Seebeck coefficient, electrical conductivity, and unit cell parameters of the different Sn1−xMxSe alloys measured at room temperature.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7038",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Vitamin D Deficiency",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Vitamin D is the topic for many discussions in the scientific community. Nowadays, a different interpretation of this secosteroid hormone is needed. Today the term "vitamin" may be considered outdated. This compound may be correctly be called a vitamin only when it is administered to humans or animals that suffer from its deficiency. This book attempts to clarify the role of Vitamin D deficiency in many pathological processes in the whole organism. Chapters in this book cover such issues as the earliest clinical and preclinical investigations of the consequences of Vitamin D deficiency for cognitive, cardiovascular, metabolic, immune, and renal disorders.',isbn:"978-1-83880-776-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-775-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-777-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73799",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",numberOfPages:282,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"ba24f0913341357b0779ff9529c4bbfc",bookSignature:"Julia Fedotova",publishedDate:"February 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7038.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5077,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 16th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 26th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 25th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 17th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"269070",title:"Prof.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Fedotova",slug:"julia-fedotova",fullName:"Julia Fedotova",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/269070/images/system/269070.jfif",biography:"Julia O. Fedotova, MD, PhD habil., Doc. Biol. Sci, was born in\nSt. Petersburg (Russia), in 1973. She graduated with her Diploma of Pharmacist, Pharmaceutical Faculty, St. Petersburg State\nChemical-Pharmaceutical Academy in 1996. She received her\nPhD in specialties – experimental and clinical pharmacology and\nphysiology of human and animals in 1999. She attended Medical\nSchool, Department of Pharmacology, University of Catania in\n2002, and the Institute of Physiology, Medical School, University of Pecs. She graduated from the special doctoral course in neuropharmacology at the Department\nof Neuropharmacology in the Institute for Experimental Medicine of the Russian\nAcademy of Medical Sciences and she received her doctor of Biological Sciences\n(Ph.D. habil.) in 2008. She is currently a professor at the ITMO University and the\nleading researcher at the I.P. Pavlov Institute of Physiology. She has more 200 publications (mostly in Russian), 2 patents, and 4 journal articles in collaboration, as\nwell as 6 chapters in journals.\nShe is a head of the project “The studying of Vitamin D3 role in development of\naffective-related disorders in women with climacteric period, the search of ways for\npharmacorrection”, from the highly prestige Russian Scientific Foundation.",institutionString:"ITMO University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"ITMO University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"379",title:"Vitaminology",slug:"alimentology-vitaminology"}],chapters:[{id:"68649",title:"Vitamin D and Its Deficiency in Saudi Arabia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88745",slug:"vitamin-d-and-its-deficiency-in-saudi-arabia",totalDownloads:531,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Fawzi F. 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The use of ultrasound in regional anesthesia has shown the reduction of complications, which makes it mandatory to knowledge and acquire skills in all ultrasound-guided techniques.
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",isbn:"978-1-83969-570-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-569-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-571-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"264f7f37033b4867cace7912287fccaa",bookSignature:"Prof. Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo and Dr. José Ramón Saucillo-Osuna",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10708.jpg",keywords:"Regional Anesthesia, Ultrasound-Guided Regional Anesthesia, Local Anesthetics, Preventive Analgesia, Peripheral Blocks, Pediatric Regional Anesthesia, Intravenous Regional Anesthesia, Techniques, Complications, Adjuvants in Regional Anesthesia, Opioids, Alfa2 Agonists",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 23rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 22nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"18 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Whizar-Lugo has published more than 100 publications on Anesthesia, Pain, Critical Care, and Internal Medicine. He works as an anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group and belongs to the Institutos Nacionales de Salud as an associated researcher.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",middleName:null,surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169249/images/system/169249.jpg",biography:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo graduated from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and completed residencies in Internal Medicine at Hospital General de México and Anaesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine at Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán in México City. He also completed a fellowship at the Anesthesia Department, Pain Clinic at University of California, Los Angeles, USA. Currently, Dr. Whizar-Lugo works as anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group, and belongs to the Institutos Nacionales de Salud as associated researcher. He has published many works on anesthesia, pain, internal medicine, and critical care, edited four books, and given countless conferences in congresses and meetings around the world. He has been a member of various editorial committees for anesthesiology journals, is past chief editor of the journal Anestesia en México, and is currently editor-in-chief of the Journal of Anesthesia and Critical Care. 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Dr. Saucillo-Osuna has lectured at multiple national and international congresses and is an adjunct professor at the Federación Mexicana de Colegios de Anestesiología, AC, former president of the Asociación Mexicana de Anestesia Regional, and active member of the Asociación Latinoamericana de Anestesia Regional.",institutionString:"Centro Médico Nacional de Occidente",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Dr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"60165",title:"Nanostructured Thermoelectric Chalcogenides",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75442",slug:"nanostructured-thermoelectric-chalcogenides",body:'\nThermoelectric materials hold a tantalizing promise of greater energy efficiency by providing a robust and clean option for waste heat recovery and conversion to useful electrical energy through the Seebeck effect [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. However, existing materials have poor thermoelectric efficiency. This is related to the inherent difficulty to obtain, at the same time, a high electrical conductivity, a low thermal one, and a very high Seebeck voltage. Thermoelectric materials are characterized, for research purposes, by the thermoelectric figure of merit, \n
A zT above 4 would be desirable for economically viable thermoelectric modules for waste heat recovery, for example, in automotive applications. Yet, current state-of-the-art materials have zT limited to around 2, with commercial materials limited to 1. Furthermore, p- and n-type thermoelectric materials with similar figure of merit, and electrical, thermal, and mechanical characteristics, in the same temperature range are necessary for their implementation. Nonetheless, much effort has gone into developing cost-effective devices for different applications [9, 10, 11, 12]. For instance, as potential candidates for gas heat recovery, automobile exhaust thermoelectric generators (AETEG) were first studied in 1963, and they have been thoroughly investigated since then reaching 400 W and 5% efficiency in current Bi2Te3-based modules [12, 13, 14]. A recent report on AETEG for military SUV applications shows an output power up to 646 W and 1.03% efficiency, which meets the electrical requirements for automotive applications [13]. Another applicability of thermoelectric modules is found as Solar-Heat-Pipe-Thermoelectric-Generator hybrid systems for combined power generation and hot water production in the high-temperature range [11].
\nThermoelectric materials are typically degenerately doped semiconductors, often of heavy p-block elements, such as SiGe, Bi2Te3, PbTe, and CoSb3 [15, 16, 17]. However, recently, a zT as large as 2.6 was reported above 900 K in an overlooked semiconductor, SnSe [18]. This value was found in a single crystal of SnSe along one crystallographic direction, above a structural phase transition, just below the melting point. Later reports in single crystals found smaller values, and in polycrystalline samples only zT = 1.0 [19, 20, 21]. Nevertheless, SnSe is a very promising thermoelectric. As a semiconductor, SnSe was disregarded due to its complicated orthorhombic structure. It consists of puckered layers, quite analogous to black phosphorus, and it has a small bandgap of 0.61 eV, quite sought after among optoelectronic 2D materials [22].
\nOne reason for the high zT of SnSe has to do with its low thermal conductivity. Nevertheless, a further reduction by nanostructuring is highly desirable. According to the Wiedemann-Franz law [7], the thermal conductivity of SnSe is overwhelmingly determined by the lattice thermal conductivity because of its inherently low electrical conductivity. Thus, doping can be used to increase σ through the charge density, and in turn zT. However, following the Pisarenko relation [23], the Seebeck coefficient will decrease with increasing charge concentration. Thus, an optimum must be found of the power-factor, \n
There have been several reports on doped SnSe, with silver, iodine, bismuth, or sodium [19, 20, 21, 24, 34, 35]. These can be used to select the type of carriers, since a useful thermoelectric device must contain both p- and n-type thermo-elements. What is common in these studies is that the dopant concentration reaches no more than a few percent. Our group has reported on alloying SnSe with p-block elements, such as Ge, In, and Pb, using arc-melting [36, 37, 38, 39]. The arc-melting technique has several advantages for SnSe, and some drawbacks. It is a very fast, one-step synthesis method that avoids the costly and time-consuming steps of spark plasma sintering (SPS), yet produces dense pellets [40]. Crucially, it yields highly nanostructured materials because of the rapid melting and quenching. It also allows for alloying at much higher concentrations. As a drawback, we find our polycrystalline samples to have notoriously low electrical conductivity at room temperature, and also much lower charge carrier density than would be expected from the huge amount of dopants. These are likely related to surface oxidation of the grain boundaries and to charge-trapping at defects.
\nHere we report on a general survey of alloying SnSe with d-block elements. As a quick screening tool, we employed the room temperature Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity. As a rule of thumb, we looked for indications of the Pisarenko relation at work: dopants that, at some concentration, can yield highly conducting samples, usually with almost zero Seebeck coefficient, whereas the pure or lightly doped SnSe is a bad conductor with large Seebeck effect. We characterized every composition by laboratory x-ray diffraction to check for phase purity and changes in the lattice constant, a good indication that some of the dopants indeed entered the crystal structure. For some samples, we also measured the Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity at high temperatures (a much more laborious task), where SnSe would perform as a thermoelectric. In particular, we looked for n-type alloys with negative Seebeck coefficient. We also characterized the thermal conductivity of a few selected samples.
\nTin selenide alloys with various dopings were prepared in an Edmund Buhler mini-arc MAM-1 furnace (Figure 1a). Stoichiometric amounts of ground mixture of reacting elements were pelletized in a glove box. Pellets were molten under Ar atmosphere in a water-cooled Cu crucible (Figure 1b), leading to ingots of intermetallic characteristics (Figure 1c), which were partially ground to powder for structural characterization. The Seebeck coefficient and electrical and thermal conductivities were measured in disk-shaped specimens obtained by pressing the arc-molten ingots under 200 MPa at ambient temperature in a cylindrical die.
\n(a) Images of the mini arc furnace and (b) its water-cooled copper crucible, for synthesis of SnSe alloys materials. Pellets of powders of starting material are molten and then quenched in this crucible. (c) Typical disks of as-grown and then pressed intermetallic alloys.
Laboratory x-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to characterize the as grown samples (in powder form), for phase identification and for assessment of the phase purity, using a Brucker D8 diffractometer (40 kV, 30 mA), controlled by a DIFFRACTPLUS software, in Bragg-Brentano reflection geometry with CuKα radiation (λ = 1.5418 Å), between 10 and 64° in 2θ°. The resulting diffractograms were evaluated by Rietveld method with the FULLPROF program [41]. A pseudo-Voigt profile function was used for the line shape of the diffraction peaks. The following parameters were refined: half-width, pseudo-Voigt, zero shift, background points, and scale factor. Crucially, unit-cell parameters and positional and overall thermal displacement parameters were also refined for XRD data. A preferred orientation correction was applied, considering platelets perpendicular to [100] direction for SnSe-related alloys.
\nSurface texture of as-grown pellets was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in a table-top Hitachi TM-1000 microscope. This microscope, best used for middle and low resolutions with high acceleration voltage, is chiefly used to scan with low magnification to select interesting zones and to study obtain topographical information, with large depth of field, thanks to its sensitivity to surface characteristics.
\nMeasurement of the Seebeck coefficient seems simple: create a temperature gradient and measure the induced voltage. Yet, at elevated temperatures, this poses a challenge, mainly due to large and hard to control temperature gradients.
\nIn many of the instruments used for Seebeck measurement, the most important systematic errors originate in the great difficulty to detect temperatures at exactly the same spot where the voltage difference is observed. Furthermore, the strong chemical and metallurgic reactivity of typical thermoelectric materials at elevated temperatures limits the choice of materials for constructing the instrument. For example, Pt is typically used at high temperatures as an inert and useful material without second thought, but it is out of the question for many thermoelectric alloys of heavy p-block elements. Instead, niobium or tungsten is recommended [42].
\nWe try to minimize all the possible errors that could arise during the measurement; for that, we designed a slightly modified device recently published [42]. Using this apparatus, we can measure the Seebeck coefficient from room temperature up to around 950 K. Figures 2 and 3 show the design scheme of the measurement device. This instrument is composed of two home-made thermocouples, pressed into contact with the sample with springs outside the furnace, two blocks of niobium (Nb), also pressed to the sample by springs, with inner cartridge heaters (with built-in thermocouples), and a tubular furnace with yet another thermocouple.
\nScheme of the Seebeck measurement apparatus: Two blocks of niobium (Nb) with inner cartridge heaters (with built-in thermocouples), and home-made thermocouples (in contact with the sample).
View of the measurement setup, showing the upper and lower Nb pistons and the radiation furnace, which would be shifted upwards during the measurements.
When high temperature measurements are planned, the system is placed in a vacuum chamber equipped with a turbo-pump, which can reach a vacuum of around 1 × 10−6 mbar. The baseplate is water-cooled in order to provide better control at high temperatures.
\nHome-made thermocouples are used to measure the temperature of the sample at either side and also the Seebeck voltage. Their election is guided by the need to use inert chemical materials at high temperature against typical compounds in many thermoelectric materials, such as Sn, Pb, Te, and Se. This is the reason we chose thermocouples made of a niobium and chromel combination, ensuring that the Nb wires are in contact with the sample [27, 33], which allows us to reach temperatures near up to 950 K without reactions between samples and thermocouples.
\nThe blocks are built of niobium because i) of its chemical inertness to chalcogenides and pnictides and ii) this metal has a good thermal conductivity, which is important since the heaters are inside them. As an added advantage, the Nb blocks can act as current injection contacts in a 4-point measurement of sample resistance, with the Nb wires of the thermocouples acting as voltage leads, providing an estimate of the electrical conductivity of the material. Although this is not the best geometry to ensure reliable absolute values (the samples have large cross section and are short, just the opposite of what one would desire for 4-point resistivity), it is useful to gauge the behavior of the conductivity at higher temperatures. For more reliable absolute conductivity values, we estimated the geometric factor of this setup using a pellet of typical dimensions of our samples (10 mm diameter and 2 mm height) of a commercial Bi2Te3 ingot manufactured by TECTEG MFR, by comparing to a conventional in-line 4-point measurement of a 10 × 2 × 2 mm3 bar cut from the same pellet.
\nWe use a Keithley-2700 scanning multimeter to measure the Seebeck voltage, the thermocouples monitoring the sample temperature, and a Pt sensor used for a numerical “cold” junction compensation. Three independent West-P6100 PID controllers are used to measure and control the cartridge heaters and the furnace. They provide an analog DC programming output of 0–5 V amplified by DeltaES150 DC power supplies. The advantage of this somewhat costlier power control is that the Seebeck voltages and resistivity are less affected by the electronic noise from the heaters. Measurement errors associated with the Seebeck coefficients are close to ~5%, while resistivity error is strongly dependent on the magnitude of the resistance, varying from 20% for low resistances in the mΩ range to negligible errors for values around 1 Ω.
\nSince typical thermoelectric pellets have resistances in the mΩ range, they are measured using a combination of Keithley Current Source 6221A and a KeithleyNanovoltmeter 2182A. Data acquisition and temperature control are handled by LabVIEW program, which communicates via GPIB with multimeter/nanovoltmeter and via RS485 serial protocol with PID controllers. The whole setup is shown in Figure 4.
\nHigh temperature Seebeck measurement system: The electronics in the top shelf, the vacuum chamber (with the sample inside) in the back, and the computer with the control-software.
Materials of the series Sn1−xMxSe (M = Ti, Cr, Mn, Zn, Mo, Ag, Cd, Au) were prepared by a simple and straightforward arc-melting technique, yielding highly textured SnSe-type samples. About 2 g ingots were obtained in each case; a part was ground to powder for structural characterization, the remaining pellet was used for transport measurements. XRD patterns are all characteristic of the orthorhombic GeSe structural type, and can be Rietveld-refined in the orthorhombic Pnma space group. Both Sn(M) and Se atoms occupy 4c (x, ¼, z) positions. Dopant M atoms are distributed at random at Sn positions: different occupation tests were performed in the refinement, verifying M inclusion in the Sn sublattice. Table 1 includes the unit-cell parameter and volume for each sample; the left panel of Figure 5a illustrates the quality of the fit for Sn0.9Mo0.1Se, with good discrepancy factors (Rp = 2.29%, Rwp = 3.07%, Rexp = 1.73%, χ2 = 3.26, RBragg = 4.42%). The structure consists of trigonal pyramids Sn(M)Se3 forming double layers perpendicular to the [100] direction, as shown in Figure 5b.
\nMaterial | \nSeebeck coefficient (μV/K) | \nElectrical conductivity (S/m) | \nLattice constant a (Å) | \nLattice constant b (Å) | \nLattice constant c (Å) | \nVolume (Å3) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SnSe | \n403 | \n13 | \n11.500 (2) | \n4.151 (1) | \n4.443 (1) | \n212.04 (9) | \n
SnSe (SPS) | \n316 | \n0.7 | \n11.502 (2) | \n4.1539 (8) | \n4.4441 (9) | \n212.33 (7) | \n
Sn0.9Y0.1Se | \n−81 | \n6 | \n11.503 (3) | \n4.157 (1) | \n4.436 (2) | \n212.1 (1) | \n
Sn0.95Ti0.05Se | \n12 | \n111 | \n11.497 (2) | \n4.1531 (8) | \n4.443 (1) | \n212.14 (7) | \n
Sn0.90Ti0.10Se | \n\n | \n | 11.523 (7) | \n4.165 (3) | \n4.430 (3) | \n212.6 (3) | \n
Sn0.85Ti0.15Se | \n7 | \n2841 | \n11.508 (4) | \n4.155 (1) | \n4.448 (2) | \n212.7 (1) | \n
Sn0.95Cr0.05Se | \n−2 | \n174 | \n11.494 (3) | \n4.151 (1) | \n4.440 (1) | \n211.8 (1) | \n
Sn0.9Cr0.1Se | \n−5 | \n251 | \n11.495 (3) | \n4.151 (1) | \n4.441 (1) | \n211.9 (1) | \n
Sn0.99Mo0.01Se | \n480 | \n4 | \n11.492 (2) | \n4.1516 (7) | \n4.4424 (9) | \n211.94 (6) | \n
Sn0.97Mo0.03Se | \n500 | \n8 | \n11.502 (2) | \n4.1560 (8) | \n4.446 (1) | \n212.53 (7) | \n
Sn0.95Mo0.05Se | \n280 | \n15 | \n11.499 (2) | \n4.1529 (8) | \n4.445 (1) | \n212.29 (7) | \n
Sn0.9Mo0.1Se | \n442 | \n3 | \n11.502 (2) | \n4.1523(8) | \n4.445 (1) | \n212.29 (7) | \n
Sn0.8Mo0.2Se | \n404 | \n8 | \n11.504 (2) | \n4.1553 (9) | \n4.445 (1) | \n212.51 (8) | \n
Sn0.7Mo0.3Se | \n357 | \n47 | \n11.504 (2) | \n4.155 (1) | \n4.444 (1) | \n212.41 (8) | \n
Sn0.99Mn0.01Se | \n453 | \n42 | \n11.509 (2) | \n4.1558 (8) | \n4.447 (1) | \n212.72 (8) | \n
Sn0.99Ag0.01Se | \n220 | \n330 | \n11.505 (2) | \n4.155 (1) | \n4.446 (1) | \n212.57 (9) | \n
Sn0.97Ag0.03Se | \n161 | \n111 | \n11.500 (2) | \n4.1553 (9) | \n4.445 (1) | \n212.42 (8) | \n
Sn0.95Ag0.05Se | \n112 | \n276 | \n11.502 (2) | \n4.155(1) | \n4.445 (1) | \n212.40 (9) | \n
Sn0.9Ag0.1Se | \n123 | \n3411 | \n11.496 (4) | \n4.152 (2) | \n4.441 (2) | \n212.0 (2) | \n
Sn0.99Au0.01Se | \n368 | \n224 | \n11.506 (3) | \n4.155 (1) | \n4.446 (1) | \n212.6 (1) | \n
Sn0.9Zn0.1Se | \n432 | \n18 | \n11.500 (4) | \n4.154 (1) | \n4.444 (2) | \n212.3 (1) | \n
Sn0.99Cd0.01Se | \n590 | \n2 | \n11.502 (3) | \n4.153 (1) | \n4.443 (2) | \n212.2 (1) | \n
Sn0.97Cd0.03Se | \n640 | \n0.7 | \n11.497 (3) | \n4.152 (1) | \n4.440 (2) | \n211.9 (1) | \n
Sn0.95Cd0.05Se | \n549 | \n4 | \n11.503 (3) | \n4.154 (1) | \n4.441 (1) | \n212.2 (1) | \n
Sn0.9Cd0.1Se | \n482 | \n23 | \n11.513 (3) | \n4.161 (1) | \n4.444 (2) | \n212.9 (1) | \n
Sn0.8Cd0.2Se | \n508 | \n6 | \n11.506 (3) | \n4.156 (1) | \n4.441 (2) | \n212.4 (1) | \n
Seebeck coefficient, electrical conductivity, and unit cell parameters of the different Sn1−xMxSe alloys measured at room temperature.
(a) XRD pattern and its Rietveld-refinement of Sn0.9Mo0.1Se, showing an excellent agreement between observed (crosses) and calculated (black line) profiles. (b) View of the Sn1−xMoxSe crystal structure, highlighting the layers of Sn(Mo)Se3polyhedra perpendicular to a axis.
Figure 6 illustrates, as an example, the unit cell-volume variation for some selected M dopant atoms. A contraction of the cell is observed when Ag is introduced at Sn positions (Figure 6a), whereas the cell volume expands as Ti is introduced in the crystal structure (Figure 6b), as a consequence of the different ionic radii of the concerned atoms. In either case, the unit-cell variation assesses the incorporation of the dopant atoms in the crystal structure, discarding the inclusion of spurious phases in the grain boundaries or as secondary phases.
\nUnit-cell volume variation with the concentration of dopant element for (a) Ag and (b) Ti.
The layered crystal structure of SnSe-type compounds, containing strong covalent bonds within the layers, and much weaker interactions between adjacent layers, promotes the easy cleavage of materials. The arc-furnace procedure, involving a fast quenching of the samples from the molten state, drives a peculiar microstructure consisting of piles of stacking sheets, as shown in Figure 7.
\nSEM image of as-grown Sn1−xMxSe, exhibiting nanostructuration, consisting of piles of nanometric platelets (perpendicular to [100] direction) taken with (a) 2000 magnification for M = Mn and (b) 2500 magnification for M = Cd.
Illustrated for M = Mn and M = Cd, the same typical microstructure is observed for all the samples. We find individual sheets with thickness below 0.1 μm (typically 20 to 40 nm). This micro- or nanostructuration has strong influence on the thermoelectric properties, especially the many surface boundaries that are responsible for scattering of both charge carriers and phonons (i.e. the electrical and the thermal conductivity).
\nThe Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity were measured in coin-shaped pellets of 12 mm diameter in the home-made device described before. Table 1 includes the thermopower and electrical conductivity at room temperature (RT) for all the studied samples, which is useful as a preliminary screening in order to avoid particularly time-consuming high-temperature measurements. For the sake of comparison, some samples were also prepared by ball milling followed by SPS processes; inferior (lower) Seebeck coefficients and (considerably lower) electrical conductivities were invariably obtained, proving the excellence of the arc-melting procedure reported here. Some samples were subsequently chosen for a more detailed high temperature study, up to 950 K.
\nAs mentioned in the Introduction, pure tin selenide has good thermoelectric properties at high temperature [18]. However, in our screening we focus on the room temperature properties, and although we observed a high Seebeck coefficient, its electrical conductivity turned out to be much lower, by one or two orders of magnitude, than in single crystals. A good reference value for the electrical conductivity would be above 1000 S/m. Our approach has been to enhance this state of affairs by doping SnSe with adequate elements to boost the RT electrical conductivity, while keeping a good Seebeck coefficient. The thermoelectric performance is certainly enhanced at elevated temperature, as we indeed observe here. In addition, doping elements that yield almost zero Seebeck coefficient but good electrical conductivity are very promising for further optimization at much lower doping concentrations, such as the case of Ti, or Cr.
\nFrom Table 1, it is noteworthy that certain doping elements such as Mo or Cd are able to enhance the RT Seebeck coefficient to as high as 480 μV/K (Mo0.01), 500 μV/K (Mo0.03), 590 μV/K (Cd0.01) or even 640 μV/K (Cd0.03), while other elements such as Cr kill the thermoelectric performance (−2 μV/K for Cr0.05). The microscopic origin of this behavior is beyond this study, since our aim was the preliminary identification of those doping elements that induce a better performance. Some selected samples with promising properties were studied above room temperature and are described in the following sections.
\nStarting from the left of the periodic table, we have alloyed SnSe with 10% yttrium, to obtain Sn0.9Y0.1Se. Interestingly, it turns out to be an n-type semiconductor, with negative Seebeck coefficient, at room temperature. The thermal evolution of the Seebeck coefficient and the electrical conductivity are shown in Figure 8a.
\n(a) Seebeck coefficient, (c) electrical conductivity, (e) power factor of Sn0.9Y0.1Se, and (b) Seebeck coefficient, (d) electrical conductivity, (f) power factor of Sn0.97Cd0.03Se and insert in (d) inverse semilog-plot of electrical conductivity indicating a gap.
The Seebeck coefficient changes sign around 600 K. This sign change is reversible, reproducible in the same sample, and was observed in several specimens. The explanation has to do with a scenario where negative and positive carriers coexist in the material. At lower temperatures electrons are the majority carriers and holes the minority carriers. At higher temperatures, more holes are excited, in such a way that holes become the majority carriers, dominating their contribution to the Seebeck effect, turning it positive. This might happen, for example, if a narrow band of defects lies near the top of the valence band with the Fermi-level trapped near its bottom.
\nThe electrical conductivity of Sn0.9Y0.1Se rises exponentially with temperature, corresponding to a thermally activated semiconductor with an activation energy of Eg~0.2 eV, obtained from the inset of Figure 8c. The excellent fit shows that, despite the geometry utilized in the home-made apparatus, it provides highly reliable temperature-dependent relative conductivity values. Such a small band-gap is not intrinsic to pure SnSe. It may correspond to the above-mentioned defect band. Another possibility is that the electrical conductivity, invariably poor in arc-melting produced SnSe, and its alloys, at room temperature [36, 37, 38, 39], is limited by intergrain hopping with activation energy of around 0.2 eV.
\nThe power factor reaches a maximum of 0.5 mW/mK2 at around 800 K. As we will show below and have published before [36, 37, 38, 39], the thermal conductivity for SnSe alloys produced by arc-melting is less than 0.5 W/mK, indicating a possible figure of merit zT > 0.8 for Sn0.9Y0.1Se.
\nAs an alloy with contrasting behavior, we show the transport properties of Sn0.97Cd0.03Se (Figure 8b, d, f). The cadmium-doped SnSe is the system with the highest Seebeck coefficients in this study (Table 1). Conversely, the electrical conductivity is very poor at RT, but there is an extraordinary increase with temperature, as illustrated in Figure 8 on the right (middle panel). Both the large Seebeck coefficient and the low electrical conductivity indicate very low charge concentration. The steady decrease of the Seebeck coefficient (highest at 500 K with 570 μV/K) accompanied by the rapid increase of the electrical conductivity is another manifestation of the Pisarenko relationship [6]. The exponential temperature dependence of σ indicates a gap of Eg = 0.6 eV. This is very similar to the intrinsic gap of SnSe. We can conclude from this study that Cd is unlikely to be a useful dopant for SnSe since its power factor is rather small, probably because of a lack of effective charge transfer (i.e. doping).
\nWe have prepared a series of molybdenum-alloyed SnSe samples at various concentrations, from 1% up to 30% Mo. According to the change of lattice parameters, Mo clearly enters the SnSe structure. However, the dependence of any of the properties studied (Seebeck coefficient, electrical conductivity, unit-cell volume) vary non-monotonously, thus the use of Mo as an alloying element is questionable. Without more detailed structural studies it is impossible to assess whether Mo indeed incorporates at the nominal compositions into SnSe. For 5% Mo-doped SnSe, the temperature-dependent Seebeck coefficient is shown in Figure 9a. The Seebeck coefficient is positive and reaches a maximum of 400 μV/K around 700 K. While the samples are rather resistive at room temperature, we observed an abrupt increment of the electrical conductivity at 800 K, reaching values up to perhaps 10,000 S/m (not shown).
\nSeebeck coefficient of (a) Sn0.95Mo0.05Se, (b) Sn0.99Mn0.01Se, and (c) Sn0.9Ag0.1Se.
For SnSe doped with 1% manganese (Figure 9b), we also find an abrupt change of sign of the Seebeck coefficient, as described above for Sn0.9Y0.1Se. However, for Mn-doped SnSe the thermoelectric power is positive at low temperatures, and inverts above 630 K. A similar explanation considering two types of charge carriers may be invoked here. Importantly, this behavior is intrinsic to the material, not an effect of thermally induced chemical changes, as it is reversible, and reproducible in several thermal cycles. Therefore, Mn-doping provides a high temperature n-type SnSe thermoelectric element.
\nThe Ag-doped SnSe system is an example where the interplay of the Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity follows the Pisarenko relation, in Table 1. For low Ag-doping the Seebeck coefficient is around 200 μV/K at room temperature with an electrical conductivity around 100 S/m, but for 10% Ag (itself difficult to stabilize by other methods [21]), while the Seebeck coefficient halves, σ shoots up to above 3000 S/m. That the Ag indeed enters the structure at such high doping levels is shown up by the continuous decrease of the unit-cell volume in Figure 6a. A σ increase of several orders of magnitude with respect to the RT value was observed above 800 K. The Seebeck coefficient remained stable between 150 and 200 μV/K (within the error bars), indicating that the conductivity is limited by intergrain boundaries. This effect is seen also in the small gap of a gold-doped alloy (Figure 10), as well as in the Y-doped sample in Figure 8c.
\nSn0.99Au0.01Se: (top) Seebeck coefficient, (middle) electrical conductivity, (bottom) power factor, and (insert) inverse semilog plot of electrical conductivity indicating a gap.
Gold doping is a yet-unexplored alternative to silver doping. The transport results corresponding to SnSe doped with 1% Au are shown in Figure 10. The Seebeck coefficient increases up to a maximum at 500 K reaching 500 μV/K. The ambient electrical conductivity is noticeably lower than for Ag, yet it steadily increases with temperature reaching 40,000 S/m at 950 K, with a maximum power factor around 800 K above 1 mW/mK2, thus implying a maximum zT up to 1.5 (this surprising value requires more careful verification of the resistivity measurements). The exponential increase of sigma indicates a gap of Eg = 0.25 eV, similar to the one seen in the Y-doped sample in Figure 8. Such a small gap, together with the relatively constant Seebeck coefficient, indicates that it is not the charge concentration increase, but thermally activated intergrain hopping limits the electrical conductivity in arc-molten SnSe.
\nFigure 11 illustrates the total thermal conductivity (κ) obtained by laser-flash diffusivity method for two selected thermoelectric compounds: Sn0.99Mn0.01Se and Sn0.95Ti0.05Se; in our experience, SnSe alloys prepared by arc-melting have similar thermal conductivities, and these values are representative for other alloys and different compositions.
\nThermal conductivity of Sn0.99Mn0.01Se and Sn0.95Ti0.05Se obtained by laser flash diffusivity. The black-dashed line indicates the classical behavior, κ ~ T−1, due to the phonon-phonon interaction.
Both SnSe alloys display remarkably low thermal conductivities at high-temperature region. At room temperature the thermal conductivities are 0.95 and 0.88 W/mK for the Mn and Ti alloys, respectively. These decrease further with increasing temperature, reaching 0.4 W/mK at 675 K. Both electron and phonon transport contribute to the total thermal conductivity, denoted as lattice thermal conductivity (κlat) due to phonon transport, and charge thermal conductivity (κch) due to thermal transport of charges (electrons and/or holes). With the use of the Wiedemann-Franz law [7], we can estimate charge contribution to the thermal conductivity as a function of temperature, κch = L0Tσ, with L0 the Lorentz number and σ the electrical conductivity. For the highly resistive SnSe and its alloys, total thermal conductivity is dominated by the lattice thermal conductivity by a factor of 10,000:1. The temperature dependence of the lattice thermal conductivity follows the T−1 trend (black-dashed line in Figure 11), showing that the phonon-phonon interaction dominates in this temperature range.
\nThe extremely low thermal conductivities observed in all the materials of the different doped series reported here afford considerably high figures of merit, zT.
\nWe propose arc-melting technique as a fast one-step process to elaborate nanostructured intermetallic alloys of the Sn1−xMxSe family (M: transition metals). All the specimens show a peculiar microstructure consisting of stacks of nanosheets. The presence of many extended grain boundaries perturbs the propagation of phonons and brings about extremely low thermal conductivities, around 0.5 W/mK. Using as quick screening tool the RT Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity, our preliminary survey of different SnSe-related transition metal alloys shows very distinct behaviors: certain doping elements such as Mo or Cd are able to enhance the RT Seebeck coefficient to values as high as 640 μV/K (3% Cd), while other elements such as Cr practically kill the thermoelectric performance (−2 μV/K for 5% Cr). The microscopic origin of this diverse behavior is far from being understood. Crucially, we find that some dopants, such as Y and Mn, can provide n-type alloys with a change of sign of the Seebeck coefficient. Sn0.90Y0.10Se is n-type at low temperature and changes to p-type around 600 K. This sign change is reversible, and this behavior was reproduced in several specimens. The opposite behavior is observed for Sn0.99Mn0.01Se, which changes from p-type to n-type above 630 K. Many materials showed evidence of the Pisarenko relationship at work: dopants that, at some concentration, can yield highly conducting samples, usually with almost zero Seebeck coefficient, whereas for pure or lightly doped SnSe alloys bad conduction with large Seebeck effects are observed. This rich phenomenology can be useful as a guide for further, deeper research. We also describe an instrument to characterize the high-temperature Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity in disk-shaped pellets directly obtained from the intermetallic ingots. Problems with alloying of the samples at high temperature are avoided by the use of Nb pistons and Nb-based thermocouples that are chemically inert to reactive p-block elements. This is shown to be essential for the accuracy and reproducibility of the measurements, avoiding the degradation of the materials after thermally cycling up to 950 K.
\nIn the context of thermoelectric devices, our finding of stable n-type doped SnSe at elevated temperatures prepared by a straightforward method would allow the use of SnSe derivatives for high-temperature applications. Thermoelectric devices require both n- and p-type semiconductors with matching thermoelectric, electronic, and mechanical properties, and this material system based on SnSe alloys could find application, for example, in the exhaust heat recovery or in solar-hybrid TEG applications.
\nWe thank the financial support of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation to the project MAT2017–84496-R.
\nHerbal or phyto-based medicines are in the mainstream of present pharmacological world [1]. Nearly two-thirds of the medicines throughout the world is plant based, the rest being the conventional ones [2]. The main reasons behind the preference of herbal drugs over the synthetic ones are that they have negligible side effects, are cost-effective, and easily available [3]. Also, the knowledge of herbal sources has led to the formation of base for many modern medicines. Some examples mentioned by Vickers and Zellman [4] are aspirin taken from willow bark, digoxin from foxglove, and morphine from opium poppy. Many researchers have also stated the development of resistance to allopathic drugs after a long medicament leading to becoming ineffective [5]. Thus, a documentation of medicinal plants and its herbal aspect becomes the first step toward a “botanical healing.”
\n\nZanthoxylum genus, belonging to family Rutaceae, comprises of aromatic, therapeutic deciduous shrubs and tree species [6]. Most of the plants in this genus are characterized by the presence of a strong lemon like odor, and prickly spines in the world [7]. The plant is mostly found in the South and Southeast Asian regions at an altitude of 1300–2500 m [7, 8, 9]. It is a plant of the warm temperate climate [10]. The benefits of this genus vary from healing common problems like toothache, gum problems, stomach ache, cough, cold, fever, dyspepsia, expulsion of roundworms, and in the treatment of fatal disease like cancer [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. It is an anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antifertility, adipogenic, hepatoprotective agent; it also has the special ability to improve speaking power, reducing rheumatism, arthritis, asthma, skin diseases, abdominal pain, anorexia, ataxia, and purifying the blood [12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. The plant has phytomolecules that display insecticidal, antiparasitic, nematicidal, larvicidal, and fungicidal activities [13, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29].
\nSeveral species under Zanthoxylum genus have been used by various regions of the world since ancient times for benefits of mankind and their live stocks [5, 30, 31]. Z. liebmannianum bark is used for removal of parasites in Mexico [32]. For malaria, Z. rhoifolium, [33, 34] and Z. acutifolium [5] have been preferred from this genus. Nyishi tribe of India utilizes Z. armatum fruit, seed and bark in a traditional “Honyur” mix to treat stomach disorder, fever, and cholera, respectively [10]. Z. chiloperene var. angustifolium Engl. is also known as an antiparasitic agent in Paraguay [35]. Z. integrifolium bark is utilized by YaMei and Lanyu indigenous tribes of Taiwan, to treat dyspepsia and fever [5]. Freitas et al. [36] has reported antitumor and colitis-relief in Z. rhoifolium Lam. Z. monophyllum has found a place in the Venezulan medicine for treating jaundice, and ophthalmia [5]. Roots of Z. zanthoxyloides have been used to treat sickle cell anemia [37]. Z. alatum has been used for treatment of diabetes, toothaches, and abnormal cell growth [38].
\n\nZ. leprieurii and Z. zanthoxyloides inhibits cancerous activity of leukemia (HL60) and (MCF7) breast cancer cell line [39]. It also shows moderate anti-cancerous activity (MCF-7), liver (WRL-68), prostrate (PC-3) and colon (CACO2) carcinoma cell lines [37]. In another study, methanolic extract (ME) of the pericarp of Z. armatum revealed the presence of compounds ZP-amide A, C, D, E, hydroxyl α and β sanshool, and Timuramide A, B, C and D [9]. All these compounds inhibited the growth of mouse glioma cells that were deficient of tumor suppressor genes NF1 homolog-Nf1, whereas only few compounds showed activity against cell lacking Trp 53—the genes responsible for encoding tumor suppressor gene p53, at a concentration that is nontoxic to the nontumor cells. Z. alatum Roxb. stem bark petroleum ether extract (PE) possesses various anticancerous lignans, namely sesamin, kobusin, and 4′0 demethyl magnolin [38]. Out of which 4′0 demethyl magnolin, which is a novel compound, gave the best anticancerous output against lungs (A549) and pancreatic (MIA-PaCa) cancer cell lines, in comparison to the standard docetaxel. Z. armatum dried root ethyl acetate extract (EAE) (a good antioxidant) and its two components flavonoids, apigenin and kaempferol-7-O-glucoside, also possess an anticancerous trait against A-549, MIA-PaCa, MCF-7, and CACO2 cancer colon cell lines [40]. In an extensive study, the ME of leaf of Z. armatum induced apoptosis in cervical cancer cell lines (HeLA) at IC50 (60 μg/mL) through Caspase 3-independent and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK)-dependent mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) apoptosis pathways [41]. Karmakar et al. [42] demonstrated that at an IC50 value of 102.30 μg/mL, the ME of the leaves of Z. armatum exhibited toxicity against Ehrlich Ascites cancer cells. The toxic effect was attributed to the presence of phenol and flavonoid compounds in the plant extract. Karmakar et al. [43] stated that the ME of leaves of this plant are capable of apoptosis by regulation of bcl-2/bax protein expressions and DNA damage in cancer cells and determined the presence of flavonoids, rutin, myricetin, and quercetin in the methanolic extract as potent anticancerous phytochemicals. Zanthonitrile [{4-[(3-Methyl-2-buten-1-yl) oxy] phenyl}acetonitrile] isolated from the leaves of the plant eluted by hexane: ethyl acetate solvent has a cytotoxic effect on Ehrlich Ascites Cancer cells with an IC50 value of 57.28 μg/mL [44]. Aqueous extract (AE) of Z. piperitum De Candolle fruit induces c-Jun N-terminal kinase autophagic cell death in colorectal (DLD-1), hepatocarcinoma (HepG2), and CACO2 cancer cell lines but not in A549, MCF7, and colon (WiDr) cells [45]. Alam et al. [46] demonstrated that ME and crude saponins from leaves, fruit, and bark of Z. armatum have a potential of exerting a cytotoxic effect on breast (MDA-MB-468, MCF-71) and colorectal cancer (Caco-21) cell lines using the mechanism of apoptosis. Another compound Tambulin, a flavonoid isolated from the fruit exhibited antiproliferative action on certain cancer cell lines like MCF-7, WRL-68, COLO-205, MDAMB-231, with an IC50 ranging from 37.96 to 48.7 μg/mL [45]. Three compounds isolated from Z. zanthoxyloides fruits ME, hesperidin, skimmianine, and sesamine, possess anticancerous activity up to some level against A549, MCF7, and PC3 cell lines [47]. Pang et al. [48] confirms the anti-proliferative activity of seed oil of Z. bungeanum Maxim. on melanoma (A375) cells by arresting G1 phase and inducing apoptosis. Component analysis revealed the presence of unsaturated fatty acid in the seed oil. The EAE fraction of the fruit of Z. acanthopodium has been found effective for breast cancer cell line (T47D) toxicity [49]. Another isolated compound scoparone, a coumarin from the fruit of Z. leprieurii, at an IC50 of 44.93 μg/mL can be used to design anticancerous agents against human HepG2, with the least amount of toxicity to normal Chang liver cell lines [49]. Fruit of Z. acanthopodium in n-hexane fraction is also, effectively anticancerous toward T47D cell line [50]. The possible mechanism for this is cell cycle inhibition, apoptosis induction, and downregulation of cyclin D1 activity. Geranyl acetate is present in the highest percentage in the effective fruit n-fraction.
\nNakamura et al. [51] has reported that Z. bungeanum could reduce scopolamine-induced dementia. Gx-50, an isolate of Z. bungeanum could also aid in Alzheimer’s disease, PE of the same plant can act as an antidepressant [52]. This compound gx-50 has the ability to cross blood–brain barrier and stop the degradation of nerve cells. Qinbunamide isolated from pericarp of Z. bungeanum can activate the nerve growth factor to further activate neurite outgrowth at 20 μM concentration [53]. Three alkaloids berberine, chelerythrine, and columbamine isolated from chloroform extract of Z. schreberi inhibit cholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase [51]. As these enzymes are responsible for breakdown of acetyl choline, their inhibition leads to increase in number of nerve messengers, especially helpful in case of Alzheimer’s and myasthenia gravis.
\n\nZ. chiloperone leaves EO and one of its major component canthin-6-one, showed an inhibition of parasitic activity of Trypanosoma cruzi at 10 mg/kg of oral and subcutaneous dose in comparison to standard benznidazole (dose 50 mg/kg) [35]. ME of Z. armatum seeds, at a concentration of 50 mg/mL induced paralysis in Pheretima posthuma (test model) in lesser time than the reference drug piperazine citrate (10 mg/mL) [54]. Z. armatum methanolic leaves extract at the concentrations of 250–1000 μg/mL showed a moderate trypanocidal activity on blood parasite found both in humans and animals—Trypanosoma evansi in an in vitro condition utilizing mice cells as a model [28]. Hexane bark extract of Z. heitzii acts as an inhibitor of P. falciparum at an IC50 0.050 μg/mL [55]. Dihydronitidine one of the major components of the extract also acts as an antimalarial compound at an IC50 value of 0.0089 μg/mL [55]. In another investigation, anti-leishmanial activity was seen in crude extract and its hexane fraction of Z. armatum fruit against Leishmania major [46]. The essential oil (EO) of Z. monophyllum leaves also possess acute toxicity against larvae of Anopheles subpictus (LC50 41.50 μg/mL), Aedes albopictus (LC50 45.35 μg/mL), and Culex tritaeniorhynchus (LC50 49.01 μg/mL). Among its two major compounds Germacrene D-4-ol has better efficiency than α-Cadinol [56]. Also, The EO, along with Germacrene D-4-ol, and α-Cadinol, EO has very low toxicity against Gambusia affinis, an eradicator of malarial larvae. Costa et al. [57], has reported antiparasitic activity of three noval compounds (5,7,8-trimethoxy coumarin, syringaresinol, and dictamine, isolated from the ethanol extract (EE) of roots of Z. tingoassuiba against Leishmania amazonensis and Trypanosoma cruzi, similar to positive control benznidazole and amphotericin. The larval stage of Schistosoma haematobium, a bladder cancer causing parasite can be successfully eliminated by acridone compound arborinine, isolated from fruit of Z. leprieurii at an IC50 value of 6.98 μg/mL [57].
\nBark EE of Z. fagara, Z. elephantiasis, and Z. martinicense presented antifungal activity against fungi prevalent in domestic animals—Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Microsporum canis, Trichophyton mentagrophytes [31]. Though, it was unable to inhibit bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Psuedomonas aeruginosa [31]. Lipophilic leaf of Z. armatum extract was found effective against Alternaria alternata and Curvularia lunata [58]. The EE of the whole Z. armatum plant proved to be effective against S. aureus (7 mm zone of inhibition), Bacillus subtilis (23 mm the biggest zone of inhibition), B. cereus (6 mm zone of inhibition), and B. thuringiensis (1 mm zone of inhibition) [25]. Barkatullah et al. [18] reported a maximum inhibition of Micrococcus luteus, Pasteurella multocida, E. coli, and B. subtilis by the application of Z. armatum leaf EE. Z. leprieurii and Z. xanthoxyloides EO decreased the effective time required to deactivate 7log cfu/mL of Salmonella enteritidis [59]. Oxychelerythrine, a benzophenanthridine alkaloid extracted from the ME of roots of Z. capense Thunb. altered the sensitivity of S. aureus ATCC 6538 to tested antibiotics (erythromycin, oxacillin, and tetracycline) in a positive way by twofold [60]. According to Alam and Saqib [46], n-hexane, chloroform, and aqueous-methanol fraction of Z. armatum fruits are a potent antifungal source, especially against Trichophyton longifusus, Microsporum canis, A. flavus, Fusarium solani. The presence of alkaloids may be the reason behind such activity. Chen et al. [61] has found antimicrobial activity in the leaves extract of Z. bungeanum Maxim. against E. coli. K. pneumonia, P. aeruginosa, S. enteritidis, Listeria monocytogenes, C. albicans. Mirza et al. [62] observed that Z. armatum aqueous leaves extract-derived copper oxide nanomaterials (100 μl) was more sensitive in all bacterial strains tested (S. aureus, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus pyrogenes, Staphylococcus epidermidis, B. cereus, Corynebacterium xerosis, E. coli, K. pneumonia, P. aeruginosa, and Proteus vulgaris) in comparison to its source plant extract (100 μl).
\nPotent tuberculosis plant: ME of Z. leprieurii at minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 47.5, 75.3 and 125.0 μg/mL inhibited rifampicin-resistant and isoniazid-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, respectively [63]. Hydroxy-1,3-dimethoxy-10-methyl-9-acridone, 1-hydroxy-3-methoxy-10-methyl-9-acridone, and 3-hydroxy-1, 5,6-trimethoxy-9-acridone isolated from the plant also exhibited potent inhibition of resistant strains [63].
\n\nZ. coreanum root extract at an IC50 of 1.0 μg/mL inhibited porcine epidemic diarrhea virus growth [5]. Moreover Z. planispinum also exhibited the similar activity at an IC50 of 6.4 and 7.5 μg/mL respectively. Patino et al. [5] also reported the anti-HIV activity of Z. ailanthoides, Z. integrifoliolum, and Z. scandens.
\nOxypeucedanin, a coumarin compound present in ME of roots of Z. flavum Vahi., possesses significant antioxidant activity with an IC50 value of 8.3 μg/mL in a dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay [32]. Z. armatum fruit EE showed promising activity as a natural source of antioxidants [64]. According to their study, the bioactive compound responsible for such quenching action is flavonoids, especially quercetin. Moreover, the EE of its stem bark tested via 2,2′-diphenyl picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity exhibited significant antioxidant activities [23]. DPPH radical scavenging activity was obtained in the sequence of ME of stems (IC50 54.6 ± 2.9 μg/mL) > dichloromethane extract of stems (IC50 4.7 ± 117.5 μg/mL) > EO of fruits (IC50 5764.7 ± 6.5 μg/mL) of plant Z. limonella Alston [65]. Singh et al. [65] reported that the EO from the seeds of Z. armatum was a potent antioxidant. Ethyl acetate fraction and aqueous fraction of Z. bungeanum showed potent DPPH, 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging abilities and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) [66]. The EO and its constituent oleoresins showed moderate antioxidant activity when evaluated by DPPH radical scavenging, Fe2+ chelating, ferric thiocyanate method, and different lipid peroxidation assays. Leaves extract of Z. bungeanum maxim “You Huajiao” variety from China possess DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity. It also possesses the reducing potent power (FRAP) [61]. A compound Ombuin isolated from the fruit of Z. armatum possessed antioxidant capacity [67]. Two new sesquiterpenoid glycosides, dihydrophaseic acid 4′-O-[6″-O-(4″′-hydroxy-3″′, 5″′-dimethoxy) benzoyl)]-b-D-glucopyranoside and dihydrophaseic acid 4′-O-[6″-O-(3″′-methoxy4″′-hydroxy) benzoyl)]-b-D-glucopyranoside, isolated from the ethanolic extract of stems of Z. armatum showed moderate scavenging activity in DPPH free radical assay with IC50 values of 241 and 264 μM, respectively [68]. Aqueous extract of leaves of Z. armatum and copper oxide nanoparticles derived from it were less effective in DPPH radical scavenging activity in comparison to L-ascorbic [40].
\nThe crude extract of Z. armatum reduced thermal pain significantly at the concentrations of 100 and 400 mg/kg body weight in case of intraperitoneal (i.p.), in comparison to 30 mg/kg body weight i.p. of standard anti-inflammatory drug phenacetin [69]. Also, its root extract exhibited analgesic activity when compared to standard drug indomethacin (40 mg/kg body weight i.p.) [69]. The anti-inflammatory activity of EE of the stem bark of Z. armatum against paw edema in Wistar rats has also been observed by Sati et al. [23]. Thus, Z. armatum may be helpful in the treatment of pain and inflammation symptoms. Eight lignans that may be responsible for this curative quality, namely eudesmin, horsfieldin, fargesin, kobusin, sesamin, asarinin, planispine A, and pinoresinol-di-3,3-dimethylallyl, were recognized by HPLC analysis in its EE of stem and root [70]. Nine terpenylated coumarins, namely 7-[(E)30,70-dimethyl-60-oxo-20,70-octadienyl]oxy-coumarin, schinilenol, schinindiol, collinin, 7-[(E)-70-hydroxy-30,70-dimethy-locta-20,50-dienyloxy]-coumarin, 8-methoxyanisocoumarin, 7-(60R-hydroxy-30,70-dimethyl-20E,70-octadienyloxy)coumarin, (E)-4-methyl-6-(coumarin-70-yloxy)hex-4-enal, and aurapten, along with a 4-quinolone alkaloid and integrifoliodiol, isolated from the leaves of Z. schinifolium by α-glucosidase inhibitory effect showed anti-inflammatory activity [71]. EO from fruits of Z. coreanum Nakai inhibited both the IgE-antigen complex and IL4 production in RBL-2H3 mast cells showing anti-inflammatory activity [60]. 2α-methyl-2β-ethylene-3β-isopropyl-cyclohexan-1β, 3α-diol and phenol-O-β-D-arabinopyranosyl-4′-(3″,7″,11″,15″-tetramethyl) hexadecan-1″-oate noval compound isolated from the methanolic extract of Z. armatum fruit exhibited anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6 in peritoneal macrophages at the concentration of 5 and 10 μg/mL [72].
\n\nZ. armatum bark ME exhibits anti-hyperglycemic activity against streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats at 200 and 400 mg/kg concentration [73]. Stem bark AE of Z. chalybeum Engl. displayed anti-hyperglycemic activity at 10, 100, and 1000 mg/kg body weight concentration against streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [74]. n-Butanol fraction of Z. alatum EE inhibits can inhibit protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B and stimulates glucose uptake in C2CL2 myotubes in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats [75]. Z. armatum aqueous leaves extract the activity α amylase, and α and β glucosidase, thus, can act as an antidiabetic agent [75].
\nDi-chloromethane extract of Z. usambarense bark displayed insecticidal activity against Masca domestica at 5000 g/ha, but its individual component could not produce any insecticidal results [70]. The EO contained sabinene, D-germacrene, β-mycrene, β-elemene and γ-elemene. The larvicidal potential of EO and its constituent from the seeds of Z. armatum were screened against three mosquito species, Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, and Culex quinquefasciatus [15]. Among these three species, C. quinquefasciatus showed the highest sensitivity at lowest concentration LC50 and LC95 at 49 and 146 ppm, respectively. However, linalool the most important constituent present at the maximum concentration (57%) in the EO failed to establish any significant larvicidal effect individually [15]. Hieu et al. [76] revealed that mixtures of Z. armatum seed oil (ZA-SO) and its constituents either alone (0.2 mg/cm2) or as a binary mixture (0.01 + 0.99 mg/cm2) with Calophyllum inophyllum nut oil (CI-NO) can be potential repellents against stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans. An aerosol of the mixture (ZA-SO-2.5% + CI-NO-2.5%) was also found effective as a repellent of stable fly. Among all its constituents tested, only methyl cinnamate exhibited a significant effect [77]. In a different study, three bioactive compounds—piperitone, myrtanol, and citronellal from Z. armatum seed oil were assessed for fumigant toxicity potency against stable fly with a simultaneous comparison of chlorpyrifos and dichlorvos, which are the organophosphorus insecticides [78]. The fumigant toxicity potential of seed oil and all three compounds according to the vapor phase assay was high with LC50 value 0.242–0.456 μg/cm3, but their toxic level was five magnitudes below the organophosphorus insecticides, which reflects that Z. armatum may be further used as a bio-insecticide [78]. Additionally, constituents of EO-cuminaldehyde citronellal, neral, linalool, linalool oxide, terpinen-4-ol, 1,8-cineole, and piperitone induced a significant repellent behavior in the stable fly [76]. The in vitro insecticidal efficacy of the EE of the bark of the plant has been observed against mustard aphid Lipaphis erysimi at the concentrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg/L [79]. After 24 h of spray at a concentration of 2.0 mg/L, 100% mortality of the aphid was there, proving that Z. armatum may be a good insecticide [79]. Nanoencapsulated EO of Z. rhoifolium leaves efficiently reduced the number of eggs and nymphs of Bemisia tabaci at 1–5% concentration [80]. Out of 32 constituents identified from the EE of Z. armatum twigs, 1,8-cineole piperitone, and limonene in particular were efficient as an insecticide against Lasioderma serricorne and T. castaneum [81]. While, in another study, the effect of Z. armatum leaves methanolic extract has been checked for antifeedant activity on the adults of “Red flour beetle”–T. castaneum [82]. Another study stated the effects of n-hexane, EE, and ME of leaves of Z. armatum on Plutella xylostella, diamondback moth [83]. In this investigation, the n-hexane fraction exhibited the best larvicidal activity at an LC50 value of 2988.6 ppm. Moreover, two compounds, particularly 2-undecanone and 2-tridecanone identified from the n-hexane fraction of leaf extract of Z. armatum through GC–MS analysis, which may be responsible for the larvicidal activity [83]. Egg laying capacity of Bemisia tabaci, a major tomato pest, can be reduced (85–98%) by using EO of Z. rhoifolium and Z. riedelianum at 1.0–2.0% concentration [84].
\nEO of Z. armatum fruit showed more than 90% nematicidal activity 5 mg/mL concentration against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, whereas its components methyl trans cinnamate and ethyl trans cinnamate also exhibited 100% activity at 0.0625–2.0 and 0.25–2.0 mg/mL, respectively [85]. Z. armatum leaves AE (100–400 mg/kg body weight concentration) decreased the hatching ability of Meloidogyne incognita [13]. The leaves of Z. armatum also work as a nematicide on M. incognita if added directly in the soil at the concentrations of 8, 10, and 20 g/kg of soil [86].
\nGlycoprotein isolates of Z. piperitum DC fruit inhibited hypoxanthine/xanthine oxidase [87]. It also decreased the level of lactate dehydroenase, thio barbituric acid, while increasing the level of antioxidant enzymes in carbon tetrachloride acute liver damage. The leaf EE of Z. armatum significantly decreased all the symptoms of hepatotoxicity in Wistar albino rats by normalizing the elevated levels of hepatic enzymes, which was induced by carbon tetrachloride [24]. It induced hepatoprotective activity at a concentration of 500 mg/kg of body weight in comparison to standard drug silymarin at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight. This effect was there due to the radical scavenging activity of the phytochemicals, especially flavonoids present in the plant [24]. In a different study, the EE of bark of Z. armatum significantly expressed hepatoprotective activity at concentrations of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg when administered orally in Wistar albino rats (where liver damage was instigated by paracetamol) by decreasing the levels of hepatic enzymes, bilirubin and at the same time increasing catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione in comparison to silymarin [88]. In a recent study the ME at a dose of 500 mg/kg exhibited successful hepatoprotective activity with 66.87, 64.84, 67.95, 60.76, and 65.85% protection on aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, total bilirubin, and total protein enzyme levels of the liver, respectively in Wistar rats [89].
\n\nZ. rhoifolium Lam. stem bark EE prevents the formation of gastric lesions at 125–500 mg/kg dose by increasing enzymes like catalase (reduces oxidative stress) and also mucous secretion, nitric oxide (repair of gastrointestinal tract injury) [36]. It also helps in opening KATP channel to control H+ pump and acid secretion. Z. bungeanum pericarp extract reduces the level of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-12 to reduce the inflammation in J774.1 colon cells [90]. Thus it can be utilized to treat ulcerative colitis.
\n\nZ. bungeanum EO at the concentration of 5, 10, and 20 mL/kg had a significant effect on deduction of cholesterol, hyperlipidemia, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein; it also aided in the induction of high-density lipoprotein [91]. The EO of Z. bungeanum also helped in relaxation of contracted aortic muscles by reducing calcium influx via calcium channels [90]. Z. armatum fruits hydroethanolic extract (dose administered—200 and 400 mg/kg body weight) succeeded in decreasing the elevated levels of cardiac diagnostic marker enzymes (aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase-MB, troponin-T), lipid profile and antioxidants (enzymatic and nonenzymatic), to normal conditions. The results were comparable to a positive control verapamil, expected phytochemicals are yet to be identified [92].
\nIn a study, methyl cinnamate, an important bioactive compound of the Z. armatum suppressed the intracellular lipid accumulation [20]. It was possible at a concentration of 25 μM through Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 (CaMKK2)-phospho AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway, by downregulating the adipogenic transcription factors, sterol regulatory element binding protein-1 (SREBP-1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (C/EBPα), as well as inhibiting the activity of PPARγ and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) in 3 T3-L1 preadipocyte cells [20].
\n“Sichuan pepper” with its pungent odor and numbing taste belongs to the genus Zanthoxylum [93]. According to Ji et al. [94] five species of Zanthoxylum—Z. armatum, Z. bungeanum, Z. shinifolim, Z. simulans, Z. piperitum, are commonly considered as “spice” species of the family. Not only seeds, fruit, leaves, bark, and even root of this genus is used as spice in China, Japan, and Korea [95]. This pepper is used by the people of China to create a special “Mala” flavor, which literally refers to numbness and spiciness. More than hundred volatile compounds have been isolated, which are responsible for the unique spicy note and fragrance of this genus [96]. Some nonvolatile compounds have also been identified like alkylamides (sanshools, capsaicin) and polyphenolic compounds [97]. The genus has found a place in culinary as “five spice powder,” in cosmetics, as well as in pharmaceutical too [98]. In cosmetics, the variable fragrance provided by the genus—sweet, spearmint, herbal, floral, fruity, rose, citrus—is of great significance [99]. This diversity is due to the presence of more than hundred volatile compounds like 1,8-cineole, 1-terpineol, 2,-nonenal, 2-tridecanone, α-elemol, α-pinene, β-pinene, geraniol, myrcene, neryl acetate, piperitone, rosefuran etc. [100]. The pungent property of the spice of this genus has been attributed to the presence of α-, β-, γ-δ-sanshool and hydroxyl α and β-sanshool [99]. In pharmacology the presence of polyphenolic compounds like flavonoids and glycosides make Sichuan pepper a good antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent. Zhu et al. [98] has also reported the presence of antibacterial activity against both gram positive and negative bacteria in EO of Z. bungeanum fruit. EO of Z. shinifolium and Z. piperitum (broad spectrum) has been reported to have antiviral properties [94]. Most significantly, Sichuan pepper and its component sanshool amide have displayed inhibitory action on the formation of hetercyclic amines, which are carcinogenic to humans in beef grilling procedure [11, 101]. Utilization of analytical techniques to compare component analysis is lacking in the literature related to spice knowledge of the genus. Also according to Ji et al. [94] if the effect of heat (while cooking) is elaborated on the spice and its individual compound, it would be more beneficial to the herb and spice world.
\n\nZanthoxylum genus is a stockpile of medicinal plants brewing with therapeutic properties, as gathered from the above references of the recent decade. The readers can benefit with the traditional and current knowledge on the herbal aspect of several species Z. acanthopodium, Z. acutifolium, Z. ailanthoides, Z. armatum, Z. bungeanum, Z. chalybeum, Z. chiloperone, Z. coreanum, Z. elephantiasis, Z. fagara, Z. flavum, Z. heitzii, Z. integrifoliolum, Z. leprieurii, Z. liebmannianum, Z. limonella, Z. martinicense, Z. monophyllum, Z. piperitum, Z. planispinum, Z. rhoifolium, Z. riedelianum, Z. scandens, Z. schinifolium, Z. schreberi, Z. tingoassuiba, Z. usambarense, Z. zanthoxyloides to name a few, of this genus. The information can form the basis of research regarding drug formulations, conservation of medicinal plants, pharmacokinetics, and new drug discoveries, which are plant based in the future.
\nThe Edited Volume, also known as the IntechOpen Book, is an IntechOpen pioneered publishing product. Edited Volumes make up the core of our business - and as pioneers and developers of this Open Access book publishing format, we have helped change the way scholars and scientists publish their scientific papers - as scientific chapters.
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\\n\\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
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\\n\\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\\n\\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'WHY PUBLISH IN AN INTECHOPEN EDITED VOLUME?
\n\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\n\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\n\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\n\nACCESS
\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\n\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\n\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
\n\n3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\n\n107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
\n\n113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\n\nCURRENT PROJECTS
\n\nTo view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). 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