C carbon budget, which translates into greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) gap. This chapter focuses on tackling the risks of stranded electricity assets using machine learning and artificial intelligence technologies. Stranded assets are not new in the energy sector; the physical impacts of climate change and the transition to a low-carbon economy have generally rendered redundant or obsolete electricity generation and storage assets. Low-carbon electricity systems, which come in variable and controllable forms, are essential to mitigating climate change. These systems present distinct opportunities for machine learning and artificial intelligence-powered techniques. This chapter considers the background to these issues. It discusses the asset stranding discourse and its implications to the energy sector and related infrastructure. The chapter concludes by outlining an interdisciplinary research agenda for mitigating the risks of stranded assets in electricity investments.",signatures:"Joseph Nyangon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73085",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73085",authors:[{id:"225597",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Nyangon",slug:"joseph-nyangon",fullName:"Joseph Nyangon"}],corrections:null},{id:"69358",title:"Risk Mitigation in Energy Efficiency Retrofit Projects Using Automated Performance Control",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89476",slug:"risk-mitigation-in-energy-efficiency-retrofit-projects-using-automated-performance-control",totalDownloads:320,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Performance gap concerns limit investment in the building energy efficiency retrofit market. In particular, the ability of projects to deliver on promised energy savings is commonly drawn into question. Performance risk mitigation mainly occurs through energy saving performance guarantees. Contractual stipulations arrange the conditions of the guarantee, and ceteris paribus, a higher energy saving guarantee should reduce project performance risk. Therefore, methods that yield a higher energy saving guarantee could help accelerate the market. We review the ability of “smart,” automated, and connected technologies to: (a) intelligently monitor and control the performance of energy-consuming devices to reduce performance variations, (b) provide additional degrees of control over the project’s performance, and, by doing so, (c) motivate the energy services company (ESCO) to raise the energy saving guarantee. Our analysis finds that use of such automated performance control could significantly raise the energy saving guarantee, making projects more likely to succeed.",signatures:"Job Taminiau, John Byrne, Daniel Sanchez Carretero, Soojin Shin and Jing Xu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69358",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69358",authors:[{id:"306657",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Job",surname:"Taminiau",slug:"job-taminiau",fullName:"Job Taminiau"},{id:"309663",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Byrne",slug:"john-byrne",fullName:"John Byrne"},{id:"310457",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Sanchez Carretero",slug:"daniel-sanchez-carretero",fullName:"Daniel Sanchez Carretero"},{id:"310458",title:"Ms.",name:"Soojin",surname:"Shin",slug:"soojin-shin",fullName:"Soojin Shin"},{id:"310459",title:"Ms.",name:"Jing",surname:"Xu",slug:"jing-xu",fullName:"Jing Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"72927",title:"Assessing Renewable Energy Loan Guarantees in the United States",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93288",slug:"assessing-renewable-energy-loan-guarantees-in-the-united-states",totalDownloads:235,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Conceived as an idea to push financing toward underdeveloped clean energy technology to improve the environment, promote economic growth, and produce a more secure energy supply, the Title XVII loan guarantee program has likely failed to meet these objectives. Instead, it has been used as a political tool, exposed taxpayers to unnecessary risk, diverted funding from alternative clean energy investments, and primarily benefitted large, politically connected corporations.",signatures:"Ryan M. Yonk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72927",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72927",authors:[{id:"196259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryan Merlin",surname:"Yonk",slug:"ryan-merlin-yonk",fullName:"Ryan Merlin Yonk"}],corrections:null},{id:"71285",title:"Innovative Circular Business Models: A Case from the Italian Fashion Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91277",slug:"innovative-circular-business-models-a-case-from-the-italian-fashion-industry",totalDownloads:329,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Transition to a sustainable economy signed by a circular vision and culture asks firms for huge investments to innovate their own management, strategies, business models, products, and marketing approaches. The Agenda 2030 and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) are an important framework for businesses to change their approach and contribute positively to the global movement to fight climate change. The question is what and how micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMES) can contribute to reduce their impacts while creating more value for them and their stakeholders. This paper aims to answer to this question presenting a case study from Italy where an artisan small firm is innovating to create more positive impacts in circular terms. The focus will be on circular economy and the firms’ material and energy strategies. In doing so, the paper will try to answer the following questions: how easy is for micro and small firms to apply circular economy strategies to contribute to reduce their environmental impacts? Does their strategy coherently compose energy and material flows? The case study will refer to the fashion system in Italy.",signatures:"Marco Tortora and Giuseppe Tortora",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71285",authors:[{id:"303546",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Tortora",slug:"marco-tortora",fullName:"Marco Tortora"},{id:"311774",title:"Mr.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Tortora",slug:"giuseppe-tortora",fullName:"Giuseppe Tortora"}],corrections:null},{id:"70310",title:"Harnessing Small Country Collaboration Opportunities to Advance Energy Innovation and Joint Investments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90348",slug:"harnessing-small-country-collaboration-opportunities-to-advance-energy-innovation-and-joint-investme",totalDownloads:257,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Greater international collaboration is required to catalyze research and development (R&D) investment flows in energy technologies. Successful deployment of such technologies requires innovative funding mechanisms, intellectual property, and data-driven analyses to make smarter, sustainable investment decisions. As small countries are increasingly dealing with effects of climate change, some are projected to lose large portions of their economy. This chapter discusses ways that smaller countries, both in the developed and developing world, can harness international cooperation to advance energy innovation and mitigate such impact. In contrast to collaboration with larger countries, smaller country collaboration can build more agile, balanced partnerships in which participating countries co-develop and co-own R&D and training, and define pilot programs that target their own needs. Leveraging each other’s strengths, small countries can become catalysts for global change. Smaller country collaboration is explored through a proposed model of collaboration in energy innovation between Singapore and Estonia, often considered gateways to Southeast Asia and the EU plus Russia, respectively. Specifically, Singapore and Estonia have the opportunity to leverage each other’s startup ecosystems, innovation systems, knowledge-based economies, and regional markets to build a niche in clean energy technologies, particularly energy storage innovation, with potential global impact on larger markets.",signatures:"Anneliese Gegenheimer and Charles Michael Gegenheimer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70310",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70310",authors:[{id:"309820",title:"Ms.",name:"Anneliese",surname:"Gegenheimer",slug:"anneliese-gegenheimer",fullName:"Anneliese Gegenheimer"},{id:"314737",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Michael",surname:"Gegenheimer",slug:"c.-michael-gegenheimer",fullName:"C. Michael Gegenheimer"}],corrections:null},{id:"71072",title:"Establishing Property Rights and Private Ownership: The Solution to Malinvestment in the Energy Sector in Developing Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91039",slug:"establishing-property-rights-and-private-ownership-the-solution-to-malinvestment-in-the-energy-secto",totalDownloads:291,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are over 800 million people in the world without access to modern forms of energy services, like electricity, cooking gas, and LPG. This has been called energy poverty. Most studies in the field of energy poverty address the issue from an absence of technological or financial resources perspective. They address the problem as energy in itself having an objective inherent value, more or less addressing the symptoms of the problem and not the problem itself. In this chapter, a new paradigm that addresses the problem of energy poverty and malinvestment is introduced. This paradigm, utilizing the theory of economic calculation and the use and exchange value embodied in the subjective value theory, makes a case for the importance of private property rights in the factors or means of production for modern forms or energy such as electricity. The Nigerian energy sector is used as a case study for this.",signatures:"Tam Kemabonta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71072",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71072",authors:[{id:"293945",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Tam",surname:"Kemabonta",slug:"tam-kemabonta",fullName:"Tam Kemabonta"}],corrections:null},{id:"73957",title:"The Electrification-Appliance Uptake Gap: Assessing the Off-Grid Appliance Market in Rwanda Using the Multi-Tier Framework",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93883",slug:"the-electrification-appliance-uptake-gap-assessing-the-off-grid-appliance-market-in-rwanda-using-the",totalDownloads:316,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The structure of the electricity system includes universal access to electricity that is adequate, available, reliable, affordable, legal, convenient, healthy, and safe and the efficient (inefficient) use of the electricity. Quality of access also influences clean energy technologies and electrical appliance purchase, ownership, use and perceived value (uptake, hereafter). Also, improved uptake assists in closing systemic gaps between rural and urban areas and grid and off-grid communities. Rwanda is projected to attain full electrification by 2024 (inclusive of all sectors: consumptive, productive and services). In this context, the East African country has articulated support mechanisms for off-grid market players through technical assessments and siting incentives. However, studies that focus on characterising diffusion and uptake of clean energy technologies and electrical appliances in mini-grid sites (market) are crucial to understand the emerging trends in off-grid rural electrification. This chapter contributes to this emerging discourse by proposing a four-fold demand side characterisation approach which (i) conducts a systemic review of literature to identify emerging off-grid themes as they relate to the multi-tier framework (MTF) and vice-versa, (ii) uses existing data to characterise the off-grid market (based on a typical village load), (iii) demonstrates the tariff regime changes using two payment methodologies (willingness to pay (WTP) and ability to pay (ATP)) and (iv) projects the 2024–2032 consumptive energy demand (using a simplified relation between appliance, it’s rating and duration of use). Results of this characterisation demonstrate global and local level (glo-cal) literature gaps meriting a localised MTF assessment. The purpose of the localised assessment reported in this Chapter was therefore to understand appliance uptake gaps at the user level. The typical village load is basic (implying low energy demand). Ceteris paribus, higher WTP and ATP by users yield higher tariffs. However, a high ATP is a business sustainability determinant than a high WTP. Because energy consumption is also dependent on how efficiently it is used by those with access, the Chapter discusses appliance efficiency as a partial definition of sustainable energy and also as an example of sustainable energy. Then, demand stimulation pathways addressing wider systemic opportunities at the intersection of the theory of change and the theory of agency and risk reduction in markets, investments and policy (derisking markets, investments and policy) are discussed. The first pathway focuses on women and youth participation in productive use activities. The second pathway highlights strategies for appliance financing such as cost-sharing and micro-credit. The final pathway considers economic activity stimulation which has multiplier effects on energy demand and consequently energy-using appliances uptake. The implications for Sustainable Citizens and markets, investments and policy innovations are contextualised in the Sustainable Energy Utility business model.",signatures:"Olivia Muza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73957",authors:[{id:"302281",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Olivia",surname:"Muza",slug:"olivia-muza",fullName:"Olivia Muza"}],corrections:null},{id:"71015",title:"Beyond the Hydrocarbon Economy: The Case of Algeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91033",slug:"beyond-the-hydrocarbon-economy-the-case-of-algeria",totalDownloads:378,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The energy sector is vital to efforts to combat climate change as well as achieve economic development. The economy of many Middle East and North African (MENA) countries, such as Algeria, Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, is completely based on hydrocarbons which represent the main source of the state revenue. Investing in renewable energy and efficiency is a winner strategy, allowing both to ensure the necessary availability of energy to cover the country’s domestic energy demand and to make more resources available for export to guarantee the state earnings. Renewable sources can be a solution for a transition to a more sustainable economy and a response to the economic stability of these countries affected by the volatility of oil prices. Such a strategy is reflected in improving the attractiveness of foreign investment in the renewable energy sector. Focusing on Algeria, in this article, we analyze the link between the Algerian economy and energy, underlining the current weakness. This work is partially based on the research financed by the meetMED project (WP 3.1) on barriers for domestic and international investors in the energy sector of Algeria.",signatures:"Cecilia Camporeale, Roberto Del Ciello and Mario Jorizzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71015",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71015",authors:[{id:"296882",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Jorizzo",slug:"mario-jorizzo",fullName:"Mario Jorizzo"},{id:"307387",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",surname:"Camporeale",slug:"cecilia-camporeale",fullName:"Cecilia Camporeale"},{id:"307388",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Delciello",slug:"roberto-delciello",fullName:"Roberto Delciello"}],corrections:null},{id:"70936",title:"Remotely Sensed Data for Assessment of Land Degradation Aspects, Emphases on Egyptian Case Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90999",slug:"remotely-sensed-data-for-assessment-of-land-degradation-aspects-emphases-on-egyptian-case-studies",totalDownloads:356,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Remote sensing and thematic data were used to provide comprehensive views of surface conditions related to land degradation and desertification, considered environmental extremes in arid and semi-arid regions. The current work applies techniques, starting with simple visual analyses up to a parametric methodology, adopted from the FAO/UNEP and UNESCO provisional methodology for assessment and mapping of soil degradation. Egyptian case studies are highlighted to insinuate on studied aspects. Variable satellite imageries (MSS, TM, and ETM) and aerial photographs were utilized to provide data on soil conditions, land cover, and land use. IDRISI and ArcGIS software were used to manage thematic data, while ERDAS IMAGIN was used to process satellite data and to derive the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values. A GIS model was established to modify the universal soil loss equation (USLE) calculating the present state and risk of soil degradation. The study area is found exposed to slight hazard of water erosion, however, and to high risk of wind erosion. It is also threatened by a slight to high salinization and slight to moderate physical degradation. It is recommended to use a GIS in detailed and very detailed studies for evaluating soil potentiality in agricultural expansion areas.",signatures:"Abd-alla Gad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70936",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70936",authors:[{id:"294002",title:"Prof.",name:"Abd-alla",surname:"Gad",slug:"abd-alla-gad",fullName:"Abd-alla Gad"}],corrections:null},{id:"72306",title:"Scaling Up Sustainable Biofuels for a Low-Carbon Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92652",slug:"scaling-up-sustainable-biofuels-for-a-low-carbon-future",totalDownloads:332,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fossil fuels oil, coal, and gas are valuable resources that are depleting day by day around the world and also imparting a negative impact on the environment. Biofuel because of its dynamic properties; its market values; and being sustainable, renewable, biodegradable, economic, non-pollutant, and abundant is an alternate source of energy. Each country can produce it independently, and because of these valuable properties biofuels have become superior over fossil fuels. This chapter gives a concise preface to biofuels and its impact on the environment. It includes definitions; classifications; impact on environment; implications; types of production techniques like chemical, biochemical, physical, and thermochemical techniques; types of resources like lignocellulosic-biomass, feedstock energy crops, algae, micro-algae, all kinds of solid wastes; and biofuels of prime importance like solid biofuels (biochar, solid biomass), gaseous biofuels (biogas, bio-syngas, and bio-hydrogen), and the most important liquid biofuels (bioethanol, biodiesel, and bio-oil). Due to increasing global warming and climate-changing conditions, in the near future biofuel being an environment-friendly resource of energy will be a substantial part of the world’s energy demand, with no or zero polluting agents.",signatures:"Tahira Shafique and Javeria Shafique",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72306",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72306",authors:[{id:"316563",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahira",surname:"Shafique",slug:"tahira-shafique",fullName:"Tahira Shafique"},{id:"320738",title:"Ms.",name:"Javeria",surname:"Shafique",slug:"javeria-shafique",fullName:"Javeria Shafique"}],corrections:null},{id:"70884",title:"City-Scale Decarbonization Strategy with Integrated Hydroelectricity-Powered Energy Systems: An Analysis of the Possibilities in Guadalajara, Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90899",slug:"city-scale-decarbonization-strategy-with-integrated-hydroelectricity-powered-energy-systems-an-analy",totalDownloads:290,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"According to the UN, in the next 20 years, most of the world’s population will live in urban areas. Cities consume a high amount of resources, between this water, for their sustenance, hence the greatest necessity of sustainable development plans. What viable options or strategies can we consider in Latin America such that it can resist the economic, political, and social changes that it is facing? Through prospective studies, in case of Guadalajara, it is possible to determinate how water can generate clean energy, and which are the other strategic areas to empower the city through decarbonization with an interoperative and smart loop system of co-benefits. This study can help in public policy decisions of medium-sized cities in Latin America.",signatures:"Dulce Esmeralda García Ruíz and Jorge Alberto Navarro Serrano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70884",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70884",authors:[{id:"305163",title:"Dr.",name:"Dulce Esmeralda",surname:"Garcia Ruiz",slug:"dulce-esmeralda-garcia-ruiz",fullName:"Dulce Esmeralda Garcia Ruiz"},{id:"305194",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge Alberto",surname:"Navarro Serrano",slug:"jorge-alberto-navarro-serrano",fullName:"Jorge Alberto Navarro Serrano"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3633",title:"Solar Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"solar-energy",bookSignature:"Radu D Rugescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3633.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"8615",title:"Prof.",name:"Radu",surname:"Rugescu",slug:"radu-rugescu",fullName:"Radu Rugescu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4479",title:"Solar Cells",subtitle:"New Approaches and Reviews",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6907a79a7d35f34d0c719d6297a2667",slug:"solar-cells-new-approaches-and-reviews",bookSignature:"Leonid A. 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Enzymes (E) is a group of biologically active polymers (mainly proteins) that catalyze almost all metabolic reactions in all living organisms. Enzymes are able to accelerate chemical reaction dividing it into separate steps. Because each step of enzymatic reaction has a value of activation energy significantly lower than the value of activation energy for the same chemical reaction, enzymes can increase a rate of reaction 106–1018 folds. According to contemporary hypothesis, high conformational mobility of the enzymes allows them to adopt their active sites to substrate(s) and intermediates of the reaction in the best way [1, 2]. Multiple conformers of enzymes with close values of free energy preexist in the solution simultaneously. Along the reaction way, a conformer is picked out, the structure of which can stabilize definite intermediate that makes a reaction more thermodynamically profitable [3].
\nThis hypothesis is supported by unsuccessful attempts to create catalytically effective low molecular enzymes having needed active site (molecular mass should be higher than 10,000 Da) or enzyme with correct active site but with restricted conformational mobility (antibodies with needed active site, so-called
On the other hand, the binding of enzyme activators may lead to the creation of more profitable conformers that can be more effective in carrying out definite steps of the reaction. Therefore, they will accelerate enzymatic reaction. Taking into account this information about enzymes in this chapter, we consider contemporary knowledge about enzyme inhibitors and activators.
Many pharmacological drugs are enzyme inhibitors. The group of well-known pharmaceutical agents with name nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) includes inhibitors of enzyme cyclooxygenase that catalyzes a first step of synthesis of biologically active compounds prostaglandins that are responsible for the development of pain, inflammation, fever, contraction of smooth muscle, formation of blood clots, and others [5].
\nAll inhibitors may be combined in different groups in accordance with their chemical structure:
In accordance with the mode of action, enzyme inhibitors may be divided into two different groups (
The mechanism of action of enzyme inhibitors includes a step of enzyme-inhibitor complex formation (EI complex) that has no (or low) enzyme activity. An
Irreversible inhibition is different from irreversible enzyme inactivation. Irreversible inhibitors are generally specific for one class of enzymes and do not inactivate all proteins. In contrast to denature agents such as urea, detergents do not destroy protein structure but specifically alter the active site of the target enzyme.
\nConsequently because of tight binding, it is difficult to remove an irreversible inhibitor from the EI complex after its formation [14]. So, we can refer some chemical compound to irreversible enzyme inhibitor, if after the formation of EI complex, the dilution of it with significant amount of water (100–200 excess) does not restore enzyme activity.
\nIrreversible inhibitors display time-dependent loss of enzyme activity. Interaction of irreversible inhibitor with enzyme is a bimolecular reaction:
\nwhere E is enzyme, I is inhibitor, EI is complex of enzyme-inhibitor, and
However, usually the action of irreversible inhibitors is characterized by the constant of observed pseudo-first order reaction under conditions when concentration of inhibitor is significantly higher than concentration of the enzyme. The value of pseudo-first order rate of inhibition may be measured by plotting of the ln of enzyme activity (in % relatively enzyme activity in the absence of inhibitor) vs. time. Tangent of slope angle of straight line obtained by this way will be equal to value of constant of pseudo-first order inhibition. The value of rate constant of bimolecular reaction for irreversible inhibition may be then calculated by dividing the obtained value of constant of pseudo-first order reaction per inhibitor concentration.
\nwhere
Usually
One type of reversible inhibition is called
Kinetic test for reversible inhibitor classification. Double reciprocal plot (1/Vo) vs. (1/s) for competitive (A), uncompetitive (B), noncompetitive (C), and mixed (D) enzyme inhibition [
Another type of reversible inhibition is
The third type of inhibition is
In some cases, we can see
Special case of enzyme inhibition is inhibition by the excess of substrate or by the product. This inhibition may follow the competitive, uncompetitive, or mixed patterns. Inhibition of enzyme by its substrate occurs when a dead-end enzyme-substrate complex forms. Often in the case of substrate inhibition, a molecule of substrate binds to active site in two points (e.g., by the “head” and by the “tail” of molecule). At high concentrations, two substrate molecules bind in active site the following manner: one substrate molecule binds using the “head” and another molecule using the “tail.” This binding is nonproductive and substrate cannot be converted to the product (Figure 2). An example of such inhibition is inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase by the excess of acetylcholine [15].
Enzyme inhibition by substrate. Productive binding of one substrate molecule with two points of enzyme active site (A) and unproductive binding of two substrate molecules with the same site (B).
Competitive inhibitors mainly interact with enzyme active site preventing binding of real substrate. Classical example of competitive inhibition is inhibition of fumarate hydratase by maleate that is a substrate analog (Figure 3). Enzyme is highly stereospecific; it catalyzes the hydration of the trans-double bound of fumarate but not maleate (cis-isomer of fumarate). Maleate binds to active site with high affinity preventing the binding of fumarate. Despite the binding maleate to active site, it cannot be converted into the product of reaction. However, maleate occupies active site making it inaccessible for real substrate and providing by this way the inhibition [16].
Example of enzyme competitive inhibitors. A reaction catalyzing by fumarate hydratase (A) and comparison of structure of fumarate (substrate of reaction) and maleate (enzyme competitive inhibitor) (B) [
Some reversible inhibitors bind so tightly to the enzyme that they are essentially irreversible. It is known that proteolytic enzymes of the gastrointestinal tract are secreted from the pancreas in an inactive form. Their activation is achieved by restricted trypsin digestion of proenzymes. To stop activation of proteolytic enzymes, the pancreas produces trypsin inhibitor. It is a small protein molecule (it consists of 58 amino acid residues) [17]. This inhibitor binds directly to trypsin active site with Kd value that is equal to 0.1 pM. The binding is almost irreversible; complex EI does not dissociate even in solution of 6 M urea. The inhibitor is a very effective analog of trypsin substrates; amino acid residue Lys-15 of inhibitor molecule interacts with aspartic residue located in a pocket of enzyme surface destined for substrate binding, thereby preventing its binding and conversion into the product (Figure 4).
Structure of complex pancreatic trypsin inhibitor—trypsin and free trypsin inhibitor [
To obtain information concerning the mechanism of enzyme reaction, we should determine functional groups that are required for enzyme activity and located in enzyme active site. First approach is to reveal a 3D structure of enzyme with bound substrate using X-ray crystallography. Alternative and/or additional approach is to use group-specific reagent that simultaneously is irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme. It can covalently bind to reactive groups of enzyme active site that allow to elucidate functional amino acid residues of the site. Modified amino acid residues may be found later after achievement of complete enzyme inhibition, enzyme proteolysis, and identification of labeled peptide(s).
\nIrreversible inhibitors that can be used with this aim may be divided into two groups: (1) group-specific reagents for reactive chemical groups and (2) substrate analogs with included functional groups that are able to interact with reactive amino acid residues. These compounds can covalently modify amino acids essential for activity of enzyme active site and in such a manner can label them.
\nOne from the most known group-specific reagent that was used to label functional amino acid residue of enzyme active site of protease chymotrypsin was diisopropyl phosphofluoridate [18]. It modified only 1 from 28 serine residues of the enzyme. It means that this serine residue is very reactive. Location of Ser-195 in active site of chymotrypsin was confirmed in investigation carried out later, and the origin of its high reactivity was revealed. Diisopropyl phosphofluoridate was also successfully used for identification of a reactive serine residue in the active site of acetylcholinesterase [12].
\nTo reveal reactive SH-group in active site of various enzymes, different SH-reagents were used, among them 14C-labeled N-ethylmaleimide, iodoacetate, and iodoacetamide. Using these reagents, cysteines were revealed in the active sites of some dehydrogenase, cysteine protease, and other enzymes.
\nThe second approach is the application of reactive substrate analogs. These compounds are structurally similar to the substrate but include chemically reactive groups, which can covalently bind to some amino acid residues. Substrate analogs are more specific than group-specific reagents. Tosyl-L-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone, a substrate analog for chymotrypsin that is able to bind covalently with histidine residue and irreversibly inhibit enzyme, makes possible identification of Hys-57 in chymotrypsin active site [19].
Many cellular enzyme inhibitors are proteins or peptides that specifically bind to and inhibit target enzymes. Numerous metabolic pathways are controlled by these specific compounds that are synthesized in organisms. Very interesting example of these inhibitors is protein serpins. It is a large family of proteins with similar structures. Most of them are inhibitors of chymotrypsin-like serine protease [20, 21].
\nSerine proteases (e.g., mentioned above chymotrypsin) possess a reactive serine residue in active site and have similar mechanisms of catalysis. Cleavage of peptide bond by these proteases is a two-step process. Reactive serine residue of the protease active site that looses H+ and becomes nucleophilic one in the beginning of catalytic act attacks substrate peptide bond. This results in the release of new N-terminal part of protein substrate (first product) and in the formation of a covalent ester bond between the enzyme and the second part of substrate (see Ref. [16]). The second step of catalysis of usual substrates leads to the hydrolysis of ester bond and to the release of the second product (C-terminal part of protein substrate). If serpin is cleaved by a serine protease, it undergoes conformational transition before the hydrolysis of ester bond between enzyme and the second part of substrate (serpin). The change of serpin conformation leads to the “freezing” of intermediate (complex of enzyme with covalently attached second part of serpin is retained for several days) [21]. Therefore, serpins are irreversible inhibitors with unusual mechanism of action. They have named “suicide inhibitors,” because each serpin molecule can inactivate a single molecule of protease and kills itself during the process of protease inhibition.
\nConsidering enzyme inhibitors we should keep in mind that many living organisms are in the state of “chemical war.” Fungi are fighting with bacteria for food using antibiotics. Most immobile organisms like plants and some sea invertebrates use different poisons to defense themselves from being eaten; some vertebrates (like snakes) and invertebrates (e.g., bee and wasps) use poisons not only for defense but also to get food. If we will analyze the composition of these poisons, we can find in their content a lot of various enzyme inhibitors. They were selected during the evolution to stop many metabolic processes in organisms of victims that lead to their death.
\nPoisons of plants and invertebrates were used as medicine drugs during thousands of years. But only in the twentieth century, it became clear that the poisons contain various enzyme inhibitors as well as the blockers of some other biological molecules (channels, receptors, etc.) For example, bee venom includes melittin, peptide containing 28 amino acids. This peptide can interact with many enzymes suppressing their activities; in particular, it binds with protein calmodulin [22] that are activator of many enzymes. Special studies have shown that melittin structure imitates structure of some proteins (to be exact, some part of protein molecules) that can interact with target enzyme to provide their biological function [23].
\nAnother example of natural inhibitors is cardiotonic steroids that were found initially in plants (digoxin, digitonin, ouabain) and in the mucus of toads (marinobufagenin, bufotoxin, etc.). These compounds are irreversible inhibitors of Na,K-ATPase that is enzyme transporting Na+ and K+ through the plasma membrane of animals against the electrochemical gradients. In the end of the twentieth century, it was shown that cardiotonic steroids are presented in low concentrations in the blood of mammals including human beings. The increase of concentration of these compounds in the blood may be involved in the development of several cardiovascular and renal diseases including volume-expanded hypertension, chronic renal failure, and congestive heart failure [24].
\nNatural poisons are a powerful instrument for investigation of enzyme function, and analysis of their action is necessary for these studies. It might be also a model for design of new inhibitors and activators that will imitate natural compounds with such properties.
We have mentioned above nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that are the inhibitors of cyclooxygenase. This group of compounds (the most prescribed drugs in the world, the oldest among them is aspirin) was successfully used for more than one century around the whole world for treatment of patients with fever, cardiovascular diseases, joint pain, etc. [5]. Among these drugs are both irreversible and reversible inhibitors that slow down production of prostaglandins that control many aspects of inflammation, smooth muscle contraction, and blood clotting. But there are many other groups of drugs that are by nature of inhibitors of some enzymes; the following groups of enzyme inhibitors are developed now by pharmaceutical companies and have very important therapeutic significances [24].
\nInhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). ACE catalyzes a conversion of inactive decapeptide angiotensin I into angiotensin II by the removal of a dipeptide from the C-terminus of angiotensin I. Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor. Inhibition of ACE results in the decrease of angiotensin I concentration and in the relaxation of smooth muscles of vessels. Inhibitors of ACE are widely used as drugs for treatment of arterial hypertension [25].
\nProton pump inhibitors (PPIs). Proton pump is an enzyme that is located in the plasma membrane of the parietal cells of stomach mucosa. It is a P-type ATPase that provides proton secretion from parietal cells in gastric cavity against the electrochemical gradient using energy of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) cleavage. PPIs are groups of substituted benzopyridines that in acid medium of stomach are converted into active sulfonamides interacting with cysteine residues of pump [26]. Therefore, PPIs are acid-activated prodrugs that are converted into drugs inside the organisms. PPIs are introduced in therapeutic practice in 80th years of the twentieth century. Since this time, the drugs are successfully used for treatment of gastritis, gastric and duodenal ulcer, and gastroesophageal reflux disease.
\nStatins represent a group of compounds that are analogs of mevalonic acid. They are inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase, an enzyme participating in cholesterol synthesis. Statins are used as drugs preventing or slowing the development of atherosclerosis [27]. Because of the existence of some adverse effects, statins may be recommended for patients that cannot achieve a decrease of cholesterol level in the blood through diet and changes in lifestyle.
\nAntibiotic penicillin covalently modifies the enzyme transpeptidase, thereby preventing the synthesis of bacterial cell walls and thus killing the bacteria [28].
\nMethotrexate is a structural analog of tetrahydrofolate, a coenzyme for the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which catalyzes necessarily step in the biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines. Methotrexate binds to this enzyme approximately 1000-fold more tightly than the substrate and inhibits nucleotide base synthesis. It is used for cancer therapy [29].
\nNew promising direction of anticancer therapy that is connected with suppression of protein kinases controlling the cellular response to DNA damage is now on the step of development. Selective inhibitors of these enzymes are now being tested in clinical trials in cancer patients [30].
\nBreakthrough in treatment of patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) that is provoked by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was achieved recently using two different types of enzyme inhibitors. Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and protease inhibitors are now recommended for treatment of patients with this decease. These inhibitors affect also some other viral infections and demonstrated anticancer activity. Presented here list of enzyme inhibitors that are used in therapy of numerous deceases that is far from being complete. But even mentioned above, points demonstrate how useful and important are therapeutic application of theoretical knowledge obtained as result of study of enzyme inhibitors [31].
\nSciences around the world are involved in a search of new inhibitors of known enzymes that have therapeutic significance. An example of this complex research is a work devoted to design, synthesis, and study of new inhibitors of carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that is involved in the development of such symptoms and deceases as edema, glaucoma, obesity, cancer, epilepsy, and osteoporosis (see Ref. [32]).
Enzyme
There are many enzymes that are specifically and directly activated by small inorganic molecules, mainly by cations such as Ca2+ which is a the second messenger (among enzymes activated by Ca2+, we can find different regulatory enzymes, in particular phospholipases II, protein kinases C, adenylyl cyclases, etc.). These enzymes usually have special site for Ca2+ binding; the binding of Ca2+ with it results in the change of enzyme conformation that increase enzyme activity [33].
\nCations can bind not only with enzyme but also with the substrate increasing its affinity to the enzyme that activate enzyme. For example, magnesium ions interact with ATP or with other nucleotides that are negatively charged molecules, decreasing their charge that provides effective binding of nucleotides in substrate binding site of various enzymes and increasing their activity.
\nIn some cases, activation of enzymes is due to the elimination of enzyme inhibitors. In total this effect looks as enzyme activation. Some cations including heavy metal cations inhibit definite enzymes. Small organic compounds like ethylene glycol-bis(β-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid (EGTA) and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) that are known as chelating agents bind these inhibitory cations and by this way can eliminate their inhibitory effect.
\nSpecial group of activators can produce activation of target enzymes only after the formation of complex with another molecule. This complex, in turn, binds to enzyme and increases the velocity of enzymatic reaction. The most well-known example of such type of activators is Ca-binding protein calmodulin (calcium-modulated protein) that is expressed in all eukaryotic cells. Calmodulin is a small protein containing 148 amino acids (16.7 kDa). Its molecule consists of two symmetrical globular domains each with two Ca-binding motifs (EF-hand) located on N- and C-domains that are jointed by flexible linker. Flexibility of calmodulin molecule and the presence of nonpolar grooves in the middle part of the protein allow it to bind a large variety of proteins [33]. The binding of Ca2+ to calmodulin changes its conformation. These, in turn, make complex calmodulin-Ca2+ suitable for interaction with target enzymes (calmodulin-dependent protein kinases and phosphatases,Ca-ATPase of plasma membrane, etc.), by this manner increasing their activity. Therefore calmodulin is considered as a participant of calcium signal transduction pathway that provides enforcing and prolongation of the effect of Ca2+ as a second messenger [34].
Inhibitors and activators (modulators) that bind to enzymes not in the active site but in special center located far enough from it have name allosteric modulators. Their binding to allosteric sites induces the change of enzyme conformation that affects both the structure of active site and enzyme conformational mobility leading to the decrease or to the increase of enzyme activity. Just as enzyme active site is specific in relation to substrate, the allosteric site is specific to its modulator [16].
\nMany metabolic pathways are regulated through the action of allosteric modulators. Enzymes in metabolic pathways work sequentially, and in such pathways, a product of one reaction becomes a substrate for the next one. The rate of whole pathway is limited by the rate of the lowest reaction. Allosteric regulators often are a final product of whole metabolic pathway that activates enzymes catalyzing a limiting step of the whole pathway. Enzymes in a metabolic pathway can be inhibited or activated by downstream products. This regulation represents negative and positive feedbacks that slow metabolic pathway when the final product is produced in large amounts or accelerate it when a final product is presented in low concentration. Therefore, allosteric modulators are important participants of such negative and positive feedbacks in metabolic pathways or between them making metabolism self-controlled.
\nFor example, ATP and citrate are inhibitors of phosphofructokinase that is a key enzyme of glycolytic pathway. One product of glycolysis is ATP. Another product is pyruvate that after the conversion into acetyl-CoA is condensed with citrate opening cycle of citrate acids (Krebs cycle). Reactions of this cycle produce reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide reduced (NADH) and flavinadeninidinucleotide reduced (FADH2), oxidation of which is coupled with massive production of ATP in mitochondria. Availability of ATP or citrate inhibits glycolysis preventing glucose oxidation (negative feedback). Inhibition of phosphofructokinase by ATP or by citrate occurs by allosteric manner [35]. Described negative feedback control maintains a steady concentration of ATP in the cell. It should be noted also that metabolic pathways are regulated not only through inhibition but also through activation of the key enzymes. Mentioned above phosphofructokinase is activated by adenosine diphosphate (ADP), adenosine monophosphate (AMP), and fructose-2,6-bisphospate that represents positive feedback control.
\nEnzymes that are regulated by allosteric modulators are usually presented by several interacting subunits (they are called oligomers). A very interesting example of regulation of the activity of oligomeric enzymes is c-AMP-dependent protein kinase that is an important regulatory enzyme participating in the phosphorylation of serine and threonine residues of target proteins changing by this way their activity. This enzyme consists of four subunits; two of them are catalytic and two are regulatory. Cyclic AMP (c-AMP) is allosteric activator of this enzyme. Catalytic subunit being bound to the regulatory one is inactive. Binding of two c-AMP molecules to allosteric sites of each regulatory subunit induces their conformation transition that results in dissociation of the tetrameric complex and in activation of catalytic subunits [36]. Decrease of c-AMP concentration leads to its dissociation from the allosteric site and to association of regulatory and catalytic subunits with subsequent inactivation of catalytic subunits. By this way, c-AMP activity depends upon the c-AMP concentration in the cell.
Enzyme inhibitors and activators are a number of various chemical compounds that can slow down (or even stop) and activate enzymes, natural protein catalysts. They include inorganic compounds (often anions), different organic compounds (mainly containing reactive groups that can modify amino acids of protein), natural proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Mechanism of inhibitor and activator action on the enzyme activity includes a step of their binding to the enzyme, after which a step of the change of enzyme conformation often follows.
\nInhibitors are a good tool for study of enzyme reaction mechanisms. Many natural inhibitors especially obtained from plants and invertebrates often imitate natural proteins or some of their motifs that participate in the protein-protein interactions in the cell that are important for metabolic regulation. Among enzyme activators and inhibitors, one can highlight a group of allosteric modulators that participate in feedback regulation of metabolic pathways. And finally, we should note a practical significance of enzyme inhibitors that are a base for the design of different classes of pharmaceutical drugs, pesticides, and insecticides.
Wine is an alcoholic beverage commonly produced from fermented grape juice. It can be categorized as dry wine, semidry wine, semisweet wine, sweet wine, still wine, and sparkling wine based on its sugar or carbon dioxide content. Depending on the production methods or materials used, it can also be classified as a special wine (including liqueur wine, carbonated wine, icewine, noble rot wine, floral wine, flavored wine, low alcohol wine, nonalcohol wine, and
In addition to the categorization of wine regarding its alcohol content, one with an alcohol content above 10.5% v/v, from 5.5 to 10.5% v/v, from 1.2 to 5.5%, from 0.5 to 1.2% v/v, or below 0.5% v/v may be classified as an alcoholic wine, lower-alcohol wine, reduced-alcohol wine, low-alcohol wine, or nonalcoholic wine (NW) [2, 3]. However, these classifications differ from one winemaking region or country to another [4]. Over the years, with health risk awareness and social demands related to road safety, consumer preferences are now shifting toward new product offerings and alternatives, with an increasing percentage of the adult population seeking lower alcohol wines more frequently. This has boosted the production and sales of nonalcoholic wines with the global nonalcoholic wine market worth over $10 billion and is still estimated to increase at a significant CAGR above 7% between 2019 and 2027, attaining a profit share of over $30 billion [5].
Lower, reduced, low, and NW wines can be produced at the various stages of wine production (pre-fermentation, fermentation, and post-fermentation stages) using several methods such as reduction of the juice fermentable sugars before fermentation, the reduction of alcohol production during fermentation, and the separation by membranes and thermal treatment after complete fermentation of the wine [6, 7, 8, 9]. The latter methods, also known as physical dealcoholization (ethanol removal) methods are usually used after complete fermentation of the wine (i.e., at wine post-fermentation stage) and can achieve good results when used on a finished wine. Studies have reported the ability of some physical dealcoholization methods in preserving the phenolic compounds [10], volatile compounds [11], and sensory quality [12, 13] of the final wine product at certain levels of ethanol removal with a taste almost similar to the original wines (in the case of partially dealcoholized wines), contrarily to the former methods (commonly used before and during fermentation), which produces unbalanced wine products (high acidity, unfermented juice, and low fermentative aroma compounds) with legality issues in the case of the juice fermentable sugars dilution with water [14]. Wine produced by physical dealcoholization methods (i.e., alcohol removal from finished wines) is termed dealcoholized wine (DW). The dealcoholization of wine can be complete or partial. A completely DW is a beverage obtained exclusively from wine by dealcoholization with a final alcohol content below 0.5% v/v (resolution OIV-ECO 432-2012), while a partially DW is a beverage obtained exclusively from wine by dealcoholization with a final alcohol content ≥0.5% v/v (resolution OIV-ECO 433-2012). NW (< 0.5% v/v ethanol) produced from a finished wine by dealcoholization may be termed DW, whereas low, reduced, and lower alcohol wines (0.5–10.5% v/v ethanol) may be termed partially dealcoholized wines. In this chapter, we focus on the methods used for producing of NW from high-strength alcoholic wines after complete fermentation (wine post-fermentation stage), specifically, their impact on the aroma profile and sensory characteristics of NW. In addition, the state-of-the-art methods of improving the aroma profile of DW/NW are discussed.
The production of NW can be achieved by several methods as shown in Figure 1. These methods can be broadly classified into three groups based on the principle or mechanism of ethanol reduction and removal at the various stages of wine production, including reduction of fermentable sugars (pre-fermentation stage), reduction or limitation of ethanol production (fermentation stage), and ethanol removal by membrane separation or thermal treatment (post-fermentation stage) [6, 7, 8, 9].
Methods of lower, reduced, low, and NW wines production.
The reduction of fermentable sugars in the pre-fermentation stage of wine is one of the common methods for the production of wines with lower or reduced alcohol content. It includes techniques such as juice dilution [15, 16], juice filtration with membranes [17, 18], the use of enzymes (e.g., glucose oxidase) [19, 20], early harvest and blending with mature harvest [21], viticultural practices (e.g., use of growth regulators, reduction of photosynthetic activity, reduction of leaf area, preharvest irrigation) [22, 23].
Juice dilution involves adding water to grape juice or mixing the juice with green harvest to reduce the concentration of fermentable sugars. In countries such as South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and the United States of America (excluding California where it is only permitted for preventing stuck fermentations), water is only allowed as a processing aid. The substitution of grape juice with water or the direct addition of water to reduce the concentration of fermentable sugars has been effective in reducing the ethanol content of the final wine product by 4-6% v/v [15, 16]. Regarding the use of green harvest in juice dilution, this range of ethanol reduction is determined by the harvest date. The pre-fermentative substitution of a matured Shiraz juice (obtained from Shiraz grapes harvested at 25.5 °Brix) with water or direct water addition at rates of 10.2, 34.0, and 47.2% v/v resulted in lower alcohol wines with 14.5%/14.4%, 12.0%/11.7%, and 10.6%/9.6% ABV, respectively, after fermentation to dryness (<1 g/L of total sugar). The lower alcohol wines (10.6%/9.6% ABV) produced by substituting or diluting the juice with 47.2% v/v water decreased the total phenolics, anthocyanin concentration, tannin concentration, color density, and SO2-resistant pigments compared with the control (15.5% ABV) [16]. Furthermore, sensory attributes such as “body,” “astringency,” “flavor intensity,” and “alcohol” flavor were lower in wines with 9.6% ABV compared with the control, which was attributed to the alcohol concentration difference of 1% ABV between the lower alcohol wines produced by substitution (10.6%) and those produced by direct water addition (9.6% ABV) [16]. However, in some European winemaking countries such as France, Spain, Italy, and Germany, this practice is illegal because it can significantly affect most physicochemical parameters, phenolic and volatile components, and the sensory quality of the resulting wine [15, 16, 21].
Filtration of the juice with membranes is another method of producing lower or reduced alcohol wines, based on the principle of sugar reduction of the juice before fermentation. In this method, a portion of the sugar-rich juice is filtered with nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, or reverse osmosis membranes, which have a very small pore size and can retain the sugar. The filtered juice is then mixed with the other portion of the sugar-rich juice and fermented to obtain lower or reduced alcohol content wine [17, 18]. To produce a lower or reduced alcohol content wine (≤ 10.5% v/v ethanol) by this method, optimal operating conditions and a suitable membrane configuration with a good molecular weight cutoff (MWCO) should be considered to increase the retention of volatile compounds and maintain good taste in the wine. On the contrary, this could lead to a lower content of polyphenols, anthocyanins, and color intensity and consequently affect the sensory properties of the nonalcoholic wine [17, 24].
The use of glucose oxidase is another way to produce lower or reduced alcohol wines. This enzyme is found in the fungus
Early harvesting of fruit and blending with ripe grapes is another strategy that can be used to reduce the ethanol concentration in wine. In one study, using this strategy resulted in a 3.2% v/v reduction in ethanol content of red wines with ideal aroma profiles [27]. Similarly, a 3% v/v reduction in ethanol concentration was observed when an acidic and low alcohol blend of early harvested white and red grapes was added to a ripened grape ferment [28]. According to Piccardo et al. [29], this strategy can lower not only ethanol content but also pH and total acidity without significantly affecting other wine components. Contrary to other studies, acidity and “raw” aromas can be perceived in the resulting wine [28].
About half of the total fermentable sugar in grape juice is glucose [30], which is the main substrate converted to alcohol by yeasts during fermentation. Viticultural practices such as reducing photosynthetic activity, using growth regulators, reducing leaf area, and preharvest irrigation have been used to regulate grape fermentable sugars so that low-alcohol or nonalcoholic wines can be produced from grape juice [22, 23]. As indicated by some studies, the degree of sugar accumulation in berries can be influenced by reducing the leaf area [31, 32, 33], resulting in a reduction of ethanol content in the resulting wine [23, 34, 35]. For example, a lower alcohol content in the finished wine was observed after leaf area reduction of Shiraz vines [22]. A similar observation was made after post-veraison leaf removal in a Sangiovese vine, with no negative effects on phenolic compounds [36].
Reducing or limiting alcohol production is another principle used in producing nonalcoholic or low-alcohol wines during the fermentation of wines. This principle basically includes three techniques such as interrupted fermentation [2], reduction of yeast biomass [37], use of modified yeast strains with low alcohol production ability [38, 39], and use of non-
Interrupted or limited fermentation is the intentional termination of alcoholic fermentation before it is complete by controlling the fermentation time and temperature during fermentation [2]. Generally, during fermentation, the ethanol concentration is monitored until the desired concentration is reached. Then, fermentation is stopped either by lowering the fermentation temperature or by adding sulfur dioxide. When producing nonalcoholic or low alcohol wines using this method, the fermentation time is usually short in order to achieve a very low ethanol content. However, this usually results in sweet nonalcoholic or low alcohol wines with high residual sugar content that require further post-fermentation treatments, such as heat treatment or addition of sulfur dioxide to combat microbial instability and difficult storage [42].
The reduction of yeast biomass during fermentation can also be used to produce nonalcoholic or low-alcohol wines. In this method, the yeast population is reduced from time to time during fermentation to keep the fermentation rate of fermentable sugars as low as possible. This prevents the production of high amounts of ethanol during fermentation. Through centrifugation, Fan et al. [37] reduced the biomass of dry yeast (106 CUF/ml) during the fermentation process of an apple cider, resulting in a cider with low alcohol content and fruity aroma. Similar to limited fermentation, the final product of this technique is sweet with a high residual sugar content and requires attention for its microbial stability and storage [42]. Nevertheless, this method is useful for producing a sweeter and more pleasant nonalcoholic or low-alcohol beverage [43].
The literature also reports the use of modified yeast in the production of low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wine [38, 39]. Through gene modification or adaptive evolution and selection, modified yeast strains with low ethanol production ability are developed and can be used to reduce the alcohol content in wine during fermentation [44]. A
Non-
The complete fermentation of grape juice with high amounts of sugars produces wines. Wines are generally characterized by bitterness, hotness, good viscosity, and intense aroma and flavor. Wines can be further processed into low or nonalcoholic wines based on the final alcohol content. There are basically three methods of alcohol removal including extraction processes, membrane processes, and heat treatment [8, 9, 54].
Extraction processes use extraction media such as gases (carbon dioxide), solvents (liquid carbon dioxide, pentane, hexane), and absorbents (zeolites) to remove ethanol from wine to produce alcohol-free or low-alcohol wine [30, 54, 55, 56]. Carbon dioxide in the form of gas or liquid can be used to extract of ethanol from wine. Carbon dioxide has a critical pressure (73 atm) and temperature (31 °C) [57], above which it behaves as a supercritical fluid (i.e., both liquid and gas) that can be used to extract organic compounds such as ethanol from wine due to its affinity for the carbon chain (as a liquid) [55] and then immediately evaporates (as a gas), leaving the extracted compound (ethanol) with a high concentration of aroma compounds [54] and no residue [7]. This method offers several advantages because carbon dioxide is inexpensive, easy to handle, does not require hazardous substances, and has a low supercritical temperature [30]. In addition, extraction solvents such as pentane and hexane are also used to remove ethanol from wines, where the ethanol dissolves in the solvent and is subsequently removed from the wine [55]. However, these extraction solvents can also remove other soluble aroma compounds along with the ethanol, which can negatively affect the aroma profile of the final product [56]. Hydrophobic adsorbents such as zeolites can also extract ethanol from wine by absorbing and filtering the ethanol from the wine. This method can be used to produce nonalcoholic wines with an ethanol content of 0.5% v/v [58]. Nevertheless, extraction methods for alcohol reduction are expensive and are rarely used in the production of low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wines.
Membrane processes are physical separation processes that can reduce or remove ethanol from wine using a semipermeable membrane. In this method, natural osmotic pressure is created by the pressure exerted on two solutions of unequal solution concentration flowing tangentially, parallel, or circularly through a semipermeable membrane. To restore the equilibrium of natural osmotic pressure, the alcohol and water in the wine pass through the semipermeable membrane from the high-concentration solution to the low-concentration solution [30, 59]. This phenomenon reduces or removes the ethanol from the wine, resulting in a low- or non- alcoholic wine, depending on the remaining ethanol content. The most commonly used membrane separation processes at the commercial level include reverse osmosis (RO), osmotic distillation (OD), and pervaporation (PV) (Figure 2) [6, 8, 9, 30].
Membrane separation techniques for removal of alcohol from wine.
In PV, the transfer of compounds (by adsorption, diffusion, and desorption) occurs through a close-packed polymer membrane based on the partial evaporation of liquid mixtures with similar boiling points confined in an azeotropic mixture, with the liquid phase changing to the vapor phase [59, 60]. PV has been used to remove ethanol and recover aromatics from wines [61, 62]. It is highly selective, consumes little energy, operates at lower temperatures, causes less loss of aromatics, and is a clean method (i.e., it produces water and ethanol as by-products that can be recycled or reused). Nevertheless, the high cost of the PV machine and membranes, the low diffusion rate at low temperatures, and the limited market for PV membranes are some disadvantages of using PV to produce low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wines.
RO also works on the principle of membrane separation, in which a concentration gradient between two solutions through a hydrophilic, semipermeable hollow fiber membrane causes the solvent to flow from the high-concentration solution through the membrane to the low-concentration solution, retaining salts, peptides, and proteins [30]. The use of RO in the production of wines and beverages with or without alcohol content has been reported [8, 9, 63, 64]. In a diafiltration configuration, an industrial-scale plant of RO was used to produce nonalcoholic red, white, and rosé wines with a final alcohol concentration of 0.7% v/v, but most of the basic oenological parameters, volatile composition, and sensory quality of the wines were affected [65]. In contrast, some studies reported that low-alcohol or nonalcoholic wines produced with RO had no negative effects on the main aroma compounds and had similar taste and aromas to normal wines [66, 67]. RO can be operated at low temperatures and meets the requirements for a clean technology, as it can recover and reuse ethanol from the dealcoholization byproduct (water and ethanol solution). However, adding water during diafiltration to achieve effective alcohol removal is a drawback of this method, as the addition of water to wine is prohibited in some wine-producing countries or regions.
Another modern membrane separation process that has found application in the production of low-alcohol and nonalcoholic wine is osmotic distillation (OD), also known as evaporative pertraction (EP). In this membrane-based technology, two liquid phases, wine and a stripping liquid (usually water), circulate in countercurrent on opposite sides of a hydrophobic hollow fiber membrane, as shown in Figure 2. In this process, the vapor pressure of the volatile solutes in the wine and the stripping liquid is the driving force [68]. The mechanism for ethanol removal in the OD process is as follows: evaporation of ethanol from the wine on one side of the membrane, followed by diffusion of ethanol vapor through the membrane pores, then finally exit of ethanol vapor from the opposite side of the membrane and condensation in the stripping water solution [68]. Minimal loss of aroma compounds was observed after alcohol reduction up to 5% v/v in Garnacha, Xarelo, and Tempranillo wines by OD [69]. Similarly, alcohol reduction up to 6% v/v in fermented beverages with OD at 10 ° C–20 °C did not result in significant losses of aroma compounds [70]. Moreover, OD was used to reduce the alcohol content (−10.5% v/v) of
Thermal processes such as spinning cone column (SCC) and distillation under vacuum/vacuum distillation (VD) are two very common methods for reducing alcohol in wine and other alcoholic beverages based on the principle of heating and evaporation [8, 9, 30]. The SCC is a falling film separator consisting of a rotating vertical shaft and vertically stacked cones that rotate alternately and are fixed in place (Figure 3a). The SCC process is considered very cost-effective and efficient for retaining aroma compounds from wine, beverages, and other liquid foods [30]. In particular, it has reportedly been used to recover concentrates from grape juice, lower the ethanol content in wines, remove sulfur dioxide from grape juice, and recover aroma compounds from wines and beer [2, 9, 30, 72]. To reduce the alcohol content of the finished wine, the SCC technique uses a two-stage process. In the first stage, the wine is passed through the SCC at a reduced vacuum pressure (0.04 atm) and temperature (about 28 °C) to extract the wine aroma compounds in about 1% of the total wine volume. Subsequently, the ethanol content of the wine is reduced to produce a low-alcohol or nonalcoholic wine (depending on the final alcohol content) in the second stage at a slightly higher vacuum pressure and temperature (about 38 °C) to remove the alcohol. The aroma of the low-alcohol or alcohol-free wine is then improved by adding the recovered wine aromas (i.e., the aroma compounds extracted in the first stage) [30]. In a previous study, SCC was successfully used to recover about 97–100% of aroma compounds from white, rosé, and red wines by regulating the extraction percentage and flow rate of the base wines [72]. Moreover, 94% of ethanol was recovered from a water-ethanol mixture (14.8% v/v ethanol) using SCC at medium-high stripping rates (0.1–0.6), high feed and medium temperatures (40–50°C). However, when the alcohol content of a Chardonnay grape juice (2% v/v) was reduced halfway through fermentation with SCC, a reduction in volatile compounds of about 25% was observed. The significant change in the concentration of volatile aroma compounds after alcohol reduction could be due to the remaining ethanol content [65], the chemical-physical properties of the aroma compounds [73], and the composition of the nonvolatile matrix of the wine [74]. The high cost of SCC technology and the costs associated with its operation are two of its main drawbacks [75].
Production of nonalcoholic wine using (a) spinning cone column; and (b) vacuum distillation.
VD is another interesting technique used to reduce the alcohol content of wines and alcoholic beverages (Figure 3b). In this technique, the feed (usually wine) from the feed tank or flask is heated to a temperature (15–20°C) [74] suitable for the evaporation or vaporization of the ethanol of the wine from the wine medium under vacuum [72], which then condenses as a distillate in a still flask, leaving a low-alcohol or alcohol-free wine, depending on the remaining ethanol content. In some cases, some important volatile aroma compounds removed along with the ethanol could be recovered from the first distillate and added back to the nonalcoholic wine. At the same time, the ethanol could also be recovered and used for ethanol correction of wines. Previous studies have reported the use of VD to reduce the alcohol content (at 0.7–5% v/v) of wines [65, 74]. For example, the alcohol content of rosé and red wines was reduced to 5% v/v, producing reduced-alcohol wines without significantly affecting polyphenols, anthocyanins, cations, and organic acids. However, significant losses in volatile aroma compounds were observed [74]. Also, VD was used to produce nonalcoholic wines (0.7% v/v ethanol) from white, rosé, and red wines, but also significantly affected most chemical parameters and volatile composition. In particular, pH, free sulfur dioxide, total sulfur dioxide, and volatile acidity decreased significantly, while reducing sugar, color intensity, and total acidity increased significantly [65]. In addition, 92–99% of esters and terpene compounds were lost [65]. VD can significantly improve the nonvolatile components in wine compared with membrane separation methods [74]. Nevertheless, VD can significantly reduce almost all volatiles in wine, especially ethyl esters, alcohols, and terpenes [65].
Another evolving technique used in the production of low and nonalcoholic wines and beverages is an integrated membrane/distillation system known as a multistage membrane/distillation system. This technique involves the combination of two or more alcohol removal methods to remove ethanol from wines and beers while minimizing the loss of important volatile aroma compounds associated with individual membrane and thermal separation processes such as RO, PV, OD, and VD [8, 9, 12, 65, 73, 74]. Commonly used multistage membrane/distillation systems include integrated PV and distillation units [76], reverse osmosis-evaporative pertraction (RO-EP) [77], and nanofiltration-pervaporation system (NF-PV) [78], of which RO-EP is the most commonly used (Figure 4). These integrated systems have proven successful in producing reduced-flavor, low-alcohol, or alcohol-free wines and beers with similar or improved aroma and flavor compared with the original wine or beer product [76, 78, 79]. However, significant losses of alcohols (up to 27%), acids (up to 24%), esters (up to 22%), phenols (up to 18%), and lactones (up to 14%) have been reported at ethanol reduction up to 5.5% v/v in the case of RO-EP used for alcohol reduction of a
Scheme of reverse osmosis-evaporative pertraction (RO-EP) for nonalcoholic wine production. RO membrane; reverse osmosis membrane and EP; and evaporative pertraction membrane.
As mentioned earlier, this chapter is focused on low and nonalcoholic wines production methods used after complete fermentation (post-fermentation stage) of wine since these methods are mostly preferred to those used at pre-fermentation and concurrent fermentation stages of wine due to their ability to achieve best results, thus, produce low and nonalcoholic wines with high concentration of fermentative aroma compounds resulting from fully fermented juice. Therefore, in this section we discuss the effect of these methods on the quality of low and nonalcoholic wines, in particular, their effect on the phenolic composition, volatile compounds, and sensory characteristics.
The phenolic composition of wine (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic) is one of the key factors influencing its quality, especially red wine, which mainly includes flavonoids (anthocyanins, flavanols, flavones, flavonols, and proanthocyanidins) and non-flavonoids (hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, and resveratrol) [81, 82, 83]. Table 1 summarizes some reported effects of production methods on the phenolic composition of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines. The production of nonalcoholic wines at the post-fermentation stage of winemaking using physical methods is mainly applicable to finished wines based on the principle of ethanol reduction. During the reduction of alcohol from wine, water is also removed together with the ethanol, which can have either a positive or negative effect on the phenolic composition of the final product. Wine ethanol reduction has been reported to impact wine phenolic compounds [79, 84]. The removal of ethanol from 2011 vintage Barbera red wine (14.6% v/v), Verduno Pelaverga red wine (15.2% v/v), and Langhe Rosè (13.2% v/v) by VD and membrane contactor method to a final ethanol content of 5% v/v resulted in the loss of anthocyanins and polyphenols [74]. In contrast, reduction of the alcohol level in a white wine from 12.5% v/v to 0.3% by OD had no significant effect on the total phenols and flavonoids of nonalcoholic wine compared with the base wine [11]. Similarly, flavonoids, total anthocyanins, and total phenols were not affected after the removal of ethanol (−10.5% v/v) from a red wine (13.2% v/v) [12], whereas a reduction of up to 5% v/v ethanol in a red wine by RO-EP caused an increase in the color intensity and phenolic compounds concentration [87]. Furthermore, SCC was reported to modify the phenolic composition of red wines reduced to less than 0.3 % v/v such that the concentrations of phenolic compounds including total phenols, anthocyanins, stilbenes, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and non-flavonoids increased significantly [84].
Method used | Type of wine | Final alcohol content (% v/v) | Phenolic composition | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
OD | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 5.4 | Insignificant decrease in the concentrations of total anthocyanins and total phenols | [88] |
Barbera red wine, Langhe Rosè wine, and Verduno Pelaverga red wine | 5.0 | Increased the concentrations of total flavonoids and total anthocyanins | [83] | |
Aglianico red wine | 0.4–4.9 | Increased the content of total phenols | [80] | |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 2.7 | Flavonoids and phenolic compounds remained unaffected | [21] | |
Falanghina white wine | 0.3 | No significant effect on the contents of total flavonoids and total phenols | [20] | |
RO | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 9.0 | Total anthocyanins decreased Total phenols increased | [88] |
Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Tempranillo red wines | 2.0–4.0 | No significant effect on the concentrations of total anthocyanins and phenolic compounds Increased color intensity by 20% due to high concentration of anthocyanins | [93] | |
SCC | White, rose, and red wines | < 0.3 | Increased the contents of flavonols, anthocyanins, total phenols, and phenolic compounds contents by 24% | [92] |
VD | Langhe Rosè wine, Verduno Pelaverga red wine, and Barbera red wine | 5.0 | Increased the contents of total anthocyanins and total flavonoids | [83] |
RO–EP | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine (cv.) | 5.5 | Increased the content of total phenols Decreased the content of total anthocyanins | [88] |
Some reported effects of production methods on the phenolic composition of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines.
The aroma and flavor of wines are mainly associated with volatile aroma compounds belonging to different chemical groups such as esters, organic acids, alcohols, terpenes, monoterpenes, C-13 norisoprenoids, aldehydes, ketones, lactones, and sulfur compounds [85]. These compounds are either of varietal (imparted from the grape skins), fermentative (produced during wine fermentation) or post-fermentative (produced from aging or additives after fermentation) origin. Factors such as grape variety, viticultural practices, and winemaking methods define the volatile composition of wines as well as its aroma and flavor [86]. As regards the production of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines using post-fermentation methods such as membrane separation and heat treatment processes, the removal of alcohol can affect the volatile compounds of the final product. For example, the total removal of ethanol from a Tokaji Hárslevelű wine with an alcohol content of 13.1% v/v by PV resulted in a 70% loss of the total aroma compounds [61]. In addition, the production of a nonalcohol wine (0.5% v/v) from a Cabernet Sauvignon red wine (12.5% v/v) using PV led to losses of 99, 28, and 40% of esters, organic acids, and alcohols, respectively [62]. Furthermore, losses of about 9, 4, and 18% were observed in the total concentration of volatile compounds in white, rose, and red wines, respectively, after treated with SCC [72]. More recently, Sam et al. [65] compared RO and VD in the obtainment of nonalcoholic wines (with final ethanol content of 0.7 v/v) from white wine (13.4% v/v), rose wine (12.2% v/v), and red wine (13.9% v/v). They observed significant losses of volatile compounds in the nonalcoholic wines, in particular, VD resulted in losses of the total concentration of esters in white, rosé, and red wines by 96, 98, and 96%, respectively, whereas respective losses of 92, 81, and 87% were observed in RO-treated wines. Alcohol removal is not solely responsible for the losses of volatile aroma compounds during the production of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines, other factors such as the type of method used, the operating conditions applied, the type of membrane used (in the case of membrane processes), the chemical-physical properties of the volatile compounds, and the nonvolatile matrix of the wine can also play a vital role [8, 9]. Some reported effects of production methods on the volatile compounds of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines are summarized in Table 2.
Method used | Type of wine | Final alcohol content (% v/v) | Losses of volatile compounds (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
OD | Aglianico red wine | 8.8 | Esters = 60.9 Alcohols = 31.8 Acids = 17.1 Terpene compounds = 32.3 | [96] |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 5.4 | Esters = 19.0 Alcohols = 3.0 Acids = 25.0 lactones = 25.0 Phenols = 10.0 | [88] | |
Langhe Rosè wine, Barbera red wine, and Verduno Pelaverga red wine | 5.0 | Esters = 23.8–47.8 Alcohols = 59.9–63.9 Acids = 17.4–30.9 | [83] | |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 2.7 | Esters = 85.0 Alcohols = 84.0 Acids = 23.0 lactones = 37.0 Phenols = 37.0 | [21] | |
Falanghina white wine | 0.3 | Esters = 99.0 Alcohols = 98.9 Acids = 98.7 Ketones = 99.9 Lactones = 98.2 | [20] | |
Aglianico red wine | 0.2 | Esters = 89.9 Alcohols = 99.9 Acids = 78.9 Ketones & lactones = 97.9 Aldehydes = 100 Sulfur compounds = 78.7 Phenols = 100 | [82] | |
RO | Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 9.0 | Esters = 8.0 Alcohols = 30.0 Acids = 22.0 Phenols = 13.0 Lactones = 14.0 | [88] |
Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Esters = 81–92 Alcohols = 58–75 Acids = 73–89 Terpenes = 48–70 Other compounds = 75–87 | [74] | |
PV | Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | 0.5 | Esters = 99.9 Alcohols = 39.5 Acids = 28.2 | [71] |
SCC | White wine | 0.3 | Esters = 53.0 Aliphatic alcohols = 98.0 Aromatic alcohols = 3.0 Acids = 20.0 Ketones = 71.0 | [97] |
VD | Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Esters = 96–98 Alcohols = 85–95 Acids = 85–91 Terpene compounds = 92–96 Other compounds = 91–99 | [74] |
Langhe Rosè wine, Barbera red wine, and Verduno Pelaverga red wine | 5.0 | Esters = 19.5–22.9 Alcohols = 50.4–53.6 Acids = 2.3–13.7 | [83] | |
RO–EP | Shiraz red wine | 10.4 | Esters = 49.5 Alcohols = 38.9 Terpene compounds = 35.3 Lactones = 21.4 | [98] |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 5.5 | Esters = 22.0 Alcohols = 27.0 Acids = 24.0 Phenols = 18.0 Lactones = 14.0 | [88] |
Some reported effects of production methods on the volatile compounds of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines.
Volatile compounds, especially terpenes and esters, contribute significantly to the aroma and flavor of wines [90, 91], and their complete loss or decrease due to the removal of ethanol from wine can significantly affect the sensory characteristics of the final wine product. Ethanol can enhance the perception of viscosity, bitterness, and hotness in wine, while masking other sensory characteristics such as astringency and acidity [92, 93, 94]. Some important findings on the effect of ethanol reduction using nonalcoholic wines production methods are presented in Table 3. Studies have shown that the production of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines by post-fermentation techniques can significantly affect sensory attributes such as hotness, bitterness, aroma intensity, color, astringency, acidity, sweetness, wine body, red fruits, dried fruits, etc. [12, 62, 65, 71, 89, 95, 96]. A nonalcoholic white wine (0.3% v/v ethanol) produced by OD was characterized by low sweetness, aroma, viscosity, and high acidity in comparison to the original the wine with an alcohol content of 12.5%, giving it an unbalanced taste and unpleasant aftertaste [11]. Similar observations were made in nonalcohol white, rose, and red wines produced by RO and VD [65]. Moreover, the reduction of ethanol in Aglianico red wines at 5% v/v by a membrane contactor technique decreased aroma notes such as red fruits and cherry in the final reduced wine products [87]. Furthermore, when SCC was used to reduce the alcohol content of oaked Chardonnay wine, the perceptions of hotness and overall aroma intensity reduced substantially compared with the original wine [97]. It is worth mentioning that low and nonalcoholic wines (< 0.5–5.5% v/v ethanol) usually have poor sensory quality and consumer preferences due to their imbalanced body and flavor, reduced hotness, and high acidity and astringency when compared with original wines [65, 89, 96] unless supplemented with additives. Meanwhile, lower and reduced wines (6.5–10.5% v/v ethanol) typically have acceptable preferences [12, 87, 98] due to less negative impact on the sensory characteristics arising from less ethanol removal and aroma compounds. For example, the reduction of alcohol in a white Chardonnay wine (14.2% v/v) by 4.5% v/v negatively affected consumer liking of the final product, while a reduction of 1.5% and 3.3% v/v had no significant effect. Also, when a red wine with alcohol content of 13.2% v/v was dealcoholized (i.e., its ethanol reduced) by 8% v/v, no substantial changes in the color intensity and overall acceptability were observed between the two wines [12]. In addition, an ethanol reduction by 3 and 5% v/v in two red wines (cv. Aglianico) with different initial alcohol contents (15.4 and 13.3 % v/v) using a membrane contactor technique increased the bitterness, acidity, and astringency of the final lower alcohol wines, while a 2% v/v reduction resulted in no significant differences between the base wines and the final wine products [87]. Similarly, Meillon et al. [98] reported a decrease in consumer preference for a Syrah red wine (13.4% v/v) dealcoholized by 5.5% v/v and a nonsignificant effect on the preference at dealcoholization by 2% and 4% v/v using RO. The inability of most consumers to notice alcohol reductions ≤2% v/v may have accounted for these results [8].
Method used | Type of wine | Final alcohol content (% v/v) | Sensory characteristics | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
OD | Aglianico red wine | 8.8–11.6 | Astringency, bitterness, and acidity increased, while red fruits, sweet, and cherry aromas decreased. | [96] |
Falanghina white wine | 0.3–9.8 | Unbalanced taste and liking, with an unpleasant aftertaste due to reduced sweetness, body, and odor | [20] | |
Montepulciano d’Abruzzo red wine | 2.7–8.3 | Lower acceptability due to high acidity, low sweetness, and low red fruits and spices notes | [21] | |
RO | Syrah red wine | 9.6 | Hotness, sweetness, and wine length in the mouth decreased, while red fruits, woody and blackcurrant aromas increased | [105] |
Syrah red wine | 7.9 | Aromas, persistence, and complexity decreased | [107] | |
Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Acidity, astringency, and color intensity increased, while viscosity, sweetness, fruity and floral notes, red fruits, bitterness, hotness, aroma intensity, and overall acceptability decreased | [74] | |
PV | Cabernet Sauvignon red wine | 0.5 | Good smell and taste due to high retention of fruity aromas | [71] |
VD | Chardonnay white wine, Pinot Noir rose wine, and Merlot red wine | 0.7 | Acidity, astringency, and color intensity increased, while viscosity, sweetness, fruity and floral notes, red fruits, bitterness, hotness, aroma intensity, and overall acceptability decreased | [74] |
RO–EP | Shiraz red wine | 10.4 | Dark fruit, raisin/prune, and black pepper notes increased. Astringency and overall aroma intensity also Increase | [98] |
Some reported effects of production methods on the sensory properties of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines.
The aroma profiles of lower, reduced, low, and non-alcoholic wines have a great impact on consumers’ acceptability and mostly depend on volatile compounds. As the removal of alcohol from finished wines usually results in substantial loss of volatile compounds leading to changes in organoleptic properties, innovative ways for correcting these adverse effects are needed. Ways of improving the aroma and sensory properties of lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines are rarely reported in the literature although the use of fruit-based, herb-based, and other rarely used aroma additives in enhancing the aroma profile of wines and alcoholic beverages has been reported [99]. For example, the concentration of monoterpenes and monoterpene glycosides significantly increased after the addition of phenolic-free glycosides, resulting in an increase in floral and fruity aroma, flavor, and aftertaste attributes, without altering the bitterness or astringency [100]. Similarly, dehydrated waste grape skins were used to improve the aroma composition of red wines [101]. Furthermore, addition of hydroalcoholic plants macerates to Vermouth and basic wines improved their sensory characteristics such as aroma, taste, and smell [102]. Moreover, when 2 g/L of Ganoderma lucidum extract was added to a Shiraz wine product, it imparted the wine with fruity and floral notes [103]. Also, the addition of oak chips to Verdejo wines imparted the wines with higher concentrations ethyl acetate, hexyl acetate, isoamyl acetates, higher alcohols, and ethyl esters of straight-chain fatty acids [104], which are known to contribute fruity and floral aromas to the wines. Other wines aromatized with botanical extracts include Benedictine, Chartreuse, liqueurs, and bitters [105]. Possibly, the reciprocation of these studies in lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines would significantly improve their aroma profile. However, the ongoing debate at OIV whether to permit the use of flavorings or exogenous aroma additives from grapes or non-grapes origin in the aroma improvement of these categories of products is a major hindrance to the scientific exploration in this field. Nevertheless, some studies have reported on the aroma improvement of dealcoholized wines (lower, reduced, low, and nonalcoholic wines) and beers [11, 76, 106]. In an attempt to improve the aroma profile of a white wine (11.5% v/v) dealcoholized to a final ethanol content of 0.8% v/v by vacuum evaporation, glycosidic aroma precursors isolated from Muscat grapes were added to the dealcoholized wine. This increased concentrations of β-phenylethyl alcohol, linalool, and geraniol, imparting the final product with high fruity and floral odors [106]. Similarly, Liguori et al. [11] developed an alcohol-free wine beverage with improved aftertaste and flavor from an OD dealcoholized white wine (0.3% v/v ethanol) by adding grape must, sodium carbonate solution, and some floral wine flavors. Furthermore, the aroma profile of a nonalcoholic beer with alcohol content of less than 0.5% was improved by first extracting aroma compounds from non-carbonated alcoholic beer (5.67% v/v ethanol) by pervaporation. Subsequently, the alcohol was removed from the alcoholic beer by spinning cone column distillation. The dealcoholized beer was then reconstituted with about 5–10% v/v of the original beer and 0.3% v/v of the extracted aroma compounds and finally carbonated, resulting in a nonalcoholic beer with improved aroma profile similar to the original beer [76]. Recently, a study was conducted at Gansu Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology, College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, China to investigate the effect of rose (
Spider plot of sensory analysis (means) performed on (a) rose wine; and (b) red wine. Different letters (a–c) represent significant differences at a significant level of 0.05. OW; original merlot wine (control), DW; dealcoholized merlot wine (control), R-RDW; rose reconstituted dealcoholized wine, P-RDW; peach reconstituted dealcoholized wine, L-RDW; and lily reconstituted dealcoholized wine.
With health risks awareness, consumer preferences are shifting toward new product offerings and alternatives, with increasing percentage of the adult population seeking lower alcohol wines more frequently. This has boosted nonalcoholic wine production and sales, with many industries and researchers already abreast with different nonalcoholic wine production techniques at the various stages of winemaking. In this chapter, we focus on the methods used for the production of NW from high-strength alcoholic wines after complete fermentation (wine post-fermentation stage). Specifically, their impact on the aroma profile and sensory characteristics of NW as well as the state-of-the-art methods of improving the aroma profile of such product. Among the methods of NW production, physical dealcoholization methods are usually used as they can achieve the best results when used on a finished wine. Also, when used in the reduction of ethanol at several percent (2–4% v/v), they can preserve the phenolic compounds, volatile compounds, and sensory quality of the wine. Furthermore, the end product usually has a taste almost similar to original wine. In contrast, the other methods discussed in this chapter can produce unbalanced wines (with high acidity, unfermented juice, and low fermentative aroma compounds) with legality issues in the case of the juice fermentable sugars dilution with water. Nevertheless, some important aroma compounds can be lost using physical dealcoholization methods in the production of NW. Therefore, subsequent aroma enhancement may be needed to compensate for the loss of important volatile compounds associated with the aroma profile of the NW during dealcoholization. Currently, there are few studies that scientifically evaluate or optimize the parameters of the production process of aroma-enhanced dealcoholized wines, which could be one of the future research areas. To date, there is limited research on new types of aroma-enhanced dealcoholized wines, though there is evidence that the use of fruit-based, herb-based, and other rarely used aromatic materials in winemaking improves the aroma profiles of wines and dealcoholized wines. Moreover, the unapproved use of fruit-based, herb-based, and other aromatic materials as an oenological practice by the European Union (EU) and the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV) is a major setback to their use as wine additives. Nevertheless, for the category of special and aromatized wines, they could be added. The development of novel products from dealcoholized wines reconstituted with fruit-based, herb-based, or new aroma additives represents a potential new market for the wine industry. Therefore, future development of such products will benefit not only the wine industry by producing diversified and high-quality commercial NW and wine products, but also consumers by providing options for novel aroma-enhanced dealcoholized wines with unique and pleasant aroma profiles.
The authors would like to thank the Department of Commerce of Gansu Province fund, through the wine style exploration, solidification, and typical new product development in Gansu Hexi Corridor appellation, project: GSPTJZX-2020-4, and the Ministry of Education of Gansu Province fund, through the wine production practice teaching reform and practice based on industry chain system, project: CXCYJG2021003. We would also like to thank the late professor Shun-Yu Han from the College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, and a former Dean of Gansu Key Laboratory of Viticulture and Enology for his help in fund acquisition and his contribution in the conception of this chapter, and express our gratitude to professor Yong-Cai Li, the dean of College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University for his support in writing this book chapter.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Cabanelas"}]},{id:"53973",doi:"10.5772/66927",title:"Phenolic Compounds in Water: Sources, Reactivity, Toxicity and Treatment Methods",slug:"phenolic-compounds-in-water-sources-reactivity-toxicity-and-treatment-methods",totalDownloads:7262,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:161,abstract:"Phenolic compounds exist in water bodies due to the discharge of polluted wastewater from industrial, agricultural and domestic activities into water bodies. They also occur as a result of natural phenomena. These compounds are known to be toxic and inflict both severe and long‐lasting effects on both humans and animals. They act as carcinogens and cause damage to the red blood cells and the liver, even at low concentrations. Interaction of these compounds with microorganisms, inorganic and other organic compounds in water can produce substituted compounds or other moieties, which may be as toxic as the original phenolic compounds. This chapter dwells on the sources and reactivity of phenolic compounds in water, their toxic effects on humans, and methods of their removal from water. Specific emphasis is placed on the techniques of their removal from water with attention on both conventional and advanced methods. Among these methods are ozonation, adsorption, extraction, photocatalytic degradation, biological, electro‐Fenton, adsorption and ion exchange and membrane‐based separation.",book:{id:"6029",slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Natural Sources, Importance and Applications"},signatures:"William W. Anku, Messai A. Mamo and Penny P. Govender",authors:[{id:"195237",title:"Dr.",name:"Messai",middleName:"A.",surname:"Mamo",slug:"messai-mamo",fullName:"Messai Mamo"},{id:"196465",title:"Dr.",name:"William Wilson",middleName:null,surname:"Anku",slug:"william-wilson-anku",fullName:"William Wilson Anku"},{id:"196466",title:"Dr.",name:"Penny",middleName:null,surname:"Govender",slug:"penny-govender",fullName:"Penny Govender"}]},{id:"36184",doi:"10.5772/36186",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy in the Analysis of Building and Construction Materials",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-of-cementitious-materials",totalDownloads:7795,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:152,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"Lucia Fernández-Carrasco, D. Torrens-Martín, L.M. Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández"}]},{id:"53128",doi:"10.5772/66368",title:"Phenolic Compounds: Functional Properties, Impact of Processing and Bioavailability",slug:"phenolic-compounds-functional-properties-impact-of-processing-and-bioavailability",totalDownloads:9327,totalCrossrefCites:76,totalDimensionsCites:143,abstract:"In this chapter, we discuss the influence of the processing methods on the content of phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables. The intake of fruits and vegetables based‐foods are associated with delayed aging and a decreased risk of chronic disease development. Fruits and vegetables can be consumed in natura, but the highest amounts are ingested after some processing methods, such as cooking procedures or sanitizing methods. These methods are directly methods are directly related to alteration on the phenolic content. In addition, the postharvest conditions may modify several phytochemical substances. Phenolic compounds are referred to as phytochemicals found in a large number of foods and beverages. The relative high diversity of these molecules produced by plants must be taken into account when methods of preparation are employed to obtain industrial or homemade products. Phenolic compounds comprise one (phenolic acids) or more (polyphenols) aromatic rings with attached hydroxyl groups in their structures. Their antioxidant capacities are related to these hydroxyl groups and phenolic rings. Despite the antioxidant activity, they have many other beneficial effects on human health. However, before attributing health benefits to these compounds, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of each phenolic compound in the body are important points that should be considered.",book:{id:"5609",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Biological Activity"},signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55500",title:"Interpretation of Mass Spectra",slug:"interpretation-of-mass-spectra",totalDownloads:12377,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The chapter includes an introduction to the main ionisation techniques in mass spectrometry and the way the resulting fragments can be analysed. First, the fundamental notions of mass spectrometry are explained, so that the reader can easily cover this chapter (graphs, main pick, molecular ion, illogical pick, nitrogen rule, etc.). Isotopic percentage and nominal mass calculation are also explained along with fragmentation mechanism. A paragraph emphasises the ionisation energy issues, the basics of ionisation voltage, the developing potential and the energy balance. A frame time of the main theoretical milestones in both theory and experimental mass spectrometry is highlighted here. In the second part of the chapter, the molecular fragmentation for alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, halogen, alcohols, phenols, ethers, carbonyl compounds, carboxylic acids and functional derivatives, nitrogen compounds (amines, nitro compounds), sulphur compounds, heterocycles and biomolecules (amino acids, steroids, triglycerides) is explained. Fragmentation schemes are followed by the simplified spectra, which help the understanding of such complex phenomena. At the end of the chapter, acquisition of mass spectrum is discussed. The chapter presented here is an introduction to mass spectrometry, which, we think, helps the understanding of the mechanism of fragmentation corroborating spectral data and molecular structures.",book:{id:"5735",slug:"mass-spectrometry",title:"Mass Spectrometry",fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry"},signatures:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu",authors:[{id:"196775",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor Octavian",middleName:"Octavian",surname:"Nicolescu",slug:"teodor-octavian-nicolescu",fullName:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu"}]},{id:"57909",title:"Validation of Analytical Methods",slug:"validation-of-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:6879,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Method validation is a key element in the establishment of reference methods and within the assessment of a laboratory’s competence in generating dependable analytical records. Validation has been placed within the context of the procedure, generating chemical data. Analytical method validation, thinking about the maximum relevant processes for checking the best parameters of analytical methods, using numerous relevant overall performance indicators inclusive of selectivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, linearity, range, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), ruggedness, and robustness are severely discussed in an effort to prevent their misguided utilization and ensure scientific correctness and consistency among publications.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Tentu Nageswara Rao",authors:[{id:"220824",title:"Dr.",name:"Tentu",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara Rao",slug:"tentu-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Tentu Nageswara Rao"}]},{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3051,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"62736",title:"Radioisotope: Applications, Effects, and Occupational Protection",slug:"radioisotope-applications-effects-and-occupational-protection",totalDownloads:4493,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter presents a brief introduction to radioisotopes, sources and types of radiation, applications, effects, and occupational protection. The natural and artificial sources of radiations are discussed with special reference to natural radioactive decay series and artificial radioisotopes. Applications have played significant role in improving the quality of human life. The application of radioisotopes in tracing, radiography, food preservation and sterilization, eradication of insects and pests, medical diagnosis and therapy, and new variety of crops in agricultural field is briefly described. Radiation interacts with matter to produce excitation and ionization of an atom or molecule; as a result physical and biological effects are produced. These effects and mechanisms are discussed. The dosimetric quantities used in radiological protection are described. Radiological protections and the control of occupational and medical exposures are briefly described.",book:{id:"5903",slug:"principles-and-applications-in-nuclear-engineering-radiation-effects-thermal-hydraulics-radionuclide-migration-in-the-environment",title:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering",fullTitle:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering - Radiation Effects, Thermal Hydraulics, Radionuclide Migration in the Environment"},signatures:"Sannappa Jadiyappa",authors:[{id:"239626",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sannappa J.",slug:"sannappa-j.",fullName:"Sannappa J."}]},{id:"58596",title:"Linearity of Calibration Curves for Analytical Methods: A Review of Criteria for Assessment of Method Reliability",slug:"linearity-of-calibration-curves-for-analytical-methods-a-review-of-criteria-for-assessment-of-method",totalDownloads:7983,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"Calibration curve is a regression model used to predict the unknown concentrations of analytes of interest based on the response of the instrument to the known standards. Some statistical analyses are required to choose the best model fitting to the experimental data and also evaluate the linearity and homoscedasticity of the calibration curve. Using an internal standard corrects for the loss of analyte during sample preparation and analysis provided that it is selected appropriately. After the best regression model is selected, the analytical method needs to be validated using quality control (QC) samples prepared and stored in the same temperature as intended for the study samples. Most of the international guidelines require that the parameters, including linearity, specificity, selectivity, accuracy, precision, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), matrix effect and stability, be assessed during validation. Despite the highly regulated area, some challenges still exist regarding the validation of some analytical methods including methods when no analyte-free matrix is available.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi and Sussan Ghassabian",authors:[{id:"216099",title:"Dr.",name:"Sussan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassabian",slug:"sussan-ghassabian",fullName:"Sussan Ghassabian"},{id:"216101",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"seyed-mojtaba-moosavi",fullName:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"8",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82385",title:"Cyclodextrins as Bricks for Tuning Polymer Properties",slug:"cyclodextrins-as-bricks-for-tuning-polymer-properties",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105688",abstract:"Cyclodextrins are natural cyclic oligosaccharides with a cone shape delimiting a hydrophobic cavity. The rims of cyclodextrins can be functionalized in order to improve their properties. Based on this, cyclodextrins can be linked to polymer chains, which further allows the tuning of the polymer properties. This review describes the methods of polymer functionalization with cyclodextrins and highlights the changes in the physicochemical properties of these materials. This chapter is focused on polymers in solution and in gel states. Cyclodextrin-based polymers are evaluated by various physicochemical methods, such as rheology, calorimetry, and spectroscopy (electron paramagnetic resonance, fluorescence, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), etc.). Both natural and synthetic polymers are considered in this chapter.",book:{id:"11901",title:"Cyclodextrins - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11901.jpg"},signatures:"Ludmila Aricov, Anca Ruxandra Leontieș, Iulia Matei and Gabriela Ioniță"},{id:"82358",title:"Water Defluoridation Methods Applied in Rural Areas over the World",slug:"water-defluoridation-methods-applied-in-rural-areas-over-the-world",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105102",abstract:"Overexposure to fluoride (F) through drinking water is the most widespread water problem in the world, but it has now exacerbated due to rapid population growth rates, adverse climatic changes, and increasing levels of water scarcity. Thus, despite the large amounts of data, which has accrued on mitigation methods of high F is still the primary impediment to drinking water programs among many developing nations. The current review chapter on F mitigation techniques applied world-over is aimed at providing a succinct overview of water defluoridation techniques and strategies being used to combat the impact of human F overexposure. It represents a starting point to understand the prospects of reducing the global F impact. It is anticipated that this work will lay a strong foundation for this and also inform strategies for safeguarding public health and the environment from F pollution.",book:{id:"11209",title:"Fluoride",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11209.jpg"},signatures:"Enos Wamalwa Wambu, Franco Frau, Revocatus Machunda, Lilliane Pasape, Stephen S. Barasa and Giorgio Ghiglieri"},{id:"82221",title:"Solvent Catalysis in the Sensitizer-Mediator Redox Kinetics",slug:"solvent-catalysis-in-the-sensitizer-mediator-redox-kinetics",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105393",abstract:"The sensitizer-mediator redox reaction is a vital component of the dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The efficiency and stability of dye-sensitized solar cells are aided by the kinetics of this redox process. Several reaction parameters influence the kinetics of a reaction, and if those parameters are controlled, the rate of the process and its results can be controlled. One of the most important aspects of the sensitizer-mediator interaction is the reaction medium. Aqueous DSSCs are unquestionably a good replacement when it comes to taking a green approach to avoiding toxic, flammable, and volatile organic solvents and their mixtures, which are commonly used in DSSCs and are known to harm the environment while also reducing the lifetime and stability of the DSSCs. The catalytic role of a small volume fraction of organic solvent in the aqueous electron transfer kinetics of a few putative sensitizer-mediator reactions is discussed in this chapter. In binary solvent media including dilute tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA)-water and dilute 1,4-dioxane-water, the reduction of dicyanobis(2,2′-dipyridyl)iron(III) and dicyanobis(1,10-phenanthroline)iron(III) was investigated. The reactions were carried out in a 10% TBA or dioxane to water media with a volume-volume fraction of both solvents using iodide as a reducing agent. The effect of several parameters on the rate constant was also calculated and analyzed.",book:{id:"11217",title:"Recent Advances in Chemical Kinetics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11217.jpg"},signatures:"Rozina Khattak"},{id:"82282",title:"Pyridine Nucleus as a Directing Group for Metal-Based C–H Bond Activation",slug:"pyridine-nucleus-as-a-directing-group-for-metal-based-c-h-bond-activation",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105544",abstract:"Carbon-hydrogen (C–H) bond activation involves a methodology for the construction of carbon-X (C–X) bonds where X can be carbon (C), oxygen (O), or the nitrogen (N), allowing the formation of C–C, C–O, or C–N bonds. Among them, the construction of the C–C bond within the aromatic moiety has remained a bottleneck because the abundance of C–H bonds in aromatic molecules possesses almost similar bond dissociation energies comparable to the C–C bond allowing leading to the poor reactivity and selectivity. Secondly, C–H bonds possess low polarity and thus confer them inertness. Considering this, directing group strategy came into existence, where the coordination ability of the heteroatoms such as O and N atoms within the ring was utilized for the direction of the reaction. The use of the heteroatom for the regioselective C–H bond activation is quite advantageous that could be explored immensely for their functionalization. In this chapter, we have congregated the information and put forth the evidence of C–H activation leading to the C–C bond formation in pyridine and pyridine-containing entities.",book:{id:"11562",title:"Chemistry with Pyridine Derivatives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11562.jpg"},signatures:"Purohit Priyank, Joshi Gaurav and Aggarwal Meenu"},{id:"82236",title:"Alternatives to Soluble Phosphorus Fertilizers in Indian Context",slug:"alternatives-to-soluble-phosphorus-fertilizers-in-indian-context",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105561",abstract:"Phosphorus is one of the primary nutrients required in crop production. Rock phosphate is the raw material required for the manufacturing of soluble phosphorus fertilizers, which is nonrenewable in nature and expected to last for 50–400 years. The restriction of resources to few geographical locations makes its supply more vulnerable. In India, 90% of the rock phosphate for fertilizer manufacturing is imported. However, the low quality of rock phosphate deposits available in India can be utilized with certain modifications in the form of addition of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, addition of gypsum, and in the form of phospho-enriched compost. Agriculture, livestock, urban and industrial waste can also prove to be a source of phosphorus through crystallization of struvite. There are encouraging results of struvite compared with soluble phosphorus fertilizers. This will reduce the import dependency in India as well as encourage the Atmanirbhar initiative in phosphorus fertilizer.",book:{id:"11906",title:"Phosphate Minerals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11906.jpg"},signatures:"Alok Singh Jayara, Rajeew Kumar, Priyanka Pandey, Manoj Kumar Bhatt, Sharad Pandey and Roshan Lal Meena"},{id:"82251",title:"Potassium Persulfate as an Eco-Friendly Oxidant for Oxidative Transformations",slug:"potassium-persulfate-as-an-eco-friendly-oxidant-for-oxidative-transformations",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104715",abstract:"The formation of carbon-carbon/carbon-heteroatom bonds by oxidative transformations is a hotly debated topic in chemistry. K2S2O8 has emerged as a cost-effective inorganic oxidant for a wide range of oxidative reactions in this setting. This book chapter covers oxidative reactions facilitated by K2S2O8 in the absence of a metal catalyst in detail. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"15",type:"subseries",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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