Reported degradation rates for iridium-based catalysts in long-term electrolyzer tests.
\r\n\tContaminated water is not suitable for drinking, or use in recreation, agriculture, and industrial activities. These waters cause poisoning of drinking water, deterioration of river and lake ecosystems, decrease in biological diversity as a result of the death of aquatic life, and various environmental problems.
\r\n\r\n\tWater resources are limited however, the need for water is gradually increasing. Considering that water quality deteriorates increasingly, the importance of preserving existing water resources in terms of quantity and quality is increasing day by day. So, it is important to determine the sources of contamination correctly and to take the necessary precautions.
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Storage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78339",slug:"proton-exchange-membrane-water-electrolysis-as-a-promising-technology-for-hydrogen-production-and-en",body:'\nEighty-five percent of the energy consumed globally is provided by fossil fuels, namely coal, oil, and natural gas [1]. Fossil fuels come from finite resources which will eventually become scarce and difficult to explore. Thus, fossil fuels are considered nonrenewable energy sources [2]. Furthermore, consuming fossil fuels produces greenhouse gases and other byproducts, causing climate change and air pollution. The growing demand for energy requires a rapid shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, biomass, hydropower, and geothermal energy [3]. In this context, hydrogen was proposed as a promising candidate for a secondary source of energy as early as 1973 [4]. Being a potential energy carrier in the future, hydrogen plays an important role in the path toward a low-carbon energy structure that is environmentally friendly [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
\nCurrently, the steam reforming process is the most economical way of producing hydrogen. In fact, as much as 96% of hydrogen is made from hydrocarbon fuels [5], which neither address the dependence on finite resources nor reduce the amount of carbon from the energy structure. An alternative way of producing hydrogen is the power-to-gas strategy where intermittent energy resources are transferred and stored as hydrogen (Figure 1). Here, hydrogen is mainly produced from water electrolysis where water is split into hydrogen and oxygen by supplying electrical energy:
\nSchematic diagram of power-to-gas strategy.
In an electrolyzer, the above reaction is separated by an electrolyte (either in liquid or solid form) into two half reactions. The hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) occurs at the cathode:
\nWhile the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) occurs at the anode:
\nWater electrolysis technologies are classified into three categories based on the applied electrolyte: alkaline water electrolysis, proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis, and solid oxide water electrolysis [11]. PEM water electrolysis systems provide several advantages over the other two electrolysis technologies, such as higher rate of hydrogen production, more compact design, and greater energy efficiency [12, 13, 14, 15]. Compared to alkaline electrolysis, the solid electrolyte membrane in PEM electrolysis reduces the hydrogen crossover significantly and thus allows for high-pressure operation. In addition, as required by the role of electrolytic hydrogen production in renewable energy storage, dynamic response of PEM water electrolysis is superior to alkaline electrolysis or solid oxide electrolysis. The large quantity of liquid electrolyte in alkaline electrolysis requires the proper temperature to be maintained and could raise issues for a cold start. On the other hand, solid oxide electrolysis operated in a temperature range of 500–700°C is more suitable for constant operation than a dynamic response where the heat-up step could be slow.
\nThe produced hydrogen can have several pathways to different applications (Figure 1). It can be utilized for hydrogen fueling stations to power fuel cell vehicles or feed the combined heat and power (CHP) units for household uses. Moreover, the electrolytic hydrogen can be used as chemical feedstock in methanation after combining with CO2 stream from biogas or flue gas to produce renewable natural gas. Further, the generated hydrogen can also be consumed as a raw material by hydrogen users such as oil refining and semiconductor industry. Finally, the hydrogen can be transferred to electricity when the grid demand is high.
\nHydrogen can also be produced from biomass via pyrolysis or gasification. Wood, agricultural crops and its byproducts, organic waste, animal waste, waste from food processing, and so on are all sources of biomass. Biomass pyrolysis is basically [9]:
\nEmploying catalysts, such as Ni-based catalysts, can enhance the yield of hydrogen from biomass pyrolysis. Moreover, hydrogen production can be improved by introducing steam reforming and water-gas shift reaction to the pyrolysis [9]. For the gasification process, biomass is pyrolyzed at higher temperatures producing mostly gaseous products [9]:
\nIt is beneficial that biomass pyrolysis and gasification can be operated in small scale and at remote locations, which reduces the cost of hydrogen transportation and storage and improves the availability of hydrogen to end consumers [16]. In addition, pyrolysis and gasification can consume a wide range of biomass feedstocks [16]. Therefore, biomass is recognized as a major renewable and sustainable energy source to replace fossil fuel.
\nCurrently, hydrogen storage in high-pressure vessel is the most widely used method [7]. However, hydrogen is pressurized up to 700 bar for practical purposes such as the refueling time at a hydrogen station or the driving range for a fuel cell vehicle [17]. Hydrogen compression to 700 bar consumes a lot of energy that makes the volumetric energy density decrease from 10 to 5.6 MJ/L, much lower than gasoline (34 MJ/L) [6, 17]. Therefore, solid-state storage is usually coupled with high-pressure hydrogen vessels. For example, hydrogen can be stored in the interstitial sites of metal hydride crystals [17]. This method achieves higher volumetric energy density at room temperature than liquid hydrogen and consumes less operating energy for storage. Thus, metal hydride cartridge is suitable for portable application due to the convenience of refill/replace [7, 18]. In addition, with appropriate hydrogen refill and release properties at room temperature, metallic hydrides are good for stationary energy storage [17]. One drawback of solid-state storage is that metallic hydrides contain heavy transition metals, which reduce the gravimetric energy density of the device [19].
\nIn summary, hydrogen offers several advantages as an energy carrier: its combustion produces energy and only water that is carbon-free as a byproduct; it can be produced from renewable and sustainable sources; its energy can be distributed quite easily, in accordance with the end user’s requests and with the development of new technologies for transportation and storage; it may be used in both centralized or distributed energy production [7]. In spite of these advantages, hydrogen has failed to be widely used in energy systems due to numerous barriers, including costs of production and storage and the availability of infrastructure [10]. This chapter focuses on the technological challenges of PEM water electrolyzers for hydrogen production.
\nFigure 2 shows the schematic diagram of PEM water electrolysis. The electrolysis process is an endothermic process and electricity is applied as the energy source. The water electrolysis reaction is thermodynamically possible at potentials higher than 1.23 V vs. RHE (reversible hydrogen electrode). The thermoneutral potential at which the cell can operate adiabatically is 1.48 V vs. RHE. Typical PEM water electrolysis devices operate at potential well over 1.48 V vs. RHE and heat is generated by the reaction [15]. The PEM water electrolysis system, similar to proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), anode and cathode is separated by a solid polymer electrolyte (Nafion) of thickness below 0.2 mm. At the anode, water is oxidized to produce oxygen, electrons, and protons. The protons are transported across the electrolyte membrane to be reduced to hydrogen. The catalyst for water oxidation or oxygen evolution is typically iridium, which can withstand the corrosive environment due to high overpotential on the anode. Water is channeled to the anode by a titanium flow field, and a piece of porous titanium mesh is placed between the anode catalyst layer and the water channel serving as the diffusion layer. The cathode configuration is similar to the PEMFC with Pt-based catalyst and a graphite flow field to transport hydrogen. A piece of carbon paper is used as the gas diffusion layer (GDL) placed between the cathode catalyst and the flow field.
\nSchematic diagram of PEM water electrolysis and the fundamental thermodynamic properties.
The hydrogen production rate of ideal electrolysis is proportional to the charge transferred, according to Faraday’s law. It can be expressed as [20]:
\nwhere Ncell is the total number of cells in the system and Icell is the electric current. ηF is the Faraday efficiency, or current efficiency, and is defined as the ratio of ideal electric charge and the practical charge consumed by the device when a certain amount of hydrogen is generated. ηF is usually about 0.95 [20]. The specific energy consumption E (kWh/Nm3) for a given time interval Δt is:
\nAnother important parameter for PEM water electrolysis is the efficiency:
\nwhere HHV is the higher heating value of hydrogen (39.4 kWh/kg at STP). Since PEM water electrolysis is usually supplied by liquid water, the HHV assumes that all the heat from the water is recovered by restoring the water temperature to the initial ambient state [20].
\nSignificant advances are needed in catalyst and membrane materials as well as the labor-intensive manufacturing process for PEM water electrolysis to be cost-effective for wide-spread application in renewable energy systems [21]. The state-of-the-art anode catalyst in conventional PEMWEs is iridium oxide (IrOx) or mixed oxide with ruthenium [22, 23]. Typical catalysts for commercial electrodes have IrOx loading from 1 to 3 mg cm−2 [24]. This level of catalyst loading is too high to meet the long-term cost targets for energy markets [23, 25, 26]. Furthermore, while using current electrolysis technology, the translation of catalyst development from lab scale to the megawatt scale remains challenging in terms of catalyst cost and stability [25].
\nFor Ir- and Ru-based OER catalyst, a balance between activity and stability has been reported [27, 28], which strongly depends on the chemical structure and surface properties of the oxide [23]. The oxide properties, however, are highly sensitive to synthesis conditions. For Ir-based OER catalyst, most synthesis methods involve a calcination step to improve the catalyst stability [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]; however, for this approach, a sacrifice of the OER activity is usually inevitable. Indeed, thermally prepared IrOx shows higher stability but lower activity compared to electrochemically prepared oxide, or hydrous IrOx [30, 31, 35]. The latter is also frequently referred to as amorphous IrOx due to the presence of lower valence Ir (III) oxide [36, 37, 38]. According to reference [39], Ir (III) is the major intermediate species for iridium dissolution. Combining both activity and stability remains a challenge for Ir-based catalysts, and it is the major hurdle that limits the reduction of the anode iridium loading in PEM water electrolysis.
\nThe enhancement of catalyst stability is of equal importance as the reduction of catalyst loading. Long-term operation at high current density up to thousands of hours is particularly challenging with an Ir loading less than 1 mg cm−2. Recent literature has seen a growing number of studies on longer-term electrolysis operation ranging from hundreds to several thousand hours [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47] (Table 1). In particular, the best reported stability was on a nanostructured thin film (NSTF) cell, which achieved 5000 hours with a constant current load of 2 A cm−2 and 0.25 mg cm−2 Ir loading [45]. IrOx supported on Ti catalyst with 50 wt% Ir and a low catalyst loading of 0.12 mg cm−2 achieved more than 1000 hours operation at a lower current load of 1 A cm−2 [41]. No supported catalyst, other than titanium supported catalyst has been able to achieve such high catalyst stability. [48]
\nReferences | \nAnode catalyst | \nIr loading, mg cm−2 | \nCathode catalyst | \nPt loading, mg cm−2 | \nElectrode fabrication process | \nActive area | \nTest period, hours | \nOperating temperature, °C | \nOperating current, A cm−2 | \nTest period, hours | \nDegradation rate, μV h−1 | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grigoriev et al. [40] | \nIr black | \n1.5 | \nPt/Vulcan XC-72 | \n1.0 | \nSpraying | \n25 | \n4000 | \n60 | \n0.5 | \n4000 | \n35.5 | \n
Rozain et al. [41] | \nIrO2/Ti | \n0.12 | \nPt/C, TKK | \n0.25 | \nSpraying | \n25 | \n1000 | \n80 | \n1 | \n1000 | \n27 | \n
Rozain et al. [41] | \nIrO2 | \n0.32/0.1 | \nPt/C, TKK | \n0.25 | \nSpraying | \n25 | \n1000 | \n80 | \n1 | \n1000 | \n110/180* | \n
Siracusano et al. [42] | \nIrO2 | \n0.4 | \nPt/Vulcan XC-72 | \n0.1 | \nSpray-coating | \n5 | \n1000 | \n80 | \n1.0 | \n1000 | \n12 | \n
Rakousky et al. [43] | \nIrO2 and TiO2 | \n2.25 | \nPt/C | \n0.8 | \nCommercial | \n17.64 | \n1150 | \n80 | \n2.0 | \n1150 | \n194 | \n
Lettenmeier et al. [44] | \nIr black | \n1 | \nPt black | \n0.9 | \nCommercial | \n120 | \n400 | \n55–60 | \n2.0 | \n400 | \nNot significant | \n
Lewinski et al. [45] | \nIr-NSTF | \n0.25 | \nPt-NSTF | \n0.25 | \n3 M | \n50 | \n5000 | \n80 | \n2 | \n5000 | \nAverage 6.8 | \n
RSDT Cell-4 | \nIrOx and Nafion | \n0.08 | \nPt/Vulcan XC-72R | \n0.3 | \nRSDT | \n86 | \n4543 | \n80 | \n1.8 | \n4543 | \n36.5–48.7, 11.5 | \n
Wang et al. [46] | \nIr0.7Ru0.3Ox | \n1** | \nPt/C | \n0.4 | \nAir-brush spraying | \n25 | \n400 | \n80 | \n1 | \n400 | \nNot significant | \n
Siracusano et al. [47] | \nIr0.7Ru0.3Ox | \n0.34** | \nPt/Vulcan XC-72 | \n0.1 | \nElectrode fabrication process | \nActive area | \n1.0/3.0 | \n80 | \n1.0/ 3.0 | \n1000 | \n15/23*** | \n
Reported degradation rates for iridium-based catalysts in long-term electrolyzer tests.
Degradation rate at 0.32 and 0.1 mg cm−2 Ir loading, respectively.
Loading of Ir and Ru combined.
Degradation rate at 1.0 and 3.0 A cm−2, respectively.
The OER performance of IrOx strongly depends on the chemical structure and surface properties of the oxide [23]. Before discussing the influence of oxide structure on the electrolyzer performance, a thorough understanding of the OER mechanism is needed. The OER on IrOx consists of three steps forming a closed circle (Figure 3) [39, 49, 50]:
\nCircle of oxygen evolution:
Reaction (9) is fast and in pre-equilibrium. Reaction (10) is the rate-determining step (RDS), and the theoretical Tafel slope of this mechanism is 2RT/3F = 40 mV/dec. Since it is noted that Eq. (11) involves two iridium sites, a binuclear mechanism of OER on IrOx is proposed for Eq. (11) [51]. With the aid of density functional theory (DFT) calculations, Steesgra et al. [52] show that the first step of the binuclear mechanism is the oxidation of Ir (IV) – Ir (IV) to Ir (IV) – Ir (V), which is Eq. (10). Therefore, IrO2∙H2O is considered to be the precursor for the binuclear mechanism. The coverage of Ir (V) increases with the anodic potential until the conditions for the binuclear mechanism are satisfied [39] at the onset of OER.
\nIn a series of studies of iridium dissolution [31, 32, 39, 53], it is proposed that the precursor for dissolution are the oxygenated Ir (III) species (Figure 3). The formation and reduction of higher valence Ir (IV) species pass through an Ir (III) intermediate, which is shared in both OER and iridium dissolution. It is concluded in [39] that iridium dissolution has no direct link with OER activity and that they are two pathways sharing an intermediate species, Ir (III). Thus, it is possible to suppress one without alternating the other [39]. Therefore, the ratio of Ir (IV) to Ir (III) on the IrOx surface is a crucial parameter that controls the iridium dissolution and the OER.
\nAmorphous and nano-sized IrOxs have received much attention as promising OER catalysts due to the co-existence of Ir (III) and Ir (IV) oxidation state [35, 36, 37, 38, 54, 55, 56], forming an oxide termed “iridium oxohydroxide.” For example, using X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES), Minguzzi et al. [37, 38] confirms the co-existence of Ir (III) and Ir (IV) at anodic potentials where OER occurs. However, this does not imply that a mixed IrOx state fundamentally leads to high OER activity. In fact, the OER mechanism (Eqs. (9)–(11)) predicts that Ir (III) and Ir (IV) would certainly co-exist as Eqs. (9)–(11) form a loop. The higher OER activity of mixed Ir (III) and Ir (IV) oxides have been attributed to the presence of electrophilic OI− species [57, 58, 59, 60, 61]. Electrophilic OI− is the precursor for the O-O bond formation according to the binuclear mechanism [52]. The oxygen 2p state probed with near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) suggests that electrophilic OI− has a lower energy state compared to the OII− species [61]. The weakly bonded OI− is susceptible to nucleophilic attack from the pre-adsorbed water or hydroxyl groups, promoting the formation of O-O bond [58, 59]. Calcination at a high temperature of “dry” IrOx (OII− species) where electrophilic OI− becomes strongly bonded OII− species and thus the OER activity is reduced [36], in agreement with other studies [30, 31, 35, 62]. However, the “dry” IrOx is more stable against dissolution as the Ir (III) species on the surface is reduced [32, 60].
\nIn addition, the IrOx structure can be modified when a metal oxide support is incorporated with IrOx nanoparticles via the metal/metal oxide support interaction. For example [63], when IrO2 nanoparticles are supported on antimony-doped tin oxide (ATO), the d band vacancy and iridium oxidation decreased due to the interfacial electron charge donation from ATO to iridium, evidenced by the shift of X-ray absorption white line toward lower energy. This is corroborated with the increased Ir-O bonding distances for ATO-supported IrOx from extended X-ray fine structure (EXAFS) analysis, which is consistent with a lower average iridium oxidation state. Such interaction between IrOx and ATO suppressed the growth of higher valent IrOx layer that leads to iridium dissolution, thereby improved catalyst stability [63]. Similar interaction between metal/metal oxide supports was also found for IrO2 supported on TiO2 catalyst where the catalyst stability was enhanced as well [64].
\nMixed bimetallic oxides of iridium and a non-noble metal have been used to optimize the anode catalyst for PEM electrolyzer application [65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73]. The most apparent benefit of bimetallic oxide is to reduce the iridium loading in the catalyst if the catalyst activity remains comparable or higher compared to pure IrOx. For example, at >10 mol% iridium content in IrO2 + SnO2 mixed oxide the Tafel slope for OER is identical with pure IrO2, suggesting that the surface properties of IrO2 + SnO2 mixed oxide is dominated by IrO2 and behave as pure IrO2 [65]. In particular, iridium content in the 30–90 mol% range shows higher OER performance than pure IrO2 [65].
\nMore importantly, mixed bimetallic oxides modify the electronic or crystal structures of IrOx, which can significantly enhance the OER activity. The bond forming or breaking during OER is governed by the interaction between the O-2p orbital of intermediates with the d orbitals of surface sites of the transition metals [66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73]. Thus, the OER activity depends on the d-orbital electronic structure of the transitional metals. For example, Sun et al. [73] doped IrOx with copper and obtained enhanced OER activity in acid media at 30–50 mol% concentration. The Cu doping led to an IrO2 lattice distortion due to the CuO6 octahedron’s Jahn-Teller effect and also generated oxygen defects (Figure 4a), which significantly affected the energy distribution of the d-orbitals of Ir sites. The induced partial oxygen defects and the lifted degeneracy of t2g and eg orbitals reduced the energy required for the O-O bond formation, thereby enhanced the OER activity. In another case, Reier et al. [69] prepared Ir-Ni mixed oxide thin film and found a 20-fold enhancement of OER activity compared to pure IrOx thin film. As shown in Figure 4b, the surface Ni elements are leached out during OER and weakened the binding energy of the Ni-depleted oxygen with the lattice, forming oxygen with lower binding energy, and similar to the electrophilic oxygen. This promotes the formation of weakly bonded surface hydroxyls, which govern the overall OER reaction rate and suppress the formation of unreactive divalent = O species on the surface. Furthermore, Tae et al. [70] reported Ir-Co mixed oxide with 5% iridium loading that exhibits excellent OER activity and stability. At anodic potentials, the oxygen vacancy in Co (III) is transferred to Ir (IV) O6 center, leading to the formation of coordinatively unsaturated Ir (VI) O5 structure (Figure 4c), which is highly active for OER.
\n(a) Schematic lattice diagram in the ab plane of IrO2 (left) and substituted by Cu (right). The top row shows Ir-5d orbitals degeneracy of IrO2 (left) and the lift degeneracy and electron redistribution by doping with Cu [
Small particles are usually favorable for higher mass activity due to the high surface area to bulk ratio, which facilitates the reduction of catalyst loading. More importantly, the change of electronic structure is unavoidably accompanied with the change of particle size, as evidenced in the early work on X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) [74, 75, 76]. As particle size decreases, the binding energy is shifted to higher levels due to the increase of lattice strain and the coordination reduction [77, 78]. Richter et al. [78] shows that two mechanisms contribute to such an energy shift. The first is the initial state effect caused by the increase of lattice strain as particle size decreases, a result of d-hybridization; the second is the final state relaxation that increases with the decrease of particle size, which results in the stronger screening of the core hole leading to higher binding energy. Small particles show enhanced d-hybridization, which shift the d-band center to lower levels, decreasing the bond strength of the adsorbates during an electrochemical reaction [79].
\nAbbot et al. [34] systematically studied the particle size effect for IrOx in the range of 2 –30 nm. EXAFS analysis reveals that, as the IrOx particle size decreases, the coordination number decreases and the Ir-O bond length increases. The core-level binding energy was thus shifted to higher levels as the particle size decreases, which is in agreement with previous literature [74, 75, 76]. As a result, the iridium-oxygen bonding is weakened as the particle size decreases, leading to higher content of hydroxide, and lower average oxidation state of iridium from Ir (IV) to a combination of Ir (IV) and Ir (III). Based on previous discussions in Section 3.1, surface hydroxide and mixed Ir (IV) and Ir (III) state are favorable for OER. Indeed, Abbot et al. [34] show that the IrOx particles of 2 nm have 10 fold higher OER mass activity and three fold higher turnover frequency compared to the IrOx particles of 30 nm.
\nPerfluorosulfonic acid ionomer provides proton conductivity in the catalyst layer, extends the reaction zone, and improves the catalyst utilization [80, 81]. Ma et al. [82] focused on the effect of ionomer content on the ohmic resistance of PEM electrolyzers with iridium supported on titanium carbide (TiC) as an anode catalyst. Ma et al. [82] showed that increasing the ionomer content from 10 to 40 wt% causes a decrease in PEMWE performance. Using a simple non-linear fit:
\nThe authors derived the ohmic loss contribution in the performance and concluded that higher ohmic resistance is associated with high ionomer content. It is noted that with this non-linear fit method, the obtained ohmic resistance includes contributions from all sources of the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) components, including the ionic resistance. Xu et al. [83] investigated the effect of ionomer content from the voltammetric charge and interfacial resistance perspective. The amount of voltammetric charges in cyclic voltammetry is proportional to the surface active sites [84]. A wider range of ionomer contents, from 5 to 40 wt%, were studied. The highest total charge was achieved at 25 wt% ionomer content, which is in agreement with the optimum PEMWE performance. Based on Butler-Volmer equation, the authors constructed a model to describe the I-V curves and concluded that the optimum ionomer content minimizes the interfacial resistance between the membrane and the electrode.
\nIn a recent study, Bernt and Gasteiger [85] investigated the effect of anode ionomer content by analyzing the voltage loss contribution to the PEMWE performance. The ohmic resistance was found to increase abruptly when the ionomer content is above 20 wt%. This suggests that an electronically insulating film of residual ionomer forms at the electrode/GDL interface when the ionomer volume exceeds the void volume of the catalyst layer, which results in higher contact resistances. Further, such electronic insulation caused higher OER overpotential with >20 wt% ionomer content and thereby decreased the catalyst utilization. After subtracting the voltage losses due to ohmic and kinetic losses, Bernt and Gasteiger [85] attributed to the remaining losses (red diamond) to mass transport (Figure 5). The main path for oxygen removal from the electrode is not permeation but convective transport through the void volume of the anode. Thus, higher ionomer content imposes higher transport resistance for oxygen removal.
\nOverpotentials of PEM electrolyzer MEAs with different anode ionomer content after subtraction of ohmic and kinetics losses. Overpotentials from different sources are represented as different colors. Blue: anode proton conduction resistance; Green: cathode proton conduction resistance; Red: remaining overpotentials due to mass transport loss. Reproduced with permission [
In sum, similar to PEM fuel cell electrodes, the ionomer content is an important parameter for the optimization of PEM electrolyzers. While low ionomer content provides insufficient proton conduction and less accessible surface active sites, high ionomer content induces high interfacial resistance and mass transport loss due to insufficient void volume for oxygen diffusion. PEM electrolyzers are economically beneficial for a large-scale application operating at high current densities (>2 A cm−2) and high pressures (30–45 bar). Thus, optimization of the ionomer content becomes crucial to minimize the cell potential loss at high current and pressure and improve cell efficiency.
\nPower generated from renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, requires energy storage devices to balance its fluctuation and intermittence because of variable weather conditions [86]. Hydrogen production by water electrolysis has been developed as an alternative technology for energy conversion and storage that can be fitted to renewable energy systems [87, 88]. This section will briefly introduce the role of PEM electrolyzers in power-to-gas, solar, and wind energy systems.
\nPower-to-gas is emerging as a novel energy storage method that uses the surplus electricity from the grid during off-peak periods and converts it to hydrogen through a water electrolysis process [89]. The key technology for this strategy is the electrolyzer, which bridges the power to utilization by producing hydrogen. Electrolyzers must meet the following requirements in order for power-to-gas to become efficient and economically viable [90]: (1) high efficiency of hydrogen production; (2) fast response to power fluctuation; (3) very low minimal load for stand-by; (4) high-pressure operation to reduce the cost of hydrogen compression; and (5) long durability and lifetime. The major drawback of power-to-gas is the low efficiency and high cost of electrolyzers. While PEM electrolyzers offer fast response, high pressure, and the production of pure hydrogen, scaling up to MW scale has been the major technical challenge. As mentioned previously, the major hurdle of this challenge is the cost of catalysts and other MEA components (e.g., the Ti-based bipolar plates).
\nSolar energy conversion into hydrogen by water splitting has been long studied by various research groups due to its easy scale-up nature. The state-of-the-art photocatalytic and photo-electrochemical system has an efficiency of 10 and 5%, respectively, in the direct conversion of solar to hydrogen (STH) [91]. To reduce the price of hydrogen and boost up the efficiency of STH, an electrolyzer cell (EC) can be coupled with a photovoltaic cell (PV), called photovoltaic−water electrolysis system (PV-EC) [92]. The STH efficiency can be increased up to 30%. Further, a direct current to direct current (DC-DC) converter can be implemented between PV and EC (Figure 6). The main role of the converter is maximum power point tracking of the sun light to the EC system. Thus, coupling electrolyzers with highly efficient PVs and with converter assistance, high STH efficiency PV-Conv-EC systems can achieve 20.6% STH efficiency and 78% PV electricity to hydrogen conversion efficiency [92].
\nDesign principle of the PV-Conv-EC system based on an independent PV, the EC performance, and the existence of a converter. (a) Hydrogen power per square centimeter (pH2) and kinetic loss per square centimeter (pkin) at a given current density–voltage (j − V) curve of the PV and EC. The intersection between the PV and EC j − V curve has a lower voltage and a higher current density than the pPV, max point. (b) pH2 and pkin after the DC-DC converter assistance on (a). Reproduced with permission [
Wind power is heavily influenced by meteorological variances and requires balancing power for the load fluctuation. Wind to hydrogen (WTH) strategies by water electrolysis could offer a solution to this problem [9]. Synergy between wind farms and water electrolyzers makes hydrogen a buffer solution to balance the grid power as well as produce hydrogen from surplus wind power [9]. Thus, the wind power can be utilized at its maximum capacity.
\nTable 2 summarizes the commercially available PEM electrolysis systems from 12 major manufacturers worldwide. Note that only the highest capacity from each manufacturer is listed here. Six of the manufacturers are able to achieve a system capacity around 1 MW or higher. The largest system so far is from Hydrogenics, a 15 MW plant with 10 cell stacks capable of producing 3000 Nm3 hydrogen per hour. Giner currently offers a more powerful cell stack, Kennebec stacks, even though its current systems have not yet incorporated this brand of the cell stack. The Kennebec stacks have the largest capacity among all the stacks available from these manufacturers. It has a capacity of 5 MW and is capable of producing 2200 kg of hydrogen per day (that is, 1020 Nm3 per hour). Most of the systems offer high-purity hydrogen with the high delivery pressure that is suitable for on-site storage and fueling. The system consumption of electricity is very close among all the manufacturers, averaged around 5.5 ± 0.5 kWh per Nm3 of hydrogen.
\nManufacturers | \nSystem model | \nH2 production rate, Nm3/hr | \nH2 purity (after purification) | \nInstalled power, MW | \nSystem consumption, kWh/Nm3 of H2 | \nDelivery pressure, bar | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hydrogenics | \nHyLYZER-3000 | \n3000 | \n99.998% | \n15 | \n5.0–5.4 | \n30 | \n[93] | \n
Proton Onsite | \nM400 | \n400 | \n>99.9995% | \n2 | \n5 | \n30 | \n[94] | \n
Siemens | \nSilyzer 200 | \n225 | \n99.9% | \n1.25 | \n5.1–5.4 | \n35 | \n[95] | \n
ITM power | \nHGas1000 | \n215 | \n99.999% | \n1.03 | \n5.5 | \n20–80 | \n[96] | \n
Giner | \n200S | \n200 | \n99.999% | \n1 | \n5 | \n40 | \n[97] | \n
AREVA H2Gen | \nE120 | \n120 | \n99.999% | \n0.96 | \n4.8 | \n30 | \n[98] | \n
H-TEC | \nME100/350 | \n66 | \n99.999% | \n0.225 | \n4.9 | \n20 | \n[99] | \n
Kobelco-eco solutions | \nSH60D | \n60 | \n99.9999% | \n0.2 | \n5.5–6.5 | \n8.2 | \n[100] | \n
Treadwell Corp. | \nNA | \n10.2 | \nNA | \nNA | \nNA | \n75.8 | \n[101] | \n
Angstrom Advanced | \nHGH170000 | \n10 | \n99.9999% | \n0.058 | \n5.5 | \n4 | \n[102] | \n
SylaTech | \nHE32 | \n2 | \n99.999% | \n0.01 | \n4.9 | \n30 | \n[103] | \n
GreenHydrogen | \nHyProvide P1 | \n1 | \n99.995% | \n0.01 | \n5.5 | \n50 | \n[104] | \n
Summary of commercial PEM electrolysis systems.
The growing demand for energy and the accompanied environmental issues call for a rapid transition to low-carbon/carbon-free energy structure. In this context, hydrogen serves as an ideal secondary energy source for energy storage and transport. The key technology for hydrogen energy is water electrolysis. In particular, PEM electrolysis has been driven strongly by flexible energy storage in recent years as it offers several advantages compared to alkaline and solid oxide electrolysis. Nowadays, more mega-Watt scale PEM electrolysis systems are available on the market and in the field. However, further technological advancement is still demanded in the field of electrocatalysis and material science to obtain a deeper understanding of catalytic reactions and design new catalysts such that PEM electrolysis is more durable and cost-effective. Furthermore, as PEM electrolysis is but one building block for the future hydrogen economy, efforts in R&D should emphasize the compatibility with other technologies and optimize the synergic effects.
\nThe authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
",metaTitle:"Team",metaDescription:"Advancing discovery in Open Access for the scientists by the scientist",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/team",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7180,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1453,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192923,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4590,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3507,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3607,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1347,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82319",title:"Traumatic Optic Neuropathy",slug:"traumatic-optic-neuropathy",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104731",abstract:"Traumatic optic neuropathy (TON) is a specific neurological sequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It has a different mechanism than other most neurologic complications of head trauma and its consequences can be devastating. The damage can be from direct penetrating trauma or bone fracture injuring the optic nerve directly or secondary to indirect blunt trauma (usually causing traction). The diagnosis of TON is based on the clinical history and examination findings indicative of optic neuropathy, especially the presence of defective pupillary light response. TON can cause only mild vision loss but, in some cases, severe vision loss is present. Imaging findings can support the diagnosis, and provide information on the mechanism as well as treatment options. The treatment options include observation alone, systemic steroids, erythropoietin, surgical decompression of the optic canal, or combination. The evidence base for these various treatment options is controversial and each treatment has its side effects and risks. Poor prognostic factors include poor visual acuity at presentation, loss of consciousness, no improvement in vision in the first 48 hours, and evidence of optic canal fractures on neuroimaging.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Ainat Klein and Wahbi Wahbi"},{id:"82203",title:"Resting-State Brain Network Analysis Methods and Applications",slug:"resting-state-brain-network-analysis-methods-and-applications",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104827",abstract:"Resting-state fMRI has been widely applied in clinical research. Brain networks constructed by functional connectivity can reveal alterations related to disease and treatment. One of the major concerns of brain network application under clinical situations is how to analyze groups of data to find the potential biomarkers that can aid in diagnosis. In this paper, we briefly review common methods to construct brain networks from resting-state fMRI data, including different ways of the node definition and edge calculation. We focus on using a brain atlas to define nodes and estimate edges by static and dynamic functional connectivity. The directed connectivity method is also mentioned. We then discuss the challenges and pitfalls when analyzing groups of brain networks, including functional connectivity alterations, graph theory attributes analysis, and network-based statistics. Finally, we review the clinical application of resting-state fMRI in neurorehabilitation of spinal cord injury patients and stroke patients, the research on the mechanism and early diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as multiple system atrophy, as well as the research on brain functional network alteration of glioma patients.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Yunxiang Ge and Weibei Dou"},{id:"82099",title:"Recent Advances in the Development of Biofluid-Based Prognostic Biomarkers of Diffuse Axonal Injury",slug:"recent-advances-in-the-development-of-biofluid-based-prognostic-biomarkers-of-diffuse-axonal-injury",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104933",abstract:"Even though head injury is a silent pandemic of the century producing immense social and economic impact, predictive models have not been established to develop strategies promoting the development of reliable diagnostic tools and effective therapeutics capable of improving the prognosis. Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is a type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) that results from a blunt injury to the brain. Discovering biomarkers for DAI have been a matter of debate and research. A number of studies have reported biomarkers that are correlated with severity of TBI but no conclusive and reproducible clinical evidence regarding the same has been put forward till now. Additionally, many DAI biomarkers have limitations so that they cannot be generalized for universal applications. The properties of these biomarkers should be extensively researched along with the development of novel biomarkers to aid important clinical decisions for the benefit of the society. This chapter summarizes the existing biofluid-based biomarkers, critically examines their limitations and highlights the possibilities of a few novel biomolecules as prognostic biomarkers of DAI.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Vinu V. Gopal, Rinku Raj Mullasseril and Goutam Chandra"},{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a Faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/157518",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"157518"},fullPath:"/profiles/157518",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()