Importance Rating
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9239",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Digital Imaging",title:"Digital Imaging",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Digital imaging is used widely in various real-life applications today. There are a number of potential digital imaging applications that include different areas such as television, photography, robotics, remote sensing, medical diagnosis, reconnaissance, architectural and engineering design, art, crime prevention, geographical information systems, communication, intellectual property, retail catalogs, nudity detection, face finding, industrial, and others. This book is specifically dedicated to digital imaging research, applications, techniques, tools, and algorithms that originate from different fields such as image processing, computer vision, pattern recognition, signal processing, artificial intelligence, intelligent systems, and soft computing. In general, this comprehensive book contains state-of-the-art chapters focusing on the latest developments using theories, methods, approaches, algorithms, analyses, display of images, visual information, and videos.",isbn:"978-1-78985-600-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-599-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-389-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83239",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"digital-imaging",numberOfPages:104,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"656ebe9652b39a1f5dc33d004170a1c4",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",publishedDate:"May 13th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9239.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4272,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 6th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 3rd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 2nd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 21st 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 20th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"601",title:"Digital Image Processing",slug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-digital-image-processing"}],chapters:[{id:"71817",title:"Introductory Chapter: On Digital Image Processing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92060",slug:"introductory-chapter-on-digital-image-processing",totalDownloads:1056,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Muhammad Sarfraz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71817",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71817",authors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],corrections:null},{id:"67657",title:"Fast Motion Estimation’s Configuration Using Diamond Pattern and ECU, CFM, and ESD Modes for Reducing HEVC Computational Complexity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86792",slug:"fast-motion-estimation-s-configuration-using-diamond-pattern-and-ecu-cfm-and-esd-modes-for-reducing-",totalDownloads:679,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The high performance of the high efficiency video coding (HEVC) video standard makes it more suitable for high-definition resolutions. Nevertheless, this encoding performance is coupled with a tremendous encoding complexity compared to the earlier H264 video codec. The HEVC complexity is mainly a return to the motion estimation (ME) module that represents the important part of encoding time which makes several researches turn around the optimization of this module. Some works are interested in hardware solutions exploiting the parallel processing of FPGA, GPU, or other multicore architectures, and other works are focused on software optimizations by inducing fast mode decision algorithms. In this context, this article proposes a fast HEVC encoder configuration to speed up the encoding process. The fast configuration uses different options such as the early skip detection (ESD), the early CU termination (ECU), and the coded block flag (CBF) fast method (CFM) modes. Regarding the algorithm of ME, the diamond search (DS) is used in the encoding process through several video resolutions. A time saving around 46.75% is obtained with an acceptable distortion in terms of video quality and bitrate compared to the reference test model HM.16.2. Our contribution is compared to other works for better evaluation.",signatures:"Randa Khemiri, Nejmeddine Bahri, Fatma Belghith, Soulef Bouaafia, Fatma Elzahra Sayadi, Mohamed Atri and Nouri Masmoudi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67657",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67657",authors:[{id:"298629",title:"Dr.",name:"Randa",surname:"Khemiri",slug:"randa-khemiri",fullName:"Randa Khemiri"},{id:"304368",title:"Dr.",name:"Nejmeddine",surname:"Bahri",slug:"nejmeddine-bahri",fullName:"Nejmeddine Bahri"},{id:"304387",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Atri",slug:"mohamed-atri",fullName:"Mohamed Atri"},{id:"304388",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma",surname:"Belghith",slug:"fatma-belghith",fullName:"Fatma Belghith"},{id:"304390",title:"Dr.",name:"Soulef",surname:"Bouaafia",slug:"soulef-bouaafia",fullName:"Soulef Bouaafia"},{id:"304391",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Ezahra",surname:"Sayadi",slug:"fatma-ezahra-sayadi",fullName:"Fatma Ezahra Sayadi"},{id:"304392",title:"Prof.",name:"Nouri",surname:"Masmoudi",slug:"nouri-masmoudi",fullName:"Nouri Masmoudi"}],corrections:null},{id:"68748",title:"Digital Image Processing Applied to Optical Measurements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88704",slug:"digital-image-processing-applied-to-optical-measurements",totalDownloads:602,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Digital image processing is a useful tool that improves pictorial information for human interpretation and is mainly used for storage, transmission, and representation of different data. In this chapter, we want to introduce an optical technique which couples physical analysis with image processing for a measurement system. Optical methods were used to obtain the stress-strain relation by different invasive and noninvasive methods. This chapter talks about a novel noninvasive methodology to measure stress-strain evolution; this technique is based upon a single laser beam reflected on the cross section of ductile materials (steel and aluminum) while they are under a compression load. The way we measure one laser beam is by using the Gaussian beam propagation equations; we propose that the reflection area of the laser is going to change as the material surface area is compressed and we analyze these differences by using digital image processing. With this technique we are able to construct a stress-strain diagram.",signatures:"Alonso Saldaña-Heredia, Pedro Antonio Márquez-Aguilar, Álvaro Zamudio Lara and Arturo Molina-Ocampo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68748",authors:[{id:"51029",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro Antonio",surname:"Marquez Aguilar",slug:"pedro-antonio-marquez-aguilar",fullName:"Pedro Antonio Marquez Aguilar"},{id:"299407",title:"Dr.",name:"Alonso",surname:"Saldaña Heredia",slug:"alonso-saldana-heredia",fullName:"Alonso Saldaña Heredia"},{id:"299409",title:"Dr.",name:"Álvaro",surname:"Zamudio Lara",slug:"alvaro-zamudio-lara",fullName:"Álvaro Zamudio Lara"},{id:"306535",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo",surname:"Molina Ocampo",slug:"arturo-molina-ocampo",fullName:"Arturo Molina Ocampo"}],corrections:null},{id:"67608",title:"Experimental and Theoretical Investigation on the Shear Behaviour of High Strength Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Digital Image Correlation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86499",slug:"experimental-and-theoretical-investigation-on-the-shear-behaviour-of-high-strength-reinforced-concre",totalDownloads:627,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter an experimental investigation is carried out on high strength concrete beams without transverse reinforcement and with transverse reinforcement. The beams were tested in bending under two concentrated loads using the technique of digital image correlation. In the test setup, the shear zone which is defined by the area of beam between the support point and the loading point was studied by the camera of high resolution. The Gom-Aramis software was used to record and analyse the numerical images by determination of the deformation of concrete in the compressed zone of the beam, to calculate the opening, the spacing and the length of the diagonal cracks. The experimental shear strength of the beams was compared with the theoretical values predicted by the different design codes, such as the American ACI 318, the British Standard BS 8110, the European Eurocode 2, the New Zealand NZS 3101 and the Indian Standard IS456. The results show that all the design codes underestimate the contribution of high strength concrete to the shear resistance of reinforced concrete beams, and greatly overestimate the contribution of transverse reinforcement. The European Eurocode 2 is the only one among the four code models that gives the best prediction of the ultimate shear strength of high strength concrete.",signatures:"Touhami Tahenni and Thibaut Lecompte",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67608",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67608",authors:[{id:"299556",title:"Dr.",name:"Touhami",surname:"Tahenni",slug:"touhami-tahenni",fullName:"Touhami Tahenni"}],corrections:null},{id:"69142",title:"Implementation of an Artificial Vision System for Welding in the Retrofitting Process of a Robotic Arm Industrial",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88360",slug:"implementation-of-an-artificial-vision-system-for-welding-in-the-retrofitting-process-of-a-robotic-a",totalDownloads:601,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An industrial approach to the use of artificial vision is worked, and we are searching for the improvement of the welding process using a robotic arm. These kinds of robots in the last years have been associated to high accuracy tasks like classification, welding, object manipulation, assembly, and so on. Generally, the artificial vision is not used in works which use manipulator arm; this is normally due to the robot programmer who plans the robot task, which is executed cyclically, however, there are some approaches where different tasks using artificial vision are implemented. In this chapter, we present a retrofitting process of a manipulator welder arm Miller MR-2000, and the development of an artificial vision system, which could be used in the positioning of the machine. The developed system is able to look for areas suitable for the welding task between two pieces of material within a workspace; this process is possible using techniques of computational vision and image processing. Subsequently, the algorithm calculates the number of welding points based on the area identified previously, and finally, it sends the respective coordinates by means of G code to the robot for welding the pieces.",signatures:"Yomin Estiven Jaramillo Munera, Jhon Edison Goez Mora, Juan Camilo Londoño Lopera and Edgar Mario Rico Mesa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69142",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69142",authors:[{id:"300249",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Edgar Mario",surname:"Rico Mesa",slug:"edgar-mario-rico-mesa",fullName:"Edgar Mario Rico Mesa"},{id:"300795",title:"Prof.",name:"Jhon Edison",surname:"Goez Mora",slug:"jhon-edison-goez-mora",fullName:"Jhon Edison Goez Mora"},{id:"300796",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan",surname:"Londoño Lopera",slug:"juan-londono-lopera",fullName:"Juan Londoño Lopera"},{id:"300801",title:"Prof.",name:"Yomin Estiven",surname:"Jaramillo Múnera",slug:"yomin-estiven-jaramillo-munera",fullName:"Yomin Estiven Jaramillo Múnera"}],corrections:null},{id:"69261",title:"EBSCO Discovery Service (EDS) Usage in Israeli Academic Libraries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89453",slug:"ebsco-discovery-service-eds-usage-in-israeli-academic-libraries",totalDownloads:708,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Awareness to the problem that different search interfaces discourage patrons’ use of library information sources has led academic libraries to implement web-scale discovery services. These services offer the user a “Google-like” search experience of library resources. This study aims to explore library professionals’ satisfaction, patrons’ information behavior, and use of EDS discovery tool service in academic libraries in Israel. Mixed research methods were used in this study: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research methods are through content analysis of library directors’ interviews, and quantitative research method is through collected library metrics (from Google analytics) data analysis, regarding usage patterns and search session analysis. The study aims to gain insight regarding library implementation and patrons’ information behavior of the EDS discovery tool, in Israeli higher education institutions.",signatures:"Riki Greenberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69261",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69261",authors:[{id:"306624",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Riki",surname:"Greenberg",slug:"riki-greenberg",fullName:"Riki Greenberg"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10518",title:"Cybersecurity Threats with New Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"de548f0f3bdfd40d0e417d04782899e6",slug:"cybersecurity-threats-with-new-perspectives",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10518.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9965",title:"Computational Optimization Techniques and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d2c7d240aed947e7780605dab6dde1c3",slug:"computational-optimization-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz and Samsul Ariffin Abdul Karim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9965.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9905",title:"Biometric Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c730560dd2e3837a03407b3a86b0ef2a",slug:"biometric-systems",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3845",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"Applications for the Practical Engineer",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1079f9d5879db7c7c13257713a2e9710",slug:"matlab-applications-for-the-practical-engineer",bookSignature:"Kelly Bennett",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3845.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169605",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelly",surname:"Bennett",slug:"kelly-bennett",fullName:"Kelly Bennett"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Soares, João Silva, Eliseu Monteiro and Abel Rouboa",dateSubmitted:"September 25th 2016",dateReviewed:"March 27th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 30th 2017",book:{id:"5768",title:"Desalination",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Desalination",slug:"desalination",publishedDate:"August 30th 2017",bookSignature:"Taner Yonar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5768.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32956",title:"Dr.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"59885",title:"PhD.",name:"Abel",middleName:null,surname:"Rouboa",fullName:"Abel Rouboa",slug:"abel-rouboa",email:"rouboa@utad.pt",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"5768",title:"Desalination",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Desalination",slug:"desalination",publishedDate:"August 30th 2017",bookSignature:"Taner Yonar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5768.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32956",title:"Dr.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11437",leadTitle:null,title:"Social Media - Risks and Opportunities",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThis book will introduce the reader to the risks and opportunities that social media presents to individuals, communities, and institutions. Social media's fast-changing environment continues to affect everyday lives, societal culture, and institutional practices. As a result, all members of society must be aware of emerging social media platforms, particularly those that will have a direct impact on their being and future. Discussions about who uses social media, the effects of social media, social media strategy and tactics, social media analysis, online safety and security, and the policy and legal implications of social media use may assist readers in better preparing for and balancing the risks and opportunities associated with social media use. Emerging methods, such as digital education and literacy, are investigated in order to facilitate the production and consumption of social media content by users of various demographics. The readers will be informed by academic commentaries and scientific discoveries based on theory, research, and best practice.
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She holds a Ph.D. in Media Studies from Monash University, Australia. She is the author, co-author, and editor of several books, journal articles, and monographs on media and communication. Her research covers new media theory, political communication, health communication, and digital media literacy. Her recent research projects examined digital media skills.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Shazleen Mohamed is the Head of Postgraduate Studies at Universiti Teknologi MARA's Faculty of Communication and Media Studies. She is an expert in broadcasting and media studies, with a particular emphasis on children's television reception. She has more than 20 years of experience in media academia as well as industry. She has also authored numerous articles for scholarly and public journals. 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Her two recent research projects examined the digital media skills of underprivileged children and the communication of vaccination in mainstream and social media. Both studies are based on the experience of Malaysia. 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At the core of the method, Six Sigma utilizes a discipline that strives to minimize defects and variation of critical variables towards an achievement of 3.4 defects per million opportunities in product design, production, and administrative processes. Customer satisfaction and cost reduction can be realized by reducing variation in processes that produce products and services which they use. While focused on reducing variation, the Six Sigma methodology uses a well-defined problem solving approach with the application of statistical tools. The methodology uses five phases including Define-Measure-Analyze-Improve-Control (DMAIC). The purpose of the five phases are to define the problem, measure the process performance, analyze the process for root causes, improve the process by eliminating or reducing root causes, and control the improved process to hold the gains.
The goals of Six Sigma include developing a world-class culture, developing leaders, and supporting long-range objectives.There are numerous benefits of Six Sigma including a stronger knowledge of products and processes, a reduction in defects, an increased customer satisfaction level that generates business growth and improves profitability, an increased communication and teamwork, and a common set of tools.Six Sigma is commonly credited to Bill Smith, an engineer at Motorola, who coined the term in 1984.The concept was originally developed as a safety margin of fifty percent in design for product performance specifications.This safety margin was equivalent to a Six Sigma level of capability.Since it’s first introduction, Six Sigma has continued to evolve over time and has been adopted throughout the world as a standard business practice.
In order to achieve Six Sigma, an organization must understand the customer’s wants and needs, also known as the voice of the customer (VOC). The voice of the customer is defined as the identification, structuring, and prioritization of customer needs. Within the Six Sigma DMAIC methodology, gathering the voice of the customer falls within the define phase. This enables the team to fully understand the customer’s expectations at the beginning of the project.Prior to initiating any project or process improvement initiative, the organization or team must determine how the customer defines quality. The customer is typically surveyed or interviewed (among other techniques) to determine their expectations and these are then analyzed using quality function deployment (QFD). A critical aspect of a QFD analysis is gathering the voice of the customer to assess how a product or service measures against what the customer wants or expects.
Customers continually want more reliable, durable products and services in a timely manner.In order to remain competitive, all organizations must become more responsive to customers, strive for Six Sigma capability, and operate at world class level.
Quality function deployment has been widely used to capture the voice of the customer and translate it into technical requirements in the development of products and services. It is a link between product or service development and technical specifications to achieve customer satisfaction. Applications of QFD range from product development, service development, and product re-projecting (Miguel & Carnevalli, 2008).
QFD was developed by Yogi Akao in 1966 and was initially introduced in Japan in the late 1960s and early 1970s. QFD was first implemented in Mitsubishi’s Kobe shipyard in 1972. Following QFD’s introduction in Japan, it was then implemented primarily in manufacturing settings in the United States. Since then, it has been successfully used in many industries and various functional areas, including product development, quality management, customer needs analysis, product design, planning, engineering decision making, management, teamwork, timing, costing and other areas (Chan and Wu, 2002).
Assessing customer requirements is a complex task. Traditional approaches have focused on present customer needs; however, Wu, Liao, and Wang (2005) have concluded that, since customer needs are dynamic and may vary drastically over time, analyzing future customer needs is critical to an organization’s long-term competitiveness. Customer needs may vary depending on various factors, the most important and complex of which is human nature. Other factors may include cultural setting, work environment, age, sex, etc. The most common way to determine customer requirements is through direct customer interaction, but surveyors must consider what a customer means rather than what he or she says.
Quality function deployment is a systematic process to integrate customer requirements into every aspect of the design and delivery of products and services. Understanding the customers wants or needs from a product or service is crucial to the successful design and development of new products and services. QFD is a system that utilizes customer demands to meet client missions by outlining what the customer wants in a service or product. QFD involves the construction of one or more matrices, called quality tables, which ensure customer satisfaction and improved quality servicesat every level of the service and product development process. QFD is a planning process that translates customer needs into appropriate company requirements at each stage, from research and product/service development to engineering, manufacturing, marketing/sales, and distribution.
It is crucial for any organization to understand their customers’ requirements and service expectations as they represent implicit performance standards used by the customers in the assessment of service and product quality. A significant relationship between the relative quality, as perceived by the customers, and the organization’s profitability has been shown. The opportunities to apply QFD in service and business sectors are rapidly expanding. QFD has been used to enhance a wide range of service aspects in healthcare, chemical, and telecommunications industries as well as the typical product design applications. It is vital for companies to identify the exact needs of the customers and to measure their satisfaction toward a Six Sigma level to survive in the current competitive market. QFD focuses on designing in quality rather than inspecting in quality which reduces development times, lowers startup costs, and promotes the use of teams.
QFD maintains the integrity of the VOC and generates innovative strategies to achieve an organization’s vision. In addition, it leads directly to policy deployment for implementation and performance management.Overall, QFD is a service planning and development tool, that facilitates service providers with an organized way to assure quality and customer satisfaction while maintaining a sustainable competitive advantage (Akao, 1990). QFD aims at enhanced customer satisfaction, organizational integration of expressed customer wants and needs, and higher profit levels (Griffin and Hauser, 1991).
QFD is a comprehensive quality system aimed specifically at satisfying the customer. It concentrates on maximizing customer satisfaction by seeking out both spoken and unspoken needs (Helper and Mazur, 2006). QFD displays the notation of customer orientation for designing products and services. Its purpose is to listen to the customer and translate their requirements back in any business process so that the end product or service will satisfy their needs and demands (Chan et al., 2006).
Since its introduction, QFD has been used in conjunction with various techniques such as the Kano model (Sauerwein, Bailom, Matzler, & Hinterhuber, 1996), SERVQUAL (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1988), analytical hierarchy process (AHP), and maximum difference (MaxDiff), among others.
The mission of this chapter is to provide an overview of QFD, the various approaches, goals/purpose of QFD, a step-by-step procedure for performing QFD, and interpreting QFD.
The opportunities to apply QFD in service and business sectors are rapidly expanding. QFD has been used to enhance a wide range of service aspects in healthcare, chemical, and telecommunications industries as well as the typical product design applications. It is vital for companies to identify the exact needs of the customers and to measure their satisfaction to survive in the current competitive market. QFD focuses on designing in quality rather than inspecting in quality which reduces development times, lowers startup costs, and promotes the use of teams (Fisher and Schutta, 2003).
QFD is a planning process that translates customer needs into appropriate company requirements at each stage, from research and product/service development to engineering, manufacturing, marketing/sales, and distribution (Pawitra and Tan, 2003). The quality function deployment method was first originated in Japan and is used to select the design features of a product to satisfy the expressed needs and preferences of the customer as well as to prioritize those features and select the most important for special attention further down the design process (Fisher and Schutta, 2003).Maritan and Panizzolo (2009) proposed that when used in the strategic planning process, QFD maintains the integrity of the VOC and generates innovative strategies to achieve an organization’s vision. They also argue that it leads directly to policy deployment for implementation and performance management.Overall, QFD is a service planning and development tool, that facilitates service providers with an organized way to assure quality and customer satisfaction while maintaining a sustainable competitive advantage (Akao, 1990). QFD aims at enhanced customer satisfaction, organizational integration of expressed customer wants and needs, and higher profit levels (Griffin, 1992).
QFD differs from traditional quality systems that aim to minimize negative quality such as poor service (Mazur, 1993). QFD provides an organized, systematic approach to bringing customer requirements into product and service design (Helper and Mazur, 2006). QFD focuses on delivering “value” by seeking out both spoken and unspoken customer requirements, translating them into actionable service features and communicating them throughout an organization (Mazur, 1993, 1997; Pun et al., 2000). It is driven by the voice of the customer and because of that, it helps service providers to address gaps between specific and holistic components of customer expectations and actual service experience. In addition, it helps managers to adopt a more customer-driven perspective, pointing out the differences between what managers visualize as customer expectations and the actual customer expectations. It provides a way to more objectively address subjective needs yet demonstrates the belief in customer focus and employee involvement for every party involved in the supply chain.
QFD is developed by a cross-functional team and provides an interdepartmental means of communication that creates a common quality focus across all functions/operations in an organization (Stuart and Tax, 1996). The unique approach of QFD is its ability to integrate customer demands with the technical aspects of a service. It helps the cross-functional team make the key tradeoffs between the customers’ needs and the technical requirements so as to develop a service of high quality. Hence, QFD is not only a methodological tool but also a concept that provides a means of translating customer requirements in each stage of service development (Chan and Wu, 2002).
A critical aspect of a QFD analysis is gathering the voice of the customer to assess how a product or service measures against what the customer wants or expects.The voice of the customer is defined as the identification, structuring, and prioritization of customer needs (Griffin and Hauser, 1991). Customer needs are measured in terms of consequences, which are determined by asking customers directly what they are looking for in a product or service. Then, the customer consequences are assessed and technical requirements are developed by knowledgeable professionals associated with the specific field of the product or service being assessed.The technical requirements are design dimensions that are specifically made to meet the customer consequences developed from the VOC.For example, if a customer consequence was better fuel economy (associated with a vehicle), perhaps a technical requirement would be the fuel type or weight of the vehicle that would directly be associated with the customer consequence.
The VOC is obtained primarily by two methods, namely through interviews or focus groups, which are then used to develop a survey questionnaire to distribute to potential and/or existing customers. Griffin and Hauser (1991) suggest that interviews with 20-30 customers should identify 90% or more of the customer needs in a relatively homogeneous customer segment. Multiple analysts (4-6) should review the transcripts of the focus groups to identify group synergies.Once the interviews and/or focus groups are conducted, an affinity diagram can be used to group the similarities in responses from the participants to develop a questionnaire that addresses all the topics important to the participant.The survey then asks the participant to rate an existing product or service on a scale of 1 to 5 on how well they view the product or service performs on each customer consequence.The participant is also asked to weight how important each customer consequence is to them for the product or service.A weighted rating can then be obtained by multiplying the rating and weight assigned to each customer consequence so that prioritization can be assessed.For example, a customer consequence could be discovered to be very important to a participant, but they view the product or service as performing poorly.This consequence would have priority to address over a consequence that the participant viewed as having a high rating on performance yet it was not seen as important.The next discussion refers to the House of Quality, which is the tool used for organizing the customer consequences and subsequent technical requirements developed to address those consequences.
Olewnik and Lewis (2008) report that the HOQ is a design tool that supports information processing and decision making in the engineering design process. They note that for companies just implementing QFD and the HOQ, there is undoubtedly an improvement in information structure, flow, and direction. Hauser and Clausing (1988) state that the principal benefit of the HOQ is increasing the quality focus of the organization. That is, the HOQ gets people within an organization thinking in the right direction and thinking together.
QFD uses a set of interrelated matrix diagrams. The first matrix is the HOQ, which converts the customer consequences into technical requirements that must be fulfilled throughout the supply chain. The starting point on the left of the house is the identification of basic customer consequences. The next step is the definition of the priority levels that customers assign to these needs. These priorities are translated into numeric values that indicate relative importance, as discussed earlier. Customer ratings, shown on the right side of the house, enable benchmarking with competitors’ services. The section just below the roof states the technical requirements used to meet the customer consequences. The relationship between the customer consequences and technical requirements constitutes the main body of the HOQ, called the relationship matrix. This matrix helps identify certain technical requirements that should be given priority if one addresses multiple customer consequences.The correlation matrix defines the relationships among technical requirements, which is represented by the roof of the HOQ.The bottom of the house evaluates the competition in terms of technical requirements in which the target values are defined by the researcher in this matrix (Tan and Pawitra, 2001). The construction of each of the sections in the HOQ is discussed in the following sections. Figure 1 depicts a standard HOQ.
The following section of this paper will outline a standard generic methodology for conducting a QFD analysis, which includes obtaining the VOC and translating it into meaningful data using an HOQ.
HOQ Model (
QFD involves the construction of one or more matrices, called quality tables, which ensure customer satisfaction and improved quality services at every level of the service development process. The House of Quality, one of the most commonly used matrices in the QFD methodology, is a toolbox of decision matrices and the customer requirements and competitive benchmarks are utilized for decision-making (Andronikidis et al., 2009).
TheQFD methodology requires the development of a survey to understand the customer consequences for a product’s or service’s potential, current, or past customers regarding its functions to these demographics, and translates these consequences using quality function deployment into technical requirements to improve service offerings. The final deliverable of the methodology is an HOQ that is constructed by integrating customer consequences gathered via a survey, developing technical requirements to address each customer consequence, benchmarking competitors on similar design structures, and comparing the product or service to its competitors and prioritizing actions based on customer wants and competitors’ successes and/or failures. The step-by-step process for the development of the HOQ is discussed in detail in the following sections.
One of the essential strategies for successful functioning of any organization is delivering superior service or product quality to their customers. Understanding what exactly the customer’s needs and wants (voice of the customer)are is a key criterion in total quality management (Griffin and Hauser, 1991). The first step towards understanding customer needs is to identify attributes and customer consequences. Attributes are defined as the physical or abstract characteristics of a service or product. They are objective, measurable, and reflect the provider’s perspective. Consequences are a result of using attributes; basically, an end result in what a customer “gets” from using a service or product. Customers judge services and products based on their consequences, not their attributes. In other words, customers judge a service or product on its outcome, or affect of use on them.A service or product has many attributes, and each may have more than one consequence (Fisher and Schutta, 2003).
To gather the VOC, a cross-functional team must conduct focus groups or interviews with a select group of potential, existing, or past customers and ask them what is important to them in the service or product being offered.“Why” is asked numerous times until the respondent responds with the same answer each time.This is the fundamental customer consequence that the customer wants from using the service or product. These responses are grouped using an affinity diagram and used to develop a meaningful survey questionnaire that captures all things important to the customers.To ensure that the appropriate number of responses is gathered (90%), a standard sample size calculation can be performed.
During the survey, the respondents are asked to evaluate the particular product or service provider on each customer consequence on a standard 5 point Likert scale.The respondent is also asked to weight each consequence on how important it is to them on a 5 point Likert scale.These ratings and weightings will be multiplied to derive a weighted rating to encompass both the performance rating and the importance for each consequence.With this information, the team can determine which of the consequences are the most important and also the worst in performance and assign priorities.
If respondents for other similar types of products or services are available, the same survey can gather data regarding customer consequences for those competitors.If respondents are not available, the team will use available data (i.e., website published information, annual reports, technical reports, financial statements) to determine which competitor being evaluated is “best” and assign it a value of “5”. The team will also identify which competitor is “worst” at each consequence and sign them a value of “1”.All competitors will be assigned a value relative to “best” and “worst” using team or industry expertise in the subject area.This information will be used to “benchmark” the product or service being directly evaluated by the team to see how they compare to similar competitors.
After the customer consequences are analyzed, the next step in the construction of the HOQ is the development of the technical requirements. The technical requirements are the design specifications that satisfy customer consequences.These technical requirements are on the top of the HOQ and are referred to as the “how” of the HOQ.They describe “how” to meet the customer consequences and improve a product or service.The technical requirements must be within the control of the product or service provider and must be measurable (i.e., quantitative measurements, “yes/no”).Each customer consequence can have more than one technical requirement, and each technical requirement may fulfill the need of more than one customer consequence.
The development of technical requirements often requires expertise in the area regarding the service or product and requires creativity to develop.This area of the HOQ is the “thinking outside the box” aspect and there is no definite “right or wrong” answer.Any reasonable technical requirement should be considered.Often times ambiguous research and information collected from many sources (i.e., experts, websites, technical reports) may be used to spark brainstorming and creativity to develop technical requirements.
Once the customer consequences are developed, survey results are gathered, and the technical requirements are developed, a matrix to highlight relationships between the customer consequences and the technical requirements is constructed.This matrix is the “body” of the House of Quality. The matrix defines the correlations between the customer consequences and technical requirements as strong, moderate, or weak using a 9-3-1 scale. For this scale the following notations are used Strong (H) = 9, Moderate (M) = 3, and Weak (S) = 1. Each customer consequence is matched with any applicable technical requirement; make note that relationships should not be forced, leaving a blank if no relationship is determined.Here again, this assignment of relationships requires the expertise of the researchers or industry members.Normally only the strongest relationships are specified leaving approximately 60-70% of the matrix blank (Griffin and Hauser, 1991). Although some indicate that ideally in the QFD analysis, no more than 50% of the relationship matrix should be filled, and a random pattern should result (Fisher and Schutta, 2003). This matrix identifies the technical requirements that satisfy most customer consequences. The technical requirements that address the most customer consequences should be a main priority in the design process to ensure a product or service that satisfies the stated customer expectations.
After the completion of the relationship matrix, the focus of the analysis shifts to the construction of the planning matrix. The planning matrix defines how each customer consequence has been addressed by the competition. It provides market data, facilitates strategic goal setting for the new product, and permits comparison of the customer desires and needs. It also compares the service to its key competitors. For the competitive analysis, research should be conducted regarding similar products or services.Researchers may have to assert a level of expertise in drawing meaningful information from the information available, as many competitors will not openly aid their competition by providing market data and design specifications.The researchers will use available data (i.e., website published information, annual reports, technical reports, financial statements) to determine which competitor being evaluated is “best” and assign it a value of “5”.The researchers will also identify which competitor is “worst” at each consequence and sign them a value of “1”.All competitors will be assigned a value relative to “best” and “worst” using researcher or industry expertise in the subject area.This information will be used to “benchmark” the product or service being directly evaluated by the researcher to see how they compare to similar competitors.
Following the completion of the relationship and planning matrices, the technical correlations are determined. These correlations are depicted in the roof of the HOQ. The roof maps the relationships and interdependencies among the technical requirements. The analysis of which informs the development process, revealing the existence and nature of service or product design bottlenecks. The relationships among technical requirements are plotted and given a value. Relationships among the technical requirements are important to evaluate, as one technical requirement could either aid or hinder the success of another crucial technical requirement in meeting customer consequences.Past experience and publicly available data (i.e., website information, technical reports, financial reports) can be used to complete the roof of the HOQ. Symbols are used to represent the strength of the relationship between the technical requirements and are assigned by the team.
The last step in the formation of the HOQ is the foundation or bottom of the house.This foundation is referred to as the technical matrix. This matrix depicts the values assigned by the team of the direction of improvement and/or standard values of each technical requirement needed to be competitive in the industry. Often times, if a numerical value cannot be absolutely determined, the team and/or industry experts use judgment based on expertise in the subject area to assign “targets.”The direction of improvement indicates the type of action needed to ensure that the technical requirements are sufficient to make the product or service competitive for each entity evaluated. For example, if a technical requirement’s target value is 5, and a product or service provider’s mean for that requirement is 4, the direction of improvement would be up to aim for the higher target value.
The collected information from the above methods enables the development of strategic decisions, one of which is the allocation of resources. An importance-performance grid can be developed to prioritize the usage of resources to improve the most critical customer benefits. The mean importance ratings (gathered from the survey) can be plotted on the vertical axis (importance) and the mean customer competitive ratings (gathered from the survey) on the horizontal axis (performance). Using the importance rating values, the mean importance rating (for all consequences) should be calculated.The consequences with an importance rating higher than that of the mean importance rating should be placed above the horizontal line and those lower should be placed below this line. After these values are plotted, the focus can shift to the distribution of consequences on either the left or right side of the vertical line. For this purpose, the mean performance rating is used and labeled for the vertical axis. Each consequence with a lower mean should be plotted to the left of the axis, and each consequence with a performance mean higher than the mean should be plotted to the right of the vertical axis.Using this grid, the level of priority can be assigned to each consequence from the customer’s point of view, and subsequently resource allocation decisions can be influenced.
There are two main tools utilized in quality function deployment: the Kano model and SERVQUAL. This section describes each of these tools in detail.
The Kano model is a theory of customer satisfaction developed in the 1980s by Noriaki Kano (Kano et al., 1984). During interviews and focus groups, it can be difficult to elicit from customers clear expressions of the consequences that are important to them. Attributes are the physical or abstract characteristics of the product or service where as consequences are the results of using the service. Sometimes customers are not even aware of important consequences (Fisher and Schutta, 2003).
The Kano model is a theory of product development and customer satisfaction. Kano et al. (1984) distinguish three types of product or service requirements that influence customer satisfaction in various ways: ‘‘must be,” ‘‘one-dimensional,’’ and ‘‘attractive’’ quality requirements. Must be requirements can be defined as the basic attributes of quality in terms of customer satisfaction. In other words, they are a necessary but insufficient condition for customer satisfaction (Busacca and Padula, 2005).
One-dimensional requirements are related to product or service performance; they create customer satisfaction when present and dissatisfaction when absent (Redfern and Davey, 2003). The higher the perceived product or service quality, the higher the customer’s satisfaction and vice versa. One-dimensional requirements are both a necessary and sufficient condition for customer satisfaction (Busacca and Padula, 2005).
Attractive requirements can be defined as the product or service attributes that satisfy or even excite customers when present but do not dissatisfy when absent (Berger et al., 1993). Such attributes have the greatest influence on customer satisfaction with a given service (Matzler et al., 1996). They are a sufficient, but unnecessary condition for satisfaction (Busacca and Padula, 2005). Attractive attributes can be used as an element of an aggressive marketing strategy to attract competitors’ customers. QFD normally deals with satisfiers not delighters. Zhao and Dholakia (2009) have reported that although one-dimensional (i.e., linear) relationships are common, other relationships between attribute-level performance and customer satisfaction also exist that change dynamically over time and with user experience.Figure 2 illustrates the three different consequences and indicates the extent to which they can affect customer satisfaction.
Kano Model
Berry, Parasuraman, and Zeithaml developed SERVQUAL in 1988. It is a service quality tool based on the customer’s perceptions of and expected performance. It is one of the most widely used models for the evolution of service quality (Pawitra & Tan, 2003). Initially, Parasuraman et al. (1985) proposed ten service quality attributes: reliability, responsiveness, competence, access, courtesy, communication, credibility, security, understanding/knowing the customer, and tangibles. However, in the early 1990s, these were condensed into five. The five dimensions of service quality, commonly known as RATER, include (Lim, Tang, & Jackson, 2003):
With the help of SERVQUAL, customer satisfaction can be measured in terms of the difference, or gap, between the expected and perceived level of performance. This approach can be applied to any service organization to evaluate the standards of quality for the services provided. “Services are different from goods in many ways: they are intangible, require participation of the customer, simultaneous production and consumption” (Oliveira et al., 2009).
Research conducted by Baki et al. (2008) concluded that the integration of SERVQUAL, the Kano model, and QFD could serve as an effective tool in assessing quality of services provided by an organization. The linearity assumption in SERVQUAL can be eliminated by integrating SERVQUAL with the Kano model and QFD to develop a way to satisfy customer needs, thus leading to increased customer satisfaction and higher profits.
SERVQUAL is a reliable and valid scale used to measure the perceived and expected levels of performance in any service organizations and thus results in improved service offerings. SERVQUAL is most effective when administered periodically to monitor new trends in the service quality. By calculating the average of the differences between the scores on the questions that make up a given dimension, and by calculating an average across all dimensions, an organization’s quality standards can be administered (Parasuraman et al., 1988).
SERVQUAL has also been used in the house of quality design process to evaluate customer satisfaction with an organization’s services. It can be used to identify and analyze customer requirements and thus forms the first stage in the construction of an HOQ. As noted by Parasuraman et at. (1988), the SERVQUAL dimensions can be modified based on the requirements and needs of an organization to make them more relevant to the context in which they are used (Paryani et al., 2010).
The following sections present two case studies for the Kano model and SERVQUAL methodology.
This case study integrates quality function deployment and the Kano model to examine the application of quality function deployment in the new product development process by using the production of a fuel efficient vehicle. An integrated team of marketers, design engineers, and business experts developed a House of Quality for the fuel efficient vehicle that provided an insight into the customer preferences to be concentrated on and the technical requirements that helped achieve desired results in the prototyping of a Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle (HFCV).
The product that was being developed was a plug-in hybrid. The vehicle’s power source consists of a battery and a hydrogen fuel cell. The first step in obtaining the VOC for this case study was to conduct interviews, which was used to derive a customer survey. The interviews were one-on-one conversations conducted with customers to determine their expectations from a vehicle. Only 30 interviews were conducted, as past research has shown that this captures 90% of customer consequences for the general customer base (Griffin and Hauser, 1991).
The interview questions included:
The purpose of the interview process was not to ask each customer all ten questions, but to promote the customer to talk. When the subject stopped talking, the next question would get the conversation flowing again. To elicit consequences from a customer, the interviewer used a probing technique repeatedly by asking “why” to determine the attributes responsible for making a specific feature appealing to them. Seventeen customer consequences were developed from the interview data.
After the VOC had been gathered via the interview process, the collected data was organized using affinity diagrams. Affinity diagrams group the consequences gathered based on similarity to clarify customer input. The 17 consequences were grouped into six similar categories, and each category was given a title. The left side of the HOQ was completed with customer consequences and attributes. The affinity diagram is shown in Table 1.
The next step was to obtain the importance rating and rankings of each consequence from the customer base. A survey was conducted of 104 customers regarding the relative importance of the 17 consequences. The reason behind this was to avoid misinterpretation of the customer’s overall attitude or satisfaction towards the product that could lead to poor prediction of the customer’s purchase behavior. Customers do not place equal importance on all consequences. Three vehicles were chosen for this purpose including a Toyota Prius (Vehicle A), a BMW 335 advanced diesel (Vehicle B), and the HFCV (Vehicle C). In addition, the survey respondent’s current car was used to allow comparison. The identities of the three vehicles were not disclosed to the survey respondents. A brief description of each vehicle was provided however, to allow them to make a nonbiased decision on ratings and rankings of each consequence, relative to each vehicle. Each respondent was asked to read the descriptions and provide rating and rankings for each vehicle.
Affinity Diagram
The survey was conducted in two parts. First, the respondents were asked to identify the most important consequence to them and label it as “10”. All other consequences were to be assigned a value (rank) between 1 and 10, relative to the consequence labelled as most important.Therefore, some consequences may be just as important as the first consequence assigned a value of “10”, and they too would be assigned a value of “10.”Consequences that were almost as important as the first consequence assigned a value of “10” may be assigned values of “9” or below, relative to how important the customer felt they were in relation to the first “10” consequence.The mean of the rankings was calculated for the results of each consequence that constituted the importance column in Table 2.
The second part of the survey involved rating each consequence as it applies to each of the four vehicles on a Likert scale from 1 to 5. The mean of the ratings was calculated for each consequence and noted in the rating column in Table 2. The weighted rating values were obtained by multiplication of the importance (rank) and rating together. The weighted rating is a means of obtaining an optimal solution by evaluating both what is important to a customer and how well the customer thinks each product is doing on what is important to them.This is also used as a means to evaluate resource allocations, as if the customer base feels that a company is lacking on a consequence that they deem very important, more focus can be applied to improving this, which may ultimately improve market share.Conversely, if a customer base feels that a product excels on consequences that are of no importance to them, resources can be directed away from these areas and applied to areas needing improvement.The survey’s main purpose was to gather more specific information on potential customer desires and needs. The results of the survey are tabulated in Table 2.
1 | This vehicle is climate controlled. | 6.6 | 4.2 | 27.51 | 4.2 | 27.51 | 3.6 | 23.58 | 4.0 | 26.20 | |
2 | This vehicle has a quality audio system. | 6.7 | 3.4 | 22.64 | 3.5 | 23.31 | 3.3 | 21.98 | 3.7 | 24.64 | |
3 | This vehicle provides a comfortable ride. | 7.5 | 3.3 | 24.65 | 3.9 | 29.13 | 3.6 | 26.89 | 3.7 | 27.64 | |
4 | This vehicle gets good gas mileage. | 7.6 | 4.4 | 33.44 | 3.9 | 29.64 | 4.4 | 33.44 | 3.3 | 25.08 | |
5 | This vehicle has low emissions. | 4.7 | 4.2 | 19.57 | 3.5 | 16.31 | 4.4 | 20.50 | 2.9 | 13.51 | |
6 | This vehicle has low emissions. | 5.4 | 4.2 | 22.64 | 3.5 | 18.87 | 4.4 | 23.72 | 2.9 | 15.63 | |
7 | This vehicle is good for the enviro-nment. | 5.1 | 4.1 | 20.87 | 3.6 | 18.32 | 4.3 | 21.89 | 2.8 | 14.25 | |
8 | This vehicle has a lot of horsepo-wer. | 6.5 | 2.3 | 15.04 | 3.8 | 24.85 | 2.9 | 18.97 | 3.0 | 19.62 | |
9 | This vehicle has towing capabilities. | 5.2 | 1.9 | 9.79 | 3.1 | 15.97 | 2.5 | 12.88 | 2.7 | 13.91 | |
10 | This vehicle does not compromise speed and handling. | 7.1 | 2.9 | 20.51 | 3.4 | 24.42 | 2.9 | 20.58 | 3.5 | 24.78 | |
11 | This vehicle is affordable. | 8.0 | 3.7 | 29.77 | 2.5 | 19.87 | 2.3 | 18.03 | 3.7 | 29.77 | |
12 | This vehicle has an extensive warranty. | 6.2 | 3.2 | 20.06 | 3.3 | 20.49 | 3.0 | 18.69 | 2.9 | 17.70 | |
13 | This vehicle can drive for long distances ("/>400 miles). | 7.1 | 3.7 | 26.66 | 3.6 | 25.60 | 3.0 | 21.68 | 3.7 | 26.52 | |
14 | This vehicle has a high safety and standard rating. | 7.0 | 3.8 | 26.63 | 3.8 | 26.56 | 3.7 | 25.65 | 3.5 | 24.12 | |
15 | This vehicle provides accurate safety warnings. | 5.7 | 3.6 | 20.51 | 3.7 | 21.13 | 3.6 | 20.51 | 3.5 | 19.78 | |
16 | The vehicle is a hybrid (split powers between electric and gas). | 3.2 | 3.6 | 11.70 | 2.1 | 6.74 | 3.8 | 12.21 | 1.7 | 5.44 | |
17 | This vehicle comfortably fits a family of all sizes. | 4.7 | 2.4 | 10.95 | 3.7 | 17.06 | 3.3 | 15.56 | 2.8 | 13.23 | |
18 | Overall, I am satisfied with this type of vehicle. | 3.2 | 3.6 | 3.4 | 3.9 | ||||||
Sum | 104.07 | 62.15 | 362.93 | 62.74 | 365.77 | 62.39 | 356.76 | 58.16 | 341.82 | ||
Average | 3.49 | 3.51 | 3.43 | 3.28 |
Importance Rating
After the customer consequences were analyzed, the next step in the construction of the HOQ was the development of technical requirements. The technical requirements are the design specifications that satisfy customer needs. This aspect of QFD is directly in the organization’s control, and focuses on designing specific, measurable design aspects that ensure the end product meets the customer wants and needs. The technical requirements are called the ‘hows’ and are placed on the top of the house. Each consequence can have one or more technical requirement. Technical requirements must be within the control of the manufacturer. It must also be measurable to enable designers to determine if the customer’s needs are fulfilled. Brainstorming among marketers and product designers was used to develop the technical requirements, along with various Internet sources for references to industry standards. Thirty technical requirements were developed and organized using tree diagrams. One of the seven management tools, the tree diagram is a hierarchical structure of ideas built from the top down using a logic and analytical thought process.
A customer design matrix log was then developed that created a product development log that provided a history of the design process. It contained the design concepts derived from the customer’s voice and the corresponding technical requirements that were designed, their measurement units and values. The column ‘Measurement units’ in Table 3 was placed at the bottom of the HOQ indicating how each technical requirement would be measured. Table 3 shows the customer design matrix log.
Once the customer consequences and the technical requirements were developed, a relationship matrix was constructed. The matrix defines the correlations between customer attributes and technical attributes as weak, moderate, or strong using a standard 9-3-1 scale. For this scale the following notations are used Strong (H) = 9, Moderate (M) = 3, and Weak (S) = 1.
Each customer consequence was matched with each technical requirement. The relationship between them was then determined and placed in the relationship matrix that constitutes the of the HOQ. This matrix identifies the technical requirements that satisfy most customer consequences and determines the appropriate investment of resources for each. The technical requirements that addressed the most customer consequences should be dealt into the design process to ensure a customer-approved product.Ideally in the QFD analysis, no more than 50% of the relationship matrix should be filled, and a random pattern should result (Fisher and Schutta, 2003). Relationships were determined here on the basis of research conducted using resources available on the Internet. Appendix A displays the relationship matrix developed for the HOQ.
No | Customer’s Voice | Technical Requirements | Measurement | Measurement Units |
1 | Climate control | Level of temperature change | Boolean Value | Yes/No |
Time taken to attain the changed temperature | Time | Minutes/Seconds | ||
2 | Audio System | Power of speakers | Power | Watts |
No. of operability modes in an audio system | Number | Integer value | ||
3 | Comfort | Seating Capacity | Capacity | Integer value |
Distance between front and rear seat | Length | Inches | ||
4 | Fuel Efficiency | Engine Power | Power | Horsepower |
Air compression ration | Volume | Cubic cms (cc) | ||
Size of exhaust pipes | Diameter | Inches | ||
5 | Environmental friendly | Lower Emissions (Nitrogen, Carbon- dioxide, Carbon-monoxide) | Weight/Distance | Grams/Km |
Hybrid | Boolean Value | Yes/No | ||
6 | Safety | Size of side & rear view mirror | Ratio | Ratio |
Size of damping sheets | ||||
Suspension/steering stability | Spring frequency | Cycles/minute (cpm) | ||
No. of airbags | Number | Integer value | ||
Air bag response time | Time | Seconds | ||
Alignment of tires | Toe-in (Distance) | Fractions of an inch | ||
Crash warning system | Boolean Value | Yes/No | ||
7 | Long distance travel | Tank capacity | Capacity | Gallons |
Tire quality | UTQG standards | Grades | ||
8 | Warranty | No. of parts covered under warranty | Number | Integer value |
Validity of warranty | Time | Years | ||
Cost of extended warranty | Boolean Value | Yes/No | ||
9 | Performance | Torque transmission | Force | Foot-pounds |
Cylinder size | Volume | Liters | ||
No. of valves/cylinder | Number | Integer value | ||
Weight of engine | Weight | Grams |
Customer Design Matrix
After completion of the relationship matrix, the focus of the project shifted to the construction of the planning matrix. This matrix defines how each customer consequence has been addressed by the competition. It provides market data, facilitates strategic goal setting for the new product, and permits prioritization of the customer desires and needs. It also compares the product to its key competitors. A standard 5-point Likert scale was used. Each vehicle was represented by different symbol. A square symbol was used for the Toyota Prius, a circle for the BMW 335d, and a triangle for the HFCV. The ratings were based from the customer survey. Customers rated the three vehicles for each of the 17 customer consequences included in the planning matrix. Appendix A shows the planning matrix in the HOQ.
Following completion of the planning matrix, technical correlations were determined. These form the roof of the HOQ. The roof maps the relationships and interdependencies among the technical requirements. The analysis of which informs the development process, revealing the existence and nature of design bottlenecks. The relationships among technical requirements were plotted and given a value. Past experience and test data were used to complete the roof of the HOQ. Symbols are used to represent the level of the relationship between technical requirements. Appendix A shows the completed roof of the HOQ, with all relationships identified between the technical requirements.
Next, a technical matrix was constructed to form the foundation of the HOQ. This matrix addresses the direction of improvement, standard values, units of measurement, the relative importance of technical requirements, and technical evaluation.
The customer design provides information regarding consequences, technical requirements, and their units and values. It contains design concepts derived from the VOC and detailed design considerations. The column ‘Measurement Units’ from Table 3 was placed at the bottom of the HOQ, indicating the units of measurement for each technical requirement. The relative importance of each technical requirement was calculated by multiplying the value assigned to its relationship with a specific consequence (9, 3, 1) multiplied by the importance of that consequence; the values of all consequences were then added to yield the final weight. These weights were placed in a row at the bottom of the HOQ. A final weight is a comprehensive measure that indicates the degree to which the specific technical requirement relates to the customer consequences.
The technical evaluation of the competition and the product to be developed is carried out by the engineering and technical staff who would design the product. The process establishes strategic goals for the product development process to ensure the satisfaction of the customer. For each technical requirement, the product was compared to its competitors and a technical evaluation was performed. Thus, the construction of the HOQ was completed. Appendix A shows the completed HOQ with the roof.
The collected information from the above methods helped in the development of strategic decisions, one of them being the allocation of resources. An importance-performance grid was developed to prioritize the usage of resources for improvement on the most critical customer benefits. The relative importance ratings were plotted on the vertical axis (importance) and the median importance rating on the horizontal axis (performance). Using the values from the column ‘Importance’ from Table 2, the median importance rating was found out to be 6.5. Consequences with rating higher than that of the median importance rating were placed above the horizontal line and the others below the median. After this decision was made, the focus shifted to the distribution of consequences on either the left or right side of the vertical line. For this purpose, the median was calculated for each consequence and if the mean brand rating was higher than that value it was placed on the right side of the vertical line otherwise on the left side. Using this grid, the level of priority was assigned to each consequence from the customers point of view. Figure 3 shows the Importance-Performance grid for Vehicle C (HFCV).
Importance-Performance Grid
Recommendations and Conclusions
This study has illustrated how QFD can successfully be applied to new product development efforts via the application to the prototyping of a fuel-efficient vehicle. This study was deemed a success, as the results were reasonable per the design team that is currently in progress prototyping the product.For this particular application, the results showed that the first and utmost priority should be given to the following customer benefits/consequences: climate control, quality audio control, high safety and standard rating, long distance travel, high speed and handling, comfortable ride, good gas mileage, substantial horsepower, and affordability. These benefits are ones that must be accomplished in order to appeal to the customers in the market, and thereby give the new product a chance for success as a sellable product. The consequences were identified as priority because they are of high importance to the customer, but have poor performance according to the prototype description given to the respondent group in the study.These are the areas of design that must be addressed so as to create a product that appeals to the consumer.If resources are limited, consideration should be given to shifting resources to these priorities in the design phase.Conversely, the fourth priority benefits include low emissions, environment-friendly, and power split between electric and gas. These benefits are performing well and not of high importance, so no improvement needs to be made with these benefits currently.In fact, resources can actually be shifted away from these aspects and reinvested elsewhere where the design needs improvement to meet customer expectations.
The results presented in this study aided the design team of the HFCV and provided them with an insight into what customers were really looking for in an environmentally friendly vehicle. The application of QFD to the prototyping of a HFCV proved to be beneficial, as the voice of the customer was gathered, analyzed, and factored into the design process to ensure a product that will meet customer expectations.
It has been demonstrated that the QFD methodology can be successfully applied in a new product development process. It also aided the HFCV design team in developing a proprietary knowledge base about their customers’ needs and wants which allowed them to make the best design efforts in the early development stages that lowered the development costs and increased profit levels. Although this study focused on the production of HFCV, the QFD methodology presented could serve as a powerful reference to the development of a new product of any kind. The authors hope that this study could attract more new product development teams and organizations to adopt QFD in the NPD process and develop better and successful products and achieve high customer satisfaction with increased profit levels.
This case study integrates quality function deployment and SERVQUAL to evaluate a university career opportunities center (COC)and recommends service standards to increase its benefits to students. A university COC seeks to bridge the gap between students and employers. It equips students with the professional skills they need to find employment. The staff keeps the students regularly informed about various events such as the career fair, and it can help them make major career decisions. A COC should maintain high standards of quality and serve students efficiently. To do so, its staff must understand student needs and constantly monitor feedback to improve their performance.
The mentioned methodology has been applied to a COC at a university. Detailed steps are listed for the construction of the HOQ, with SERVQUAL being incorporated into QFD in this application. A step-by-step procedure for this case is discussed in this section.
The main goal of applying QFD to a university COC was to identify how the COC could better serve students. This work sought to identify expectations of the students and the measures necessary to meet them. Here, SERVQUAL was applied to identify the key customer needs and requirements. Table 4 presents the SERVQUAL dimensions and their definitions as they relate to their application to the COC case study.
To make the dimensions more relevant to a COC, a few SERVQUAL items were modified or removed based on the responses obtained through student interviews. A total of 15 customer requirements were identified. Table 5 provides the modified SERVQUAL dimensions and customer requirements.
SERVQUAL: Five Dimensions
SERVQUAL Adjusted Items Description
These SERVQUAL items are the customer consequences that were obtained by conducting interviews with 30 students. The intention behind interviewing these students was to keep the conversation flowing. To elicit the consequences from a customer, the interviewer used a probing technique repeatedly by asking “why” to determine the reason responsible for making a specific aspect appealing to them. When the student stopped talking, the next question would get the conversation flowing again.
A survey of 99 students was the primary source of information for this study. The survey asked the students to express their thoughts on various aspects of the COC and to indicate what changes would increase their satisfaction. Customers do not assign equal importance to all requirements. The survey was administered in two sections. First, the students were asked to identify the most important consequence, assigning to each a rank from 1 to 10, with 10 indicating the highest level of importance. The mean rank was calculated for each customer consequence. To determine the quality of COC services, respondents were also asked if they would recommend the service to other students. In the second part of the survey, students were asked to indicate the degree to which each of the consequences was true of an ideal COC and of the specific university COC on a scale from 1 to 5, where 5 indicated strongly agree and 1 indicated strongly disagree. The mean ratings were calculated for each consequence as shown in Table 6. The survey results obtained were analyzed using SERVQUAL by performing a gap analysis that is discussed in the following section. The questionnaire developed for this study is included in Appendix B.
Survey Results (Averages of all the ratings)
The five SERVQUAL dimensions: reliability, assurance, tangibles, empathy, and responsiveness were prioritized based on the gap score calculated for each dimension. There were four items under reliability, three under assurance, two under tangibles, four under empathy, and two under responsiveness for a COC. For each customer requirement, the perceived level (P) and expected level (E) of service were obtained from the survey data. The difference (gap score) between them was calculated, as was the average gap score for each of the five dimensions. The five RATER dimensions for a COC were prioritized based on the value of the average gap scores; i.e. the dimension with the highest average gap score was the one given the highest priority for improvement. Empathy had the highest average gap score (-1.25), making it the highest priority. The dimensions were prioritized in the following order starting with the highest priority: reliability (-1.12), responsiveness (-1.1), and assurance (-1.1), and tangibles (-0.95).
Based on the gap scores calculated for each customer requirement, the importance ratings obtained from the survey data, and the priority level of each SERVQUAL dimension, the customer requirements were prioritized. When two consequences have the same gap score, their mean importance ratings obtained from the survey results could be used to determine their priority level. The results showed that students identified the following requirements, listed in priority order from the highest to lowest:
After analyzing the survey results using SERVQUAL, the focus shifted to the development of service characteristics that are the design specifications that would satisfy customer needs. Each customer consequence can have one or more service characteristic. Various strategies were developed to reduce or eliminate low customer satisfaction and increase the quality of service. The service characteristics are called the how’s. These characteristics appear on top of the HOQ and constitute the technical response matrix. They are the measurable steps to ensure that all customer requirements are met. The service characteristics defined in QFD are within the organization’s direct control. These characteristics focus on specific, measurable aspects of service.
Brainstorming was used to develop the service characteristics using various Internet sources which provided references to industry standards. Tree diagrams were used to organizethese service characteristics. Tree diagrams are hierarchical structures of ideas built from the top down using logic and analytical thought. A customer design matrix log was then developed to create a service process development log that provided a history of the development process. This log contained the design concepts derived from the VOC, along with the corresponding service characteristics and their values. Twenty service characteristics were developed which are listed in Appendix C.
Dimension | No. | Customer Requirements | Expectation Score (E) | Perception Score (P) | Gap Score (P-E) | Average for Dimension |
Tangibles | 1 | I have a professional appearance for an interview | 4.5 | 3.6 | -0.9 | -0.95 |
2 | I have a professional resume | 4.6 | 3.6 | -1.0 | ||
Reliability | 3 | I get opportunities with potential employers | 4.6 | 3.5 | -1.1 | -1.12 |
4 | I have my resume easily accessible to companies | 4.6 | 3.7 | -0.9 | ||
5 | I get a job that pays well | 4.6 | 3.5 | -1.1 | ||
6 | I get job offers | 4.7 | 3.3 | -1.4 | ||
Responsiveness | 7 | I get a resume evaluation | 4.5 | 3.4 | -1.1 | -1.1 |
8 | I have interviewing experience | 4.6 | 3.5 | -1.1 | ||
Assurance | 9 | I am comfortable during an interview | 4.6 | 3.5 | -1.1 | -1.1 |
10 | I stand out to a potential employer | 4.7 | 3.5 | -1.2 | ||
11 | I am prepared for an interview | 4.5 | 3.5 | -1.0 | ||
Empathy | 12 | I can work overseas | 3.7 | 2.5 | -1.2 | -1.25 |
Calculation of Unweighted SERVQUAL Scores
Prioritizing Customer Requirements
Once the customer consequences and the service characteristics were developed, a relationship matrix was constructed. This matrix defines the correlations between customer attributes and technical attributes/service characteristics as strong, moderate, or weak using a 9-3-1 scale. For this scale the following notations are used: Strong (H) = 9, Moderate (M) = 3, and Weak (S) = 1. Each of the fifteen customer consequences was matched with each of the twenty service characteristics for a COC. The relationship between them was then determined and placed in the relationship matrix that constitutes the center of the HOQ. This matrix identifies the technical requirements that satisfy most customer consequences and determines the appropriate investment of resources for each. The technical requirements that addressed the most customer consequences should be addressed in the design process to ensure a product that satisfies the stated customer expectations. Ideally in the QFD analysis, no more than 50% of the relationship matrix should be filled, and a random pattern should result (Fisher and Schutta, 2003). Relationships were determined here on the basis of research conducted using resources available on the Internet. Appendix C displays the relationship matrix developed as a part of the HOQ for a COC.
After completion of the relationship matrix, the focus of this study shifted to the construction of the planning matrix, which defines how each customer consequence has been addressed by the competition. This matrix provides market data, facilitates strategic goal setting for the new service, and permits prioritization of customer desires and needs. In this methodology, where we incorporated SERVQUAL into the HOQ, the competitive analysis is done between the current COC and an ideal COC. For the competitive analysis, a survey was conducted to determine the characteristics of an ideal COC, and this ideal COC was compared to a university COC. The survey respondents judged the ideal COC and the current COC against each of the fifteen consequences on a scale of 1 to 5, where ‘5’ indicated strongly agree and ‘1’ indicated strongly disagree. The mean for each consequence was calculated and placed in the columns to the right of the HOQ. A triangle was used for the ideal COC, and a square was used for a university COC. Appendix C shows the planning matrix in the HOQ.
Next, the technical correlations were determined after the completion of the planning matrix. These form the roof of the HOQ. The roof maps the relationships and interdependencies among the service characteristics. The analysis of these characteristics informs the development process, revealing the existence and nature of service design bottlenecks for a COC. The relationships among service characteristics were plotted and given a value. Past experience and test data were used to complete the roof of the HOQ. Appendix C shows the correlations developed for the roof of the HOQ for a COC.
A technical matrix was constructed to form the foundation of the HOQ. This matrix addresses the direction of improvement, target values, the final weights of service and quality characteristics, and the level of difficulty to reach the target values. The direction ofimprovement indicates the type of action needed to ensure that the service characteristics are sufficient to make the service competitive; this direction is typically indicated below the roof of the HOQ.
Dimension | No. | Customer Requirements | Service Requirements | Measuring Units | Values |
Tangibles | 1 | I have a professional appearance for an interview | No. of workshops conducted on professionalism | Number | Integer value |
No. of formal outfits that could be rented | Number | Integer value | |||
2 | I have a professional resume | No. of workshops conducted on resume and cover letter writing | Number | Integer value | |
Reliability | 3 | I get opportunities with potential employers | No. of career fairs held | Number | Integer value |
No. of companies participating in the career fairs | Number | Integer value | |||
Number of companies invited to hold seminars | Number | Integer value | |||
Number of alumni invited to be connected to the university | Percentage | Percentage | |||
4 | I have my resume easily accessible to companies | Provide companies with online access to resumes of all students | Boolean value | Yes/No | |
5 | I get a job that pays well | Expected salary amount | Money | Dollars | |
6 | I get job offers | No. of interview calls received | Number | Integer value | |
Responsiveness | 7 | I get a resume evaluation | No. of staff members appointed for resume evaluation | Number | Integer value |
Waiting time to get an appointment for resume evaluation | Time | Days | |||
8 | I have interviewing experience | No. of mock interviews conducted | Number | Integer value |
Customer Design Matrix
The quality and service characteristics were analyzed and a standard or limit value was determined for each. These are the industry standard values. These values were established based on well-informed assumptions, and they are believed to be within reach for a university COC. The final weight of each service characteristic was calculated by multiplying the value assigned to its relationship with a specific consequence (9, 3, 1) multiplied by the importance of that consequence (obtained from the survey results); thevalues of all consequences were then added to yield the final weight, that is a comprehensive measure that indicates the degree to which the specific service characteristic relates to the customer consequences. These final weights are shown in a row along the bottom of the HOQ.
The engineering and technical staff that would design the service process evaluates the level of difficulty involved in achieving each service characteristic. This evaluation becomes the basis for development of strategic goals for the development of the service process to ensure customer satisfaction. The level of difficulty involved in reaching the target values for each service characteristic was determined on a scale of 0 (easy) to 10 (difficult). Thus, the HOQ was completed for a COC; it is shown in Appendix C. Twenty service characteristics were developed that would fulfill customer requirements
With the help of QFD and SERVQUAL methodologies, the SERVQUAL dimensions, customer consequences/requirements and the service characteristics were prioritized. The priority order of the five RATER dimensions based on their gap scores were determined as: Empathy (-1.25) followed by reliability (-1.12), responsiveness (-1.1), and assurance (-1.1), and tangibles (-0.95). The overall gap score for the five dimensions was -1.1 indicating a scope for improvement for a COC. A few of the customer requirements that ranked higher than the others were: I get a job that fits me, I have a job that I enjoy, I know what different jobs are available, I can work overseas, I get a job that pays well, I get opportunities with potential employers, etc.
Establishing a team for career guidance and counseling team to provide students with individual attention and care would increase the performance of the COC. Hosting more career fairs with the participation of a large number of companies would provide students with more opportunities to interact with employers and to secure suitable jobs. Establishment of a resume evaluation team with sufficient staff would increase student confidence and help them face interviews. Conducting periodic workshops on writing resumes and cover letters, interviewing, business ethics, and professionalism would increase student knowledge and improve their professional skills. Conducting frequent mock interviews would equip students with practical experience that could help them to perform better in interviews.
The service characteristics were also prioritized that help the design team in development of better services and reduce the service development costs. The number of mock interviews conducted received the highest priority along with number of staff appointed for conducting mock interviews, followed by the number of staff members on the career guidance and counseling team, the number of interview calls received, the number of staff members appointed for resume evaluation, the number of workshops conducted on setting up, and accessing online job accounts. Also important were expected salary amount, employer access to online resumes, number of workshops on interviewing and business ethics, the number of international companies participating in the career fair, and the number of formal outfits that could be rented. A focus on implementing these service characteristics in order of their priority would improve the function of the COC.
Prioritizing Service Characteristic
Appendix A.
Part A – Questionnaire
Find the benefit of using the Career Opportunities Center in the list below that is most important to you. Assign it 10 points. Then, assign from 0 to 10 points to the other benefits to indicate how important they are to you in comparison to the most important one. You may assign the same number of points to more than one benefit._____ I have a professional appearance for an interview_____ I am comfortable during an interview_____ I stand out to a potential employer_____ I am prepared for an interview_____ I have interviewing experience_____ I get opportunities with potential employers_____ I can work overseas_____ I know what different jobs are available_____ I have a professional résumé_____ I get a résumé evaluation_____ I have my résumé easily accessible to companies_____ I get a job that fits me_____ I get a job that pays well_____ I have a job that I enjoy_____ I get job offers
Part B - Questionnaire
Please rate how well the university’s Career Opportunities Center delivers each of these benefits when you use it. Circle the number below that best indicates how well you feel the university’s COC satisfies each of the benefits. For comparison purposes, please rate your ideal career center on the same benefits. Use a scale of:
1= Strongly Disagree2= Disagree3= Neutral4= Agree5= Strongly Agree
Appendix B
Appendix C
Conventional alloys are usually based on one main element. To improve the structural and functional properties of the alloy, other elements can be added. However, this strategy leads to the formation of several phases. Indeed, physical metallurgy and phase diagrams show that multifunctional alloys can develop dozens of structures with several phases. Structurally, they can be fragile, and scientifically their analysis will be difficult. On the other hand, high entropy alloys (HEAs) [1, 2] are characterized by high mixing entropy. Therefore, they have become primordial structures for developing potential applications tanks to their superior properties. HEAs materials are characterized by four effects: high entropy, severe lattice distortion, slow scattering and the cocktail effect. They are detailed in the reference [3]. Excellent properties of HEAs have been reported such as outstanding thermal stability [4], good wear resistance [5], good corrosion resistance [6] and best oxidation resistance [7].
On the other hand, the surface is seen as an important component of the material for developing industrial applications. It can be easily modified and adapted to improve the performance of the materials according to demanding conditions. Thus, the quality of the material surface has a significant impact on its lifetime. Thin films are found in many applications with improved surface properties for high-performance materials. For example, tools used in machining are often coated with protective and hard thin films to achieve high mechanical properties and better wear resistance [8, 9, 10]. Better physical properties such as a good oxidation resistance are also required for aerospace and automotive applications. Protective films can also be found in biomedical applications such as bio-implants [11, 12]. Review articles have been reported on the effect of process parameters on the phase structure of HEFs with also a discussion on the preparation process and the functional properties of the films [13]. Others have been focused on the development of HEAs/HEFs operating in extreme conditions and other characteristics [14, 15, 16].
Magnetron sputtering is a widely used technique to deposit thin films. It is used in several industrial applications. This technology has been continuously developed to improve the target utilization and increase the deposition rates by reducing operating costs. Preparing high entropy films (HEFs) by this technique is of considerable interest to provide coatings with superior properties. To this end, several research works report on the development of coatings with improved performances but with low-cost materials. Conventional hard coatings, such as traditional nitrides and carbides, have shown the potential to increase wear resistance. However, these traditional materials seem to not meet the current needs. For example, some traditional nitrides have a limited oxidation resistance. Recently, HEFs have shown much improved performances. A comparison of different alloys is presented in the reference [17] where the oxidation resistance of an HEF reaches 1300°C. (AlCrNbTaTi)N HEF shows an oxidation resistance at 850°C for 100 hours [18] which is better than various traditional nitrides. Many HEFs, prepared by magnetron sputtering technique, revealed other excellent performances [19, 20, 21, 22].
By using magnetron sputtering technique, various deposition parameters are exploited to control the properties of HEFs. Among these parameters, we find gas flow rate, substrate temperature, working pressure, and bias voltage. The chapter overviews magnetron sputtering process, the classes of different HEFs and it shed light on the effect of the different parameters on the properties of HEFs. Applications of some HEFs are also presented.
There are several ways to prepare thin films. The most common methods used in research laboratories and in industry are PVD and CVD techniques. Among the PVD procedures, magnetron sputtering shows several advantages. It offers the possibility to obtain a stoichiometry like that of the used target. The quenching rate is high (109 K/s) leading to the formation of sutured solid solutions. In the following paragraph, the process of the magnetron sputtering will be briefly introduced.
The synthesis of coatings by using magnetron sputtering technique can be done in three steps. In the first step, an atomic vapor is created by extracting the atoms from the target thanks to applied potential difference between the target and the reactor walls. Then this vapor is transferred to the substrate in a rarefied atmosphere of chemically neutral gas. In the last step, the atomic vapor condenses into the substrate surface allowing the germination process and consequently the growth of the film.
This basic process is limited by various effects like low deposition rate, low ionization coefficient in the plasma, and a substrate heat. To circumvent these limitations, a magnetron dispositive is integrated into the process. The magnets are placed behind the cathode. They generate a magnetic field parallel to the surface of the target, perpendicular to the electric field. The electrons emitted by the cathode and present in the gas and are trapped by the field lines (Figure 1). The probability that an electron meets argon is so high. The ion bombardment of the target results in a higher sputtering rate and the deposition rate increases.
Magnetron sputtering process.
The difference between the High Power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering (HiPIMS) and DCMS is the use of high power densities. HiPIMS is a recent advance in sputtering process using magnetron sputtering with a high voltage power source. High voltage with short duration is used to generate high-density plasma resulting in high degree of ionization of the coating material. HiPIMS, has various advantages. The highly energetic ions, produced by high voltage, result in denser film compared to that deposited by conventional techniques. HiPIMS bombards the sample with high-energy gas ions that can remove oxides and therefore clean the surface. This can improve the adhesion of the coating to the surface. A description of plasma process using HiPIMS can be found in Anders’s tutorial [23].
Few studies have been reported in the literature on using HiPIMS to prepare the HEFs. The papers revealed the formation of dense microstructures of the films compared to that obtained by DCMS process. The change of the microstructure strongly influences the mechanical and electrochemical performances of HEFS. For example, Bachani and co-workers [24] investigated (TiZrNbTaFe)N using HiPIMS process and found that the film containing 32 at.% of nitrogen exhibits a very dense microstructure compared to others. Its hardness is improved (36.2 GPa). The corrosion resistance is increased, according to the variation of the nitrogen content, due to the densification of the films. CuNiTiNbCr dual-phases were formed at different working pressures as reported by Li and co-workers [25]. AlCrTiVZr HEFs have been studied under the effect of nitrogen. Due to its densification, the nitride obtained at 12 sccm presents a hardness of 41.8 GPa which is the super-hard film compared to others. Figure 2 presents SEM images showing the difference in the morphology of (AlCrNbSiTiV)N films obtained by both processes DCMS (Figure 2a, b) and HiPIMS (Figure 2c, d) [26].
SEM images showing the surfaces and cross-sectional microstructure of (AlCrNbSiTiV)N deposition using DCMS (a,b) and HiPIMS (c,d). The figure is reproduced with permission of [
HEFs can be classified into three categories: metallics, ceramics and composites films as presented in Figure 3.
Classes of HEFs.
Metallic HEFs: they consist basically of Cantor-based elements. They are mostly composed of transition elements such as Al, Cr, Fe, Ti, Mo, etc. Refractory elements are also used to develop coatings for high-temperature applications. The refractory elements, such as Hf, Ta, Nb, V, W, etc have much higher melting point. These materials are classified into HfNbTaZr, CrMoNbTa [27].
Ceramic HEFs: consist of nitrides, carbides, oxides and borides. These materials can be deposited on substrates by using reactive mode (introduction of gas). Solid solutions are reported and strong nitride-, carbide-, oxide-forming elements like Zr, Cr, Si and Ti are used. These ceramics exhibit superior properties such as high oxidation resistance, good corrosion resistance and high tribological performances.
Composite HEFs: These materials can be prepared by reinforcing the film matrix with ceramics. Various ceramics like WC, TiC, NbC, and others have been used as reinforcements to improve the properties of HEFs. Metallic reinforcements have been also used. For example, Tian and co-workers [28] prepared a compact ACoCrniFeTi/Ni coating with Ni splats uniformly distributed in the matrix (ACoCrniFeTi). Due to this reinforcement, the results reveal an improvement in its tensile test compared to that of the matrix alone.
DCMS was largely used to prepare the HEFs under different conditions. The most-reported films have three different morphologies, columnar, dendrite-like and fibrous-like. The deposition parameters are reported to have a strong influence on the HEFs morphology. The mobility of particles into the surface of the substrate is the main reason of resulted morphology of the films. Studies have reported the effect of gas mixture on the films properties. Nitrogen, carbon and oxygen are used to form high entropy ceramics. For example, AlCrNbYZr exhibits dendrite-like morphology. By adding the nitrogen (AlCrNbYZr)N films reveal V-shaped columnar morphology. Zhang et al. [29] studied the effect of nitrogen on CrNbTiAlV films. Smooth surface and dense cross-sectional morphology are observed in the metallic film (CrNbTiAlV). With addition of the nitrogen, (CrNbTiAl)N gradually changes into columnar morphology. Some carbides show a different trend. Jhong et al. [21] studied CrNbSiTaZr as a function of CH4 flow rate. They show that all films exhibit smooth surface and featureless cross-sectional morphology. The mobility of the atoms on the surface can be the main reason for the formation of dense structures. Oxygen gas also influences the morphology of HEFs. In the case of AlCoCrCu0.5FeNi, the films exhibit agglomerated grains at a low oxygen flow rate. However, as the oxygen flow increases the grains become equiaxed with a size of 35 nm.
The morphology of HEFs can be also influenced by other parameters like the pressure and the bias voltage. AlCrTiWNbT shows a columnar morphology when the bias voltage changes from −50V to −100V but at −150V fine spaced striation lines are formed of the film [30]. Fine fibers morphology is formed for CrNbSiTiZr at −50V which is transformed to compact at −200V [31].
For the structure, the prepared HEFs by magnetron sputtering are reported to have amorphous or crystalline structure. The most crystalline structures exhibit fcc solid solution. The structure can change under the effect of various parameters such as the high entropy and the atomic mismatch. The high entropy promotes the formation of the solid solution instead of metallics compounds. However, if the difference in atomic mismatch is enough, the film remains amorphous. In the case of HEFs by magnetron sputtering, three different structures are reported: amorphous, fcc and bcc. AlCoCrNi [32], NbTiAlSiZr [33] and FeCoNiCuVZrAl [34] HEFs exhibit an amorphous structure which remains unchangeable even after adding the nitrogen. On the other hand, other studies revealed the phase transformation from amorphous to crystalline structure upon increasing the nitrogen contents in the films. Cheng et al. [22] examined the effect of nitrogen on AlCrMoTaTiZr by varying its flow rate from 0% to 50%. The percentage of the flow rate is calculated according to argon quantity by the followed formula RN=N2/(Ar+N2). The results show that the film exhibits an amorphous structure at RN=0%. However, when the nitrogen flow increases fcc-single phases structures are formed as is presented the Figure 4.
X-ray diffractogramme of (AlCrMoTaTiZr)N as function of nitrogen flow rate (N2). The figure is reproduced with permission of [
The nitrogen atoms are adsorbed in interstitial sites leading to the formation of nitrides. The interaction between the nitrogen and the elements varies along with the periodic table. Group 4–6 are strong nitride former while metals in group 7–11 are weakly nitride former. This interaction has a mix of ionic, metallic and covalent bonding. The reported HEFs nitrides have NaCl-type structure as mentioned above. Because of the similarities of the structure between different standard nitrides, extended homogeneity regions for solid solutions can be obtained.
Among other ceramics, carbides can be also prepared. Up to now, they have not been widely investigated like the nitrides. Most references focus on the use of strong carbide forming metals. Kuang et al. have investigated the tribological properties of CrNbTiMoZr carbide films [35]. Kao and co-workers studied the effect of carbon content on the mechanical and electrochemical properties of CrNbSiTaZr films [36]. There is also others few studied on the same subject [21, 37].Figure 5 shows XRD diffractograms of (CrNbSiTiZr)Cx films as a function of CH4 rate flow. In the case of carbides, textured solid solutions are also formed. (111), (200), (220) and (311) peaks of the prepared films reveal the formation of fcc NaCl-type structure (Figure 5).
X-ray diffractogramme of (CrNbSiTiZr)Cx as function of nitrogen flow rate (N2). The figure is reproduced with permission of [
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a powerful technique to provide information on the composition and the chemical binding between the elements. Up to date, few XPS analysis are reported on HEFs studies. More efforts are needed to provide more information on the binding nature and the compound of different elements constituting HEFs.
Khan et al. [38] examined AlCoCrCu0.5FeNi nitride films by XPS. They showed that the porosity of films grows with a higher nitrogen flow fraction facilitating than the atmospheric oxidation. XPS analysis confirmed the formation of protective oxides AlO3, CrO3 and nitrides AlN and CrN on the films surfaces [38].
Khan and co-workers [38] used XPS to determine the oxidation states of AlCoCrCu0.5FeNi HEFs. The films were deposited at various nitrogen flow rates. The results revealed the formation of both nitrides and oxides on the surface of the films. At higher nitrogen flow, binary oxides Al2O3 and Cr2O3 were formed together with nitrides AlN and CrN on the films surfaces. Feng and coworkers [39] studied (ZrNbTaTiW)N HEFs and reported by XPS the formation of a mixture of metallic (Nb, W, Ta), nitride (ZrN, TiN, TaN) and oxide ZO2.
Our group studied the nitridation effect on AlTiTaZrHf, prepared by the magnetron sputtering technique [40]. All the elements are nitride after adding the nitrogen. As the nitrogen flow rate increases, the nitride content changes according to the affinity of each element. The atomic percentage is estimated according to XPS analysis and is presented for each individual element in Figure 6. Both metal Ta and Hf show a quick increase of nitridation followed by quasi-stable evolution when RN2=N2/(N2+Ar) increases from 0 to 50%. Al and Zr elements show a weak increase at RN2=5% and stabilization when RN2 continues to grow. However, Ti reveals a quasi-stable formation of nitride even though RN2 increases (Figure 6). The results demonstrate that all the elements are nitride during the deposition leading to the formation of high entropy nitride films.
Atomic percentage of individual elements, Al, Ti, Ta, Zr, and Hf as a function of nitrogen flow rate RN2=N2/(N2+Ar) during the preparation of AlTiTaZrHf(-N) HEFs. The curves are presented according to XPS analysis.
The mechanical properties have been investigated for large amounts of HEFs and the results revealed an improvement in the materials\' performances. Indeed, good hardness and wear resistance make the HEFs as well as their nitrides promising candidates for cutting tools for example. HEFs prepared by the magnetron sputtering technique showed that the mechanical properties are influenced by various deposition parameters. For example, Yu and co-workers [31] studied CrNbSiTiZr by changing the substrate bias voltage. The results showed that the hardness increased at a maximum of 12.4 ± 0.3 GPa with −50 V bias followed by a decrease to 9.8 ± 0.2 GPa when the bias is −200 V. Young’s modulus shows the same trend by increasing at 187.7 ± 3.3 GPa for −100 V and a decreasing to 162.3 ± 3.7 GPa for −200 V. The working pressure is also another parameter influencing the mechanical properties of HFEs. Kim and co-workers [32] reported high mechanical properties of AlCoCrNi films obtained with a pressure of 1.33 × 10−1 Pa. Indeed, at low pressure (1.33 Pa), the hardness is measured at 8.9 ± 0.9 GPa and the modulus at 142 ± 11 GPa. However, when the pressure reaches 1.33 × 10−1 Pa, the hardness increase to 16.8 ± 0.5 GPa and the modulus to 243 ± 39 GPa.
The nitrides show an increasing of mechanical properties as the nitrogen flow rate increases followed by a decrease as the flow continues to increase. This trend is seen for various high entropy nitrides [29, 41, 42, 43, 44]. An example is presented in Figure 7a. (AlCrMoTaTiZr)N HEFs, obtained with 40% nitrogen flow ratio, is the hardest film compared to others with a hardness of 40 GPa with Young’s modulus higher than 370 GPa. Residual stresses have been also studied and their evolution is depending on the nitrogen content. Zhang and co-workers [29] investigated the residual stress of (CrNbTiAlV)N HEFs at different nitrogen flows. The result is presented in Figure 7b. The metallic film has the lowest value of −2.35 GPa while a maximum (−6.55 GPa) is obtained for the nitride at 38 sccm.
Hardness (a) and Residual stress (b) of (CrNbTiAlV)Nx films deposited under different nitrogen flows. Figure reproduced with permission from [
In the case of oxides, as the oxygen flow rate increases the microstructure became dense and consequently the mechanical properties are improved. At a high flow rate, these properties degrade. The hardness of AlCoCrCu0.5FeNi reaches the maximum (11.3 ± 0.9 GPa) at 25% of O2 and decreases as the flow continues to increase.
Other results show that this trend is not always true. Khan and co-workers [45] reported no change in the mechanical properties by studying AlCoCrCu0.5FeNi films. These laters are prepared as a function of the working pressure. Their hardness was measured at 13 GPa while Young\'s modulus was evaluated at 204 GPa and no change was revealed as the pressure increased.
The change in microstructure could be the result of several factors such as preferential orientation and variation in crystallite size. These phenomena improve the tribological performance of HEFs. The presence of defects can also prevent plastic flow during deformation in the material that can change its hardness. The change in the hardness will lead to a change in its tribological properties.
The tribological performance of (AlCrNbSiTiMo)N has been studied by Lo and co-workers [46] at ambient temperature and after annealing at 700°C. The results showed a decrease in the friction coefficient, especially after annealing. This reduction difference in the coefficient of friction was measured at 0.2. At room temperature, the coefficient was 0.68 ± 0.09 while after annealing at 700°C it became 0.48 ± 0.08 as shown in Figure 8. The result revealed an improved wear resistance due to the formation of MoO3 after annealing, which acts as a lubricating effect.
Friction Coefficient of the AlCrNbSiTiMoN coatings. Figure reproduced with permission from [
By changing the content of the elements, the tribological properties can be improved. For example, the effect of Al was studied by Cui and co-workers [47] on FeCoCrNiMnAlx alloy. As the Al content increases, the friction coefficient of these films decreases. On the other hand, the incorporation of carbon, producing a lubricating effect can also reduce the friction coefficient [35].
Corrosion is described as a physical-chemical interaction between a metal and its environment leading to changes in its properties and significant degradation of its function. Developing corrosion-resistant materials is a necessary need to resolve the issue and improve their performance. Due to the elevated entropy, HEFs form solid solutions rather than intermetallic compounds. This makes the materials with best functional properties. The corrosion of HEFs has been mostly studied in nitric acid, salt (NaCl) and in HCl. It has been reported that Cr, Ni, Co and Ti elements can improve the corrosion resistance in acid solution. Mo element could inhibit pitting corrosion in a solution containing Cl. Such phenomena have been carried out for HEFs prepared by magnetron sputtering. The results revealed that these properties are influenced by different deposition parameters. To carry out the electrochemical measurements of the films, potentiodynamic polarization tests are used. The parameters include corrosion potential (Ecorr), pitting potential (Epit) and corrosion-current density (Icorr). This later can be used to estimate the corrosion rate as described by the equation below [48]:
Where ρ is the density of the alloys (g/cm3), Icorr (μA/cm2) and EW present the equivalent weight given by:
ni, fi and Wi are the ith elements, the masse fraction and the atomic weight of ith element in the alloy respectively.
Anti-corrosion performance of (CrNbTaTiW)C has been studied by Malinovskis and co-workers [19] in HCl solution with a concentration of 1M. The results revealed that the carbides showed the best corrosion resistance compared to that Stainless Steel. Gao and co-workers [49] performed a deposition of (CoCrFeNiAl0.3) on silicon by using magnetron sputtering. The films show better corrosion resistance compared to austenitic 304L stainless steel. Wang and a coworker [50] studied corrosion behavior of AlCoFeNiTiZr HEFs in NaCl solution. Three coatings, (Fe-Co-Ni)25(Al-Ti-Zr)75, (Fe-Co-Ni)20(Al-Ti-Zr)80, (Fe-Co-Ni)15(Al-Ti-Zr)85 have been tested. According to the reported results, (Fe-Co-Ni)25(Al-Ti-Zr)75 exhibits the lowest Icorr and the highest Ecorr revealing its best corrosion resistance compared to other films. Wang and co-worker [37] investigated the electrochemical properties of (CrNbSiTiZr)C in a 3.5 wt% NaCl solution. Figure 9 presented the potentiodynamic polarization curves of the film. The result is compared to that of 304L stainless steel (SS). The study reported that (CrNbSiTiZr)C shows a Ecorr of −189 mV and Icorr of 0.0026 μA/cm2. Ecorr is higher and Icorr is smaller than that of 304L SS (Ecorr= −319 mV; Icorr= 0.13 μA/cm2). Th result then reveal that (CrNbSiTiZr)C exhibits a higher corrosion resistance compared to that of 304L SS.
Potentiodynamic curve of (CrNbSiTiZr)C in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution. Figure reproduced with permission from [
The change in composition (variation in the elements contents) influences the microstructure. Therefore, the change of the microstructure will improve the functional properties such as corrosion resistance. Wang and co-workers [50] reported an improved corrosion resistance of (Fe-Co-Ni)x(Al-Ti-Zr)100-x as a result of the increase in Fe-Co-Ni content. As a result, (FeCoNi)25(AlTiZr)75 showed a better corrosion performance. The addition of Al in the refractory HEF films VNbMoTaW was beneficial in terms of increasing the corrosion resistance. With 2.37 at.% of Al present in the alloy, excellent corrosion resistance was measured compared to 304 stainless steels in 0.5M of H2SO4 [51]. However, increasing the Al content can have a negative effect on the quality of the film. Indeed, at high Al content porous oxides can be formed and the pores can easily facilitate the diffusion of acid. As a result, the corrosion resistance decreases.
Other deposition parameters strongly influence the anticorrosion performance of HEFs. Kao and co-workers [36] reported an improved corrosion resistance of CrNbSiTaZr films. The films were prepared in a C2H2 containing environment. Varying the bias voltage can also change the properties of the films. Von Fieandt and co-workers [52] showed a better corrosion resistance of (AlCrNbYZr)Nx films compared to stainless steel. The electrochemical measurements were done in HCl by changing the polarization voltage and the temperature.
Various HEFs have been prepared to investigate their high-temperature oxidation behavior. (Al0.34Cr0.22Nb0.11Si0.11Ti0.22)50N50 HEFs have been annealed at 900°C for 50 hours [17]. Two different oxides were formed: α-Al2O3 and rutile-TiO2. The dense Al2O3 formed on the top layer of the films was a key reason to improve their oxidation resistance. Compared to traditional films TiN and TiAlN prepared under the same conditions, (Al0.34Cr0.22Nb0.11Si0.11Ti0.22)50N50 HEFs reveal the best oxidation resistance and can be potential candidates for developing high-temperature applications. The element content is one of the influencing parameters that can improve the oxidation resistance of the films. Indeed, Al and Si can lead to the formation of dense α-Al2O3 and α-SiO2 layers on HEFs at high temperature which improves their oxidation resistance. The oxidation behavior of (AlCrNbTaTi)N films, in air as a function of Si concentration, was reported by Kretschmer and co-workers [18]. The films were annealed at 850°C for 100 hours. Without Si, the oxide thickness of the film is important (2700 nm), however when Si was added the oxide thickness was measured at 280 nm. This means that Si forms a dense layer on the surface during the oxidation preventing then the diffusion of the oxygen in the film.
Tsai and co-workers [53] reported the same trend of Si effect. Figure 10 shows the variation of the oxide thickness formed according to Si content in the films. As Si content increases, the thickness of oxide layer decreases revealing a good oxidation resistance at high temperature.
Cross-sectional SEM micrographs of the (AlCrMoTaTi)N HEFs with (a) 0 at.%, (b) 2.77 at.%, and (c) 7.51 at.% of Si coatings after annealing at different temperature in air. Figure reproduced with permission from [
In the case of HfNbTaTiZr film HEFs, it was shown that oxygen reacted with all elements forming oxide nanoclusters. XPS was used to analyze the oxidation behavior and the results revealed 66 at.% of oxygen content where no oxide was determined by other techniques like SEM, TEM and X-ray diffraction [54]. The oxygen was found to preferentially bind to Ti, Zr and Hf rather than other elements.
HEFs deposited by magnetron sputtering techniques have been exploited to develop some applications. They can serve as surface protective materials. Among the different applications, materials for biomedical and for machining will be presented in this section.
Various scientific research has been focused on coatings to improve the performance of implants and prostheses. Compared to traditional coatings using this field, HEFs become the hot spot in surface engineering development. Two films, (HfNbTaTiZr)N and (HfNbTaTiZr)C, have been prepared by magnetron sputtering technique [55]. The corrosion property of these films was simulated in body fluid. The results have revealed a very small ratio of dead cells that were observed for both (HfNbTaTiZr)N and (HfNbTaTiZr)C HEFs. Si was used to improve the biocompatibility of the materials. Valdescu and co-workers [11] have replaced Ta with Si in the case of (TiZrNbTaHf)C. Considering the role of electrostatic interactions between the biomaterial surface and the cells, the authors examined the effects of surface charge (characterized by electrical potential and work function) on the biocompatibility property. A low electrical potential and high work function of (TiZrNbSiHf)C film was obtained revealing that this film exhibits best biocompatibility.
The dry machining process is seen as the best alternative to replace the oils in the industry. Because the oils have a negative impact on both operator health and the ecology. An environmental transition is, therefore, necessary to develop clean processes. HEFs are now interesting materials where scientific efforts are underway to improve the performance of cutting tools. thermal and machining properties of (Al0.34Cr0.22Nb0.11Si0.11Ti0.22)50N50 HEF, have been examined by Shen and co-workers [56]. The cutting performances of the films are better as the milling was operating at a high temperature. Due to its superior properties like high hardness, good thermal stability and outstanding oxidation resistance, the HEF shows great potential to be exploited in machining applications. The study reported that, after 900 m of cutting, the wear depth is 226, 202, 184, and 175 μm for uncoated, TiN, TiAlN and (Al0.34Cr0.22Nb0.11Si0.11Ti0.22)50N50 HEF respectively.
The chapter reports and discusses briefly various properties of HEFs fabricated by magnetron sputtering. Intensive scientific efforts have been paid to this area for improving the materials surfaces and developing innovant materials. The preparation of the films is performed according to various deposition parameters.
Two processes are reported, standard direct current magnetron sputtering (DCMS) and high power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) that are used to prepare HEFs in different environments. HiPIMS process led to the formation of denser microstructure compared to that with DCMS. Substrate bias voltage, working pressure, gas flow rate as deposition parameters, all are discussed and revealed that they strongly influence the physico-chemical properties of HEFs. Amorphous to crystalline structure of the most prepared HEFs transition took place upon introduction of gas like N2 or CH4 or O2.
Two functional properties, electrochemical (corrosion) and physical (oxidation) are reported and discussed. Th both properties have been reported to be influenced by different deposition parameters. The preparation of dense films prevents acid attack and improve corrosion resistance. The formation of some oxide layers such as α-Al2O3 and α-SiO2 on the top film surface plays a great role in protecting the materials from oxidation at high temperature.
Some HEFs are exploited to develop application in the various materials field. Examples are reported on biomaterials and machining processes showing the best performances of the films compared to traditional coatings.
The prepared HEFs revealed enhanced surface protection ability. Even with the promising performances that possess the HEFs, more efforts are needed to develop a deep understanding of this class of materials. The complexity of the materials increases with the number of possible combinations of elements. Traditional metallurgy cannot meet the requirements of quick results, which requires a lot of time depending on the combinations. Advanced characterization techniques are needed which must be combined with theoretical simulation to solve this type of problem. Artificial intelligence can also be added to the knowledge of traditional metallurgy to define new approaches for studying innovative HEFs.
Authors ME, FS and FSC thank the Université de Technologie de Troyes (UTT) and Commissariat à l\'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA) Saclay.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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VR provides a 3D and dynamic view of structures and the ability of the user to interact with them. The recent technological advances in haptics, display systems, and motion detection allow the user to have a realistic and interactive experience, enabling VR to be ideal for training in hands-on procedures. Consequently, surgical and other interventional procedures are the main fields of application of VR. AR provides the ability of projecting virtual information and structures over physical objects, thus enhancing or altering the real environment. The integration of AR applications in the understanding of anatomical structures and physiological mechanisms seems to be beneficial. Studies have tried to demonstrate the validity and educational effect of many VR and AR applications, in many different areas, employed via various hardware platforms. Some of them even propose a curriculum that integrates these methods. This chapter provides a brief history of VR and AR in medicine, as well as the principles and standards of their function. Finally, the studies that show the effect of the implementation of these methods in different fields of medical training are summarized and presented.",book:{id:"6211",slug:"medical-and-surgical-education-past-present-and-future",title:"Medical and Surgical Education",fullTitle:"Medical and Surgical Education - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Panteleimon Pantelidis, Angeliki Chorti, Ioanna Papagiouvanni,\nGeorgios Paparoidamis, Christos Drosos, Thrasyvoulos\nPanagiotakopoulos, Georgios Lales and Michail Sideris",authors:[{id:"211650",title:"M.D.",name:"Panteleimon",middleName:null,surname:"Pantelidis",slug:"panteleimon-pantelidis",fullName:"Panteleimon Pantelidis"},{id:"211654",title:"Ms.",name:"Angeliki",middleName:null,surname:"Chorti",slug:"angeliki-chorti",fullName:"Angeliki Chorti"},{id:"220557",title:"Ms.",name:"Ioanna",middleName:null,surname:"Papagiouvanni",slug:"ioanna-papagiouvanni",fullName:"Ioanna Papagiouvanni"},{id:"220558",title:"Mr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Paparoidamis",slug:"georgios-paparoidamis",fullName:"Georgios Paparoidamis"},{id:"220559",title:"Mr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Lales",slug:"georgios-lales",fullName:"Georgios Lales"},{id:"220560",title:"Mr.",name:"Thrasyvoulos",middleName:null,surname:"Panagiotakopoulos",slug:"thrasyvoulos-panagiotakopoulos",fullName:"Thrasyvoulos Panagiotakopoulos"},{id:"220561",title:"Mr.",name:"Christos",middleName:null,surname:"Drosos",slug:"christos-drosos",fullName:"Christos Drosos"},{id:"220562",title:"Dr.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Sideris",slug:"michail-sideris",fullName:"Michail Sideris"}]},{id:"50915",doi:"10.5772/63266",title:"Doped Bioactive Glass Materials in Bone Regeneration",slug:"doped-bioactive-glass-materials-in-bone-regeneration",totalDownloads:3480,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"In the arena of orthopaedic surgery, autograft is considered to be the gold standard for correction of fracture repair or other bone pathologies. But, it has some limitations such as donor site morbidity and shortage of supply, which evolved the use of allograft that also has some disadvantages such as immunogenic response to the host, low osteogenicity as well as possibilities of disease transmission. Despite the benefits of autografts and allografts, the limitations of each have necessitated the pursuit of alternatives biomaterials that has the ability to initiate osteogenesis, and the graft should closely mimic the natural bone along with regeneration of fibroblasts. A variety of artificial materials such as demineralised bone matrix, coralline hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate-based ceramics such as hydroxyapatite (HA), β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) and bioactive glass have been used over the decades to fill bone defects almost without associated soft tissue development. Most of them were having only the properties of osteointegration and osteoconduction. Only bioactive glass possesses osteogenic property that stimulates proliferation and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells and in some cases influencing the fibroblastic properties. But, this material has also some disadvantages such as short-term and low mechanical strength along with decreased fracture resistance; but, this was further minimised by ion doping that positively enhanced new bone formation. There are many metal ions such as magnesium (Mg), strontium (Sr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), silver (Ag) and some rare earths that have been doped successfully into bioactive glass to enhance their mechanical and biological properties. In some of the cases, mesoporous bioactive glass materials with or without such doping have also been employed (with homogeneous distribution of pores in the size ranging between 2 and 50 nm). These biomaterials can be served as scaffold for bone regeneration with adequate mechanical properties to restore bone defects and facilitate healing process by regeneration of soft tissues as well. This chapter encompasses the use of bioactive glass in bulk and mesoporous form with doped therapeutic ions, their role in bone tissue regeneration, use as delivery of growth factors as well as coating material for orthopaedic implants.",book:{id:"5164",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-bone-regeneration",title:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Samit Kumar Nandi, Arnab Mahato, Biswanath Kundu and Prasenjit\nMukherjee",authors:[{id:"60514",title:"Dr.",name:"Samit",middleName:null,surname:"Nandi",slug:"samit-nandi",fullName:"Samit Nandi"}]},{id:"37120",doi:"10.5772/29607",title:"Trigeminocardiac Reflex in Neurosurgery - Current Knowledge and Prospects",slug:"the-trigeminocardiac-reflex-in-neurosurgery-current-knowledge-and-prospects",totalDownloads:3423,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"749",slug:"explicative-cases-of-controversial-issues-in-neurosurgery",title:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery",fullTitle:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery"},signatures:"Amr Abdulazim, Martin N. 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Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"42855",title:"Critical Care Issues After Major Hepatic Surgery",slug:"critical-care-issues-after-major-hepatic-surgery",totalDownloads:8909,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3164",slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Ashok Thorat and Wei-Chen Lee",authors:[{id:"52360",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"wei-chen-lee",fullName:"Wei-Chen Lee"},{id:"157213",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Thorat",slug:"ashok-thorat",fullName:"Ashok Thorat"}]},{id:"72175",title:"Fontan Operation: A Comprehensive Review",slug:"fontan-operation-a-comprehensive-review",totalDownloads:1252,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Since the first description of the Fontan operation in the early 1970s, a number of modifications have been introduced and currently staged, total cavopulmonary connection with fenestration has become the most commonly used multistage surgery in diverting the vena caval blood flow into the lungs. The existing ventricle, whether it is left or right, is utilized to supply systemic circuit. During Stage I, palliative surgery is performed, usually at presentation in the neonatal period/early infancy, on the basis of pathophysiology of the cardiac defect. During Stage II, a bidirectional Glenn procedure is undertaken in which the superior vena caval flow is diverted into the lungs at an approximate age of 6 months. During Stage IIIA, the blood flow from the inferior vena cava (IVC) is rerouted into the pulmonary arteries, typically by an extra-cardiac conduit along with a fenestration, generally around 2 years of age. During Stage IIIB, the fenestration is closed by transcatheter methodology 6–12 months after Stage IIIA. The evolution of Fontan concepts, the indications for Fontan surgery, and the results of old and current types of Fontan operation form the focus of this review.",book:{id:"9585",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",fullTitle:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease"},signatures:"P. Syamasundar Rao",authors:[{id:"68531",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Syamasundar",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"p.-syamasundar-rao",fullName:"P. 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Interventions meant to correct these conditions are commonly based on symmetrical models of appearance and do not take into account asymmetric organ weight distribution, asymmetries of respiratory mechanics, and dominant movement patterns that are reinforced in daily functional activities. A model of innate, human asymmetry derived from the theoretical framework of the Postural Restoration Institute® (PRI) explicitly describes the physiological, biomechanical, and respiratory components of human asymmetry. This model is important because it gives an accurate baseline for understanding predisposing factors for the development of postural disorders, which, without intervention, will likely progress to structural dysfunction. Clinical tests to evaluate tri-planar musculoskeletal relationships and function, developed by PRI, are based on this asymmetric model. These tests are valuable for assessing patient’s status in the context of human asymmetry and in guiding appropriate exercise prescription and progression. Balancing musculoskeletal asymmetry is the aim of PRI treatment. Restoration of relative balance decreases pain, restores improved alignment, and strengthens appropriate muscle function. It can also halt the progression of dysfunction and improve respiration, quality of life, and appearance. PRI’s extensive body of targeted exercise progressions are highly effective due to their basis in the tri-planar asymmetric human model.",book:{id:"5816",slug:"innovations-in-spinal-deformities-and-postural-disorders",title:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders",fullTitle:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders"},signatures:"Susan Henning, Lisa C. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"94",type:"subseries",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",keywords:"Environmental protection, Socio-economic development, Resource exploitation, Environmental degradation, Climate change, Degraded ecosystems, Biodiversity loss",scope:"
\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null},editorialBoard:null},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition - Production, Health and Environment",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",slug:"advanced-studies-in-the-21st-century-animal-nutrition",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"László Babinszky, Juliana Oliveira and Edson Mauro Santos",hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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