Estimates of mixed effect model for the behavioral parameters measured during caffeine exposure.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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They are everyday situations from the subspecialist routine that can become challenging for professionals outside referenced centers or working alone.",isbn:"978-1-78985-406-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-405-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-080-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75418",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"primary-intracranial-tumors",numberOfPages:140,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6b02d6151db3433e9ebc434101c9868b",bookSignature:"Erasmo Barros Da Silva Junior and Jerônimo Buzetti Milano",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7455.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7991,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 13th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 3rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 2nd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 21st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 20th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"77927",title:"Dr.",name:"Erasmo Barros",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva Junior",slug:"erasmo-barros-da-silva-junior",fullName:"Erasmo Barros Da Silva Junior",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/77927/images/6870_n.png",biography:"Dr. Erasmo Barros da Silva Junior is a Medical Graduate from Universidade Federal da Paraíba; he also received neurosurgical training from Neurological Institute of Curitiba, and has a Surgery MSc from Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná. Dr. Erasmo Barros da Silva Junior is member of the Sociedade Brasileira de Neurocirurgia (SBN), Society of Neuro-Oncology, European Association of Neurosurgical Societies (EANS) and Academia Brasileira de Neurocirurgia (ABNC). He is neurosurgeon from Neurological Institute of Curitiba, Neurosurgery department, coordinator of Neurooncology division.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Instituto de Neurologia de Curitiba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"124581",title:"Dr.",name:"Jerônimo",middleName:null,surname:"Buzetti Milano",slug:"jeronimo-buzetti-milano",fullName:"Jerônimo Buzetti Milano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/124581/images/6871_n.png",biography:"Dr. Jerônimo Buzetti Milano is a Medical Graduate from Universidade Federal do Paraná; he received a neurosurgical training from Neurological Institute of Curitiba, and holds a Neurology PhD from University of São Paulo. Dr. Jerônimo Buzetti Milano is member of the Sociedade Brasileira de Neurocirurgia (SBN), Spine Brazilian Society, North America Spine Society, AOSpine. 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The main topics to be explored are: history of the specific technique, indications and contra indications, description of the technique, real case examples, pros and cons. The focus on the discussion besides practical aspects is going to be relevant literature regarding impact of their use in avoidance of complications, improve in survival rates, cost-effectiveness, some tips and tricks acquired in the experience of our department.",signatures:"Erasmo Barros da Silva Jr, Gustavo Simiano Jung,\nJoseph Franklin Chenisz da Silva and Ricardo Ramina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64575",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64575",authors:[{id:"77927",title:"Dr.",name:"Erasmo Barros",surname:"Da Silva Junior",slug:"erasmo-barros-da-silva-junior",fullName:"Erasmo Barros Da Silva Junior"},{id:"46275",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Ramina",slug:"ricardo-ramina",fullName:"Ricardo Ramina"},{id:"259905",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Jung",slug:"gustavo-jung",fullName:"Gustavo Jung"},{id:"288137",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph Franklin",surname:"Chenisz Da Silva",slug:"joseph-franklin-chenisz-da-silva",fullName:"Joseph Franklin Chenisz Da Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"64931",title:"Molecular Diagnostics and Pathology of Major Brain Tumors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80856",slug:"molecular-diagnostics-and-pathology-of-major-brain-tumors",totalDownloads:1304,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Tumors of central nervous system (CNS) account for a small portion of tumors of human body, which include tumors occurring in the parenchyma of brain and spinal cord as well as their coverings. The following chapter covers some new development in some major brain tumors in both pediatric and adult populations, as well as some uncommon but diagnostic and management challenging tumors.",signatures:"Frank Y. Shan, E. Castro, Amelia Sybenga, Sanjib Mukherjee,\nErxi Wu, Karming Fung, The Li, Ekokobe Fonkem, Jason H. Huang and A. Rao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64931",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64931",authors:[{id:"31811",title:"Prof.",name:"Renzhi",surname:"Wang",slug:"renzhi-wang",fullName:"Renzhi Wang"},{id:"224305",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank Y.",surname:"Shan",slug:"frank-y.-shan",fullName:"Frank Y. 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Since to date there is no effective treatments for these tumors, different efforts are being made to find molecular tools useful for this purpose. Studies have shown that both tumor and circulating expression of lncRNAs were altered in astrocytoma, which was useful to distinguish the patients with this neoplasia from those without cancer, as well as to determine different prognostic factors related to the disease. According to these studies, different “molecular signatures” of specific lncRNAs were established, and they have a potential use in the medical practice. From a system biological perspective, complex interaction networks, conformed by lncRNAs, microRNAs, mRNAs, and proteins, were elucidated and predicted to control many oncogenic processes.",signatures:"Ruth Ruiz Esparza-Garrido, Alicia Siordia-Reyes, Gerardo Sánchez,\nGriselda Ramírez and Miguel Velázquez-Flores",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63710",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63710",authors:[{id:"250070",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Velázquez",slug:"miguel-velazquez",fullName:"Miguel Velázquez"},{id:"258220",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",surname:"Ruiz Esparza",slug:"ruth-ruiz-esparza",fullName:"Ruth Ruiz Esparza"},{id:"258501",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",surname:"Siordia",slug:"alicia-siordia",fullName:"Alicia Siordia"},{id:"258725",title:"Dr.",name:"Griselda",surname:"Ramírez",slug:"griselda-ramirez",fullName:"Griselda Ramírez"},{id:"258726",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Sánchez",slug:"gerardo-sanchez",fullName:"Gerardo Sánchez"}],corrections:null},{id:"63881",title:"Neurosurgical Tools to Improve Safety and Survival in Patients with Intracranial Tumors: Neuronavigation, MRI, and 5-ALA",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81211",slug:"neurosurgical-tools-to-improve-safety-and-survival-in-patients-with-intracranial-tumors-neuronavigat",totalDownloads:806,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter describes the usefulness of surgical technologies such as intraoperative MRI, 5-ALA fluorescence-guided surgery, and neuronavigation as tools to make brain tumor resections safer and more effective. The focuses are practical aspects and the relevant literature regarding the impact of their use in avoidance of complications, improvement in survival rates, and some tips and tricks acquired in the experience of our department. All three strategies have an important role in neuro-oncological surgery. The future probably will prove that the combination of these tools, selected case by case, is the best way to achieve the best results regarding safety and effectiveness.",signatures:"Luis Fernando Moura da Silva, Guilherme Augusto de Souza Machado\nand Ricardo Ramina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63881",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63881",authors:[{id:"124582",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Fernando",surname:"Moura Da Silva Jr.",slug:"luis-fernando-moura-da-silva-jr.",fullName:"Luis Fernando Moura Da Silva Jr."}],corrections:null},{id:"64925",title:"Management of Refractory/Aggressive Pituitary Adenomas Review of Current Treatment Options",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81464",slug:"management-of-refractory-aggressive-pituitary-adenomas-review-of-current-treatment-options",totalDownloads:833,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tumors of central nervous system (CNS) account for a small portion of tumors of human body, which includes tumors occurring in the parenchyma of brain and spinal cord as well as their coverings. 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Despite these huge efforts to glioma treatment, glioblastoma, one of the most frequent gliomas, has median life expectance for just 15 months, so these results are still an unmet need. Related to the systemic treatment, some cancer approaches have been revolutionized with new strategies, such as immunotherapy, although in neuro-oncology, this alternative still has challenges to overcome. Throughout this chapter, relevant information and key points will be discussed to the best way to manage systemic treatment and improve glioma overall survival.",signatures:"Johnny Camargo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63100",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63100",authors:[{id:"259778",title:"M.D.",name:"Johnny",surname:"Camargo",slug:"johnny-camargo",fullName:"Johnny Camargo"}],corrections:null},{id:"64101",title:"Role of Radiotherapy in High Grade Glioma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80923",slug:"role-of-radiotherapy-in-high-grade-glioma",totalDownloads:1004,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this review is to explore the changing utility of radiotherapy in the treatment of patients with glioblastoma over the past decades. Surgery and radiotherapy has always been the cornerstone of treatment of glioblastoma, but techniques have significantly advanced over this time. 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TQM and six sigma are the approaches that have been successful in solving intricate quality problems in products and services. This volume can help those who are interested in the quality management field to understand core ideas along with contemporary efforts done in the field and authored as case studies in this volume. 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He held two research fellowships; first Endeavour Research Fellowship at Monash University and the second Commonwealth Fellowship at the University of Cambridge. He has a number of papers in reputed journals and conferences. His teaching and research interest include energy technology and policy, computer integrated manufacturing and operations management. 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Coffee, the beverage in which caffeine is most representative, is known to be rich in biologically active compounds that possess a variety of therapeutic and functional effects. However, heavy coffee consumption may provoke systemic damages such as irregular heart rate, increased ventilation, anxiety, and due to its psychoactive properties, caffeine is likely to have addictive properties [6, 7]. Unlike other psychoactive drugs, caffeine consumption is legal and does not present any form of regulation. Moreover, caffeine consumption is not restricted to coffee and tea, but it has commonly been combined with other food products, such as chocolates, sodas, potato chips, and also bottled water. Even more risky, caffeine has been associated with other psychoactive drugs, as alcohol (i.e., energy drinks). While there is no specific recommendation on the amount of caffeine used or an indication of a critical value that may cause health problems, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has suggested 400 mg of caffeine/day for health adults [8]. However, there is not a clear picture of the overtime and dose-dependent effects of caffeine, demanding attention on behavioral pharmacological studies on this issue.
During the past 2 decades, numerous studies have approached the effects of psychoactive compounds used by humans in other mammals (rodents) [9–11]. Caffeine has gained attention because of its multiple targets in the brain. For instance, adenosine, ryanodine, and γ-aminobutyric acid receptors and cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase isoenzymes [12] seem to be related to stimulant effects of caffeine. However, as other drugs, caffeine empowers the central nervous system functioning when it reaches the therapeutic range; otherwise, it is too low concentration to cause an effect or too high concentration that causes intoxication. In this sense, several studies show contradictory behavioral effects following caffeine exposure: both increase in locomotor activity [13] and decrease in motor response [14, 15] were observed. The divergences on results may be related to caffeine dose and observation period in each study. Therefore, it is urgent to present effect of different doses and a short time-scale evaluation of caffeine induced changes in order to establish its therapeutic range, and then, how it can be properly used when in combination with other stimulant or depressant drugs.
Instead of using the most common animal model in pharmacological research, we propose the use of zebrafish to fill this gap in caffeine research. This small vertebrate is at the vanguard of neuroethological research and has been suggested for behavioral screening of drugs. The zebrafish has gained attention in behavioral brain research due to its ideal balance between the complexity of the physiological system and the simplicity of the biological model. It includes the fact that the zebrafish presents several molecular pathways, proteins, and protein products also found in mammals [16–22], besides the genome homology of about 70–80% [23]. Also, its brain structure [24, 25] and neurochemistry [26] offer translational relevance to humans [23] and allow exploring the model for a thorough understanding of the effects of substances used/abused by humans. In fact, various studies have shown that zebrafish respond similar to mammals when treated with many pharmacological compounds [27–29]. For example, benzodiazepine medication causes sedative effects in mouse [30, 31] and zebrafish [32]. For caffeine, it is not different: both rodents and zebrafish present anxiety-like behavior following caffeine exposure [33–36]. Furthermore, caffeine is water soluble and can be delivered to the fish via noninvasive method.
Zebrafish is not only an ideal model for behavioral screening, but also the majority of the genes identified in this species is conserved and has homologs in mammals [23, 37], which allows for the examination of brain function and the development of brain diseases [27]. The zebrafish is an important model for research on psychoactive substances; in this sense, to know the effect of different doses of caffeine in their behavior is an important step for the development of methodologies to assess the effect of the substance in physiology and cognition. Our overtime dose-response analyses are one of the most detailed studies of caffeine in zebrafish and serves as a behavioral screen for future studies on the neural effects of caffeine or its effects when combined with other drugs.
Adult zebrafish (wild-type, both sexes) was obtained from a local fish farm (Natal-RN) and held in 50 L tanks forming a closed recirculating high-density system at the vivarium of the Fish Laboratory (Physiology Department—UFRN). The system maintained water quality by a multistage filtration, in which four filters processed the water in a flow of 3200 L/h, including a mechanical, a biological, activated carbon, and a UV light sterilizing filter. Water temperature was maintained at 28 C, pH in 7.1. Photoperiod was set at 12:12 light:dark cycle, with light intensity of 250 lx.
Fishes were fed two times a day with live brine shrimp and flaked food. Experimental procedures were revised and approved by the Ethical Committee for Animal Use of Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (CEUA 045/2015).
To determine overtime effect of caffeine doses in zebrafish, 144 animals (both sexes; 4.87 ± 1.35 g) were randomly assigned to different experimental groups that corresponded to each caffeine concentration (
Fishes were initially held in groups of 12 in glass tanks (50 cm × 30 cm × 25 cm, width × depth × height; 37 L) for 7 days to acclimatize the fish to the test room. The bottom and back side of the holding tanks were covered with white paper to provide a uniform environment. During this period, water quality was kept the same as in the stock condition, with filtration and oxygen renovation given by a 140 Bio Wheel power filters. Food was offered twice daily.
For the behavioral assay, smaller tanks (40 cm × 20 cm × 25 cm, 15 L) were used. Caffeine was added directly to the testing water, to achieve each testing dose. Fishes were individually transferred to the testing tanks and behavior was recorded during 60 min using an HD camcorder (Sony Digital Video Camera Recorder; DCR-SX45) positioned 1 m away and in front of the tanks.
Fish behavior records were tracked using the Zebtrack software developed in MatLab [38]. The behavioral variables measured were average swimming speed, total distance travelled, duration of immobility (freezing), and time spent at the bottom of the tank (up to 5 cm from the bottom).
Data were first evaluated in search for outliers, homogeneity, normality, zero trouble, collinearity, and variables independency by inferential statistics [39]. After that, a Mixed Effects Model Analysis was applied considering the behavioral response as the response variable and the time (60 min records) and caffeine dose as the explanatory variables. The repeated measures characteristic of the data (over time data sampling) required longitudinal data analysis [39].
The exploratory analysis showed abnormal distribution and over dispersion of the residuals, and thus, a glmmPQL command (MASS package [40]) was used to develop the mixed model in the R program [41]. The mixed model showed random effect factors, which was the variation in behavior between groups, fixed effect factors, which was the caffeine doses used, and error.
The response variables were positive continuous quantitative data, not including zero (
Average speed, distance traveled, freezing, and time at the bottom of the tank were also compared between the groups (caffeine doses) using One-Way ANOVA. For all comparison, the probability level considered for significance was
Figure 1 depicts zebrafish average swimming speed during acute caffeine exposure. Graphs referent to the very small doses (0.5 and 1.0 mg/L) are not presented to make it clear and due to its similarity to the doses below (0 mg/L) and above (5 mg/L). The mixed model comparison showed that average speed changed over time (GLMM,
Time-course path of the average swimming speed during 60-min caffeine exposure in zebrafish. Mean ± SEM are shown for every 1-min intervals of the total 60-min recording. The caffeine doses (group designations) are shown above the graphs. Sample sizes (
Behavioral parameters | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Explanatory variable | ||||||||||||
60 min time course | 7.33 | 0.006 | 11.68 | 0.0006 | 2.12 | 0.14 | 0.18 | 0.66 | ||||
Doses | 651.49 | >0.001 | 271.49 | <0.001 | 214.66 | <0.001 | 170.91 | <0.001 | ||||
Pairwise comparison | ||||||||||||
Dose 0.0 vs. dose 0.5 | −0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.22 | 1.0 | −4.17 ± 0.00 | −0.83 | 0.99 | 0.01 ± 0.02 | 0.73 | 0.99 | −0.01 ± 0.01 | −0.84 | 0.99 |
Dose 0.0 vs. dose 1.0 | −0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.28 | 1.0 | −3.11 ± 0.00 | −0.62 | 0.99 | 0.01 ± 0.02 | 0.42 | 1.00 | −0.01 ± 0.01 | −0.80 | 0.99 |
Dose 0.0 vs. dose 5.0 | −0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.40 | 1.0 | −3.45 ± 0.00 | −0.68 | 0.99 | 0.03 ± 0.02 | 1.34 | 0.95 | −0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.33 | 1.00 |
Dose 0.0 vs. dose 10 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 4.52 | 0.00 | 7.32 ± 0.00 | 1.46 | 0.92 | −0.06 ± 0.02 | −2.45 | 0.34 | −0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.64 | 0.99 |
Dose 0.0 vs. dose 25 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 4.29 | 0.00 | 4.17 ± 0.00 | 0.83 | 0.99 | −0.06 ± 0.02 | −2.43 | 0.45 | −0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.07 | 1.00 |
Dose 0.0 vs. dose 50 | −0.09 ± 0.01 | −0.55 | <0.00 | −3.08 ± 0.00 | −6.03 | <0.00 | 0.14 ± 0.02 | 5.34 | <0.00 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 3.38 | 0.03 |
Dose 0.0 vs. dose 65 | −0.13 ± 0.02 | −8.07 | <0.00 | −3.74 ± 0.00 | −6.69 | <0.00 | 0.14 ± 0.02 | 5.25 | <0.00 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 4.50 | 0.00 |
Dose 0.0 vs. dose 75 | −0.18 ± 0.01 | −12.26 | <0.00 | −4.78 ± 0.00 | −9.19 | <0.00 | 0.15 ± 0.02 | 5.87 | <0.00 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 6.34 | <0.00 |
Dose 0.0 vs. dose 100 | −0.13 ± 0.01 | −9.20 | <0.00 | −3.29 ± 0.00 | −6.42 | <0.00 | 0.07 ± 0.02 | 5.80 | 0.01 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 5.08 | 0.00 |
Dose 0.0 vs. dose 150 | −0.12 ± 0.01 | −8.18 | <0.00 | −2.64 ± 0.00 | −5.18 | <0.00 | 0.17 ± 0.02 | 6.72 | <0.00 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 5.32 | <0.00 |
Dose 0.5 vs. dose 1.0 | −0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.06 | 1.0 | 1.05 ± 0.00 | 0.20 | 1.00 | −0.00 ± 0.02 | 0.30 | 1.00 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | 0.03 | 1.00 |
Dose 0.5 vs. dose 5.0 | −0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.18 | 1.0 | 7.18 ± 0.00 | 0.14 | 1.00 | 0.01 ± 0.02 | 0.61 | 0.99 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | 0.50 | 1.00 |
Dose 0.5 vs. dose 10 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 4.74 | 0.00 | 1.14 ± 0.00 | 2.29 | 0.44 | −0.08 ± 0.02 | −3.18 | 0.06 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | 0.19 | 1.00 |
Dose 0.5 vs. dose 25 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 4.51 | 0.00 | 8.35 ± 0.00 | 1.66 | 0.85 | −0.08 ± 0.02 | −3.17 | 0.06 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.76 | 0.99 |
Dose 0.5 vs. dose 50 | −0.09 ± 0.01 | −6.33 | <0.00 | −2.67 ± 0.00 | −5.21 | <0.00 | 0.12 ± 0.02 | 4.61 | 0.00 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 4.23 | 0.00 |
Dose 0.5 vs. dose 65 | −0.12 ± 0.02 | −7.88 | <0.00 | −4.36 ± 0.01 | −8.38 | <0.00 | 0.12 ± 0.02 | 4.57 | 0.00 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 5.29 | <0.00 |
Dose 0.5 vs. dose 75 | −0.18 ± 0.01 | −12.04 | <0.00 | −2.87 ± 0.01 | −5.60 | <0.00 | 0.13 ± 0.02 | 5.13 | 0.00 | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 7.19 | <0.00 |
Dose 0.5 vs. dose 100 | −0.13 ± 0.01 | −8.98 | <0.00 | −2.22 ± 0.01 | −4.35 | 0.00 | 0.05 ± 0.02 | 2.07 | 0.60 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 5.93 | <0.00 |
Dose 0.5 vs. dose 150 | −0.12 ± 0.01 | −7.96 | <0.00 | −3.35 ± 0.01 | −0.06 | 0.00 | 0.15 ± 0.02 | 5.99 | <0.00 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 6.17 | <0.00 |
Dose 1.0 vs. dose 5.0 | −0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.12 | 1.0 | 1.04 ± 0.01 | 2.08 | 0.59 | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 0.92 | 0.99 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | 0.46 | 1.00 |
Dose 1.0 vs. dose 10 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 4.80 | 0.00 | 7.29 ± 0.01 | 1.45 | 0.93 | −0.07 ± 0.01 | −2.87 | 0.14 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | 0.16 | 1.00 |
Dose 1.0 vs. dose 25 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 4.57 | 0.00 | −2.77 ± 0.01 | −5.42 | <0.00 | −0.07 ± 0.01 | −2.06 | 0.14 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.72 | 0.99 |
Dose 1.0 vs. dose 50 | −0.09 ± 0.01 | −6.27 | <0.00 | −3.43 ± 0.01 | −6.12 | <0.00 | 0.12 ± 0.02 | 4.92 | 0.00 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 4.19 | 0.00 |
Dose 1.0 vs. dose 65 | −0.12 ± 0.02 | −7.82 | <0.00 | −4.47 ± 0.01 | −8.58 | <0.00 | 0.13 ± 0.02 | 4.85 | 0.00 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 5.26 | <0.00 |
Dose 1.0 vs. dose 75 | −0.18 ± 0.01 | −11.98 | <0.00 | −2.98 ± 0.00 | −5.80 | <0.00 | 0.14 ± 0.01 | 5.44 | <0.00 | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 7.16 | <0.00 |
Dose 1.0 vs. dose 100 | −0.13 ± 0.01 | −8.92 | <0.00 | −2.33 ± 0.00 | −4.56 | 0.00 | 0.06 ± 0.02 | 2.38 | 0.38 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 5.90 | <0.00 |
Dose 1.0 vs. dose 150 | −0.11 ± 0.01 | −7.90 | <0.00 | 1.07 ± 0.00 | 2.15 | 0.04 | 0.16 ± 0.01 | 6.30 | <0.00 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 6.14 | <0.00 |
Dose 5.0 vs. dose 10 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 4.93 | 0.00 | 1.07 ± 0.00 | 2.15 | 0.54 | −0.10 ± 0.00 | −3.80 | 0.01 | −0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.30 | 1.00 |
Dose 5.0 vs. dose 25 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 4.69 | 0.00 | 7.63 ± 0.00 | 1.52 | 0.90 | −0.09 ± 0.01 | −3.78 | 0.01 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | 0.25 | 1.00 |
Dose 5.0 vs. dose 50 | −0.09 ± 0.01 | −6.14 | <0.00 | −2.74 ± 0.00 | −5.35 | <0.00 | 0.10 ± 0.01 | 4.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 3.73 | 0.01 |
Dose 5.0 vs. dose 65 | −0.12 ± 0.02 | −7.71 | <0.00 | −3.39 ± 0.00 | −6.06 | <0.00 | 0.11 ± 0.02 | 4.00 | 0.00 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 4.83 | 0.00 |
Dose 5.0 vs. dose 75 | −0.18 ± 0.01 | −11.86 | <0.00 | −4.43 ± 0.00 | −8.52 | <0.00 | 0.11 ± 0.02 | 4.52 | 0.00 | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 6.70 | <0.00 |
Dose 5.0 vs. dose 100 | −0.13 ± 0.01 | −8.80 | <0.00 | −2.94 ± 0.00 | −5.74 | <0.00 | 0.03 ± 0.00 | 1.45 | 0.93 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 5.43 | <0.00 |
Dose 5.0 vs. dose 150 | −0.11 ± 0.01 | −7.78 | <0.00 | −2.29 ± 0.01 | −4.49 | 0.00 | 0.14 ± 0.02 | 5.38 | <0.00 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 5.68 | <0.00 |
Dose 10 vs. dose 25 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | −0.23 | 1.00 | −3.14 ± 0.00 | −0.63 | 0.99 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 0.01 | 1.00 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | 0.56 | 1.00 |
Dose 10 vs. dose 50 | −0.16 ± 0.01 | −11.04 | <0.00 | −3.82 ± 0.00 | −7.48 | <0.00 | 0.20 ± 0.02 | 7.79 | <0.00 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 4.03 | 0.00 |
Dose 10 vs. dose 65 | −0.19 ± 0.02 | −12.19 | <0.00 | −4.47 ± 0.00 | −8.01 | <0.00 | 0.21 ± 0.02 | 7.52 | <0.00 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 5.11 | 0.00 |
Dose 10 vs. dose 75 | −0.25 ± 0.01 | −16.68 | <0.00 | −5.51 ± 0.01 | −10.62 | <0.00 | 0.21 ± 0.02 | 8.32 | <0.00 | 0.09 ± 0.01 | 7.00 | <0.00 |
Dose 10 vs. dose 100 | −0.20 ± 0.01 | −13.66 | <0.00 | −4.02 ± 0.00 | −7.87 | <0.00 | 0.13 ± 0.00 | 5.25 | <0.00 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 5.74 | <0.00 |
Dose 10 vs. dose 150 | −0.19 ± 0.01 | −12.66 | <0.00 | −3.37 ± 0.00 | −6.63 | <0.00 | 0.24 ± 0.02 | 9.17 | <0.00 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 5.98 | <0.00 |
Dose 25 vs. dose 50 | −0.16 ± 0.01 | −10.81 | <0.00 | −3.50 ± 0.01 | −6.86 | <0.00 | 0.20 ± 0.02 | 7.78 | <0.00 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 3.47 | 0.02 |
Dose 25 vs. dose 65 | −0.19 ± 0.02 | −11.98 | <0.00 | −4.16 ± 0.00 | −7.44 | <0.00 | 0.21 ± 0.02 | 7.50 | <0.00 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 4.59 | 0.00 |
Dose 25 vs. dose 75 | −0.25 ± 0.01 | −16.45 | <0.00 | −5.20 ± 0.01 | −10.00 | <0.00 | 0.21 ± 0.00 | 8.30 | <0.00 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 6.44 | <0.00 |
Dose 25 vs. dose 100 | −0.20 ± 0.01 | −13.43 | <0.00 | −3.71 ± 0.00 | −7.24 | <0.00 | 0.13 ± 0.01 | 5.24 | <0.00 | 0.07 ± 0.01 | 5.18 | <0.00 |
Dose 25 vs. dose 150 | −0.18 ± 0.01 | −12.42 | <0.00 | −3.05 ± 0.00 | −6.00 | <0.00 | 0.24 ± 0.01 | 9.16 | <0.00 | 0.17 ± 0.01 | 5.42 | <0.00 |
Dose 50 vs. dose 65 | −0.03 ± 0.02 | −2.05 | 0.60 | −6.55 ± 0.00 | −1.15 | 0.98 | 0.00 ± 0.02 | 0.29 | 1.00 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 1.35 | 0.95 |
Dose 50 vs. dose 75 | −0.08 ± 0.01 | −5.76 | 0.08 | −1.69 ± 0.00 | −3.19 | 0.06 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.52 | 1.00 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 2.98 | 0.11 |
Dose 50 vs. dose 100 | −0.04 ± 0.01 | −2.67 | 0.22 | −2.05 ± 0.00 | −0.39 | 1.00 | −0.06 ± 0.02 | −2.54 | 0.29 | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 1.70 | 0.82 |
Dose 50 vs. dose 150 | −0.02 ± 0.01 | −1.64 | 0.85 | 4.47 ± 0.01 | 0.86 | 0.99 | 0.03 ± 0.02 | 1.38 | 0.95 | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 1.95 | 0.67 |
Dose 65 vs. dose 75 | −0.05 ± 0.02 | −3.28 | 0.05 | −1.03 ± 0.01 | −1.80 | 0.77 | 0.00 ± 0.02 | 0.18 | 1.00 | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 1.40 | 0.94 |
Dose 65 vs. dose 100 | −0.00 ± 0.02 | −0.41 | 1.00 | 4.50 ± 0.00 | 0.79 | 0.99 | −0.07 ± 0.02 | −2.65 | 0.23 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | 0.22 | 1.00 |
Dose 65 vs. dose 150 | 0.00 ± 0.02 | 0.53 | 1.00 | 1.10 ± 0.01 | 1.94 | 0.68 | 0.02 ± 0.02 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | 0.45 | 1.00 |
Dose 75 vs. dose 100 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 3.09 | 0.08 | 1.48 ± 0.00 | 2.80 | 0.16 | −0.08 ± 0.01 | −3.06 | 0.09 | −0.01 ± 0.01 | −1.28 | 0.97 |
Dose 75 vs. dose 150 | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 4.12 | 0.07 | 2.14 ± 0.00 | 4.05 | 0.07 | 0.02 ± 0.02 | 0.85 | 0.99 | −0.01 ± 0.01 | −1.02 | 0.99 |
Dose 100 vs. dose 150 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 1.03 | 0.99 | 6.52 ± 0.00 | 1.25 | 0.97 | 0.10 ± 0.02 | 3.92 | 0.00 | 0.00 ± 0.01 | 0.25 | 1.00 |
Estimates of mixed effect model for the behavioral parameters measured during caffeine exposure.
Dose values are expressed in mg/L.
Figure 2 shows zebrafish total distance traveled along the 60-min period of caffeine exposure. Graphs denoting the behavior for 0.5 and 1.0 m/L are not shown. The mixed model comparison showed that total distance traveled changed over time (GLMM,
Time-course path of the total distance traveled during 60-min caffeine exposure in zebrafish. Mean ± SEM are shown for every 1-min intervals of the total 60 min recording. The caffeine doses (group designations) are shown above the graphs. Sample sizes (
Figure 3 illustrates freezing behavior presented by zebrafish during caffeine challenge, a behavior related to fear and anxiety. Graphs referent to doses 0.5 and 1.0 mg/L are omitted. The mixed model comparison showed that freezing did not change over time (GLMM,
Time-course path of the freezing behavior during 60-min caffeine exposure in zebrafish. Mean ± SEM are shown for every 1-min intervals of the total 60 min recording. The caffeine doses (group designations) are shown above the graphs. Sample sizes (
Figure 4 presents zebrafish time spent at the bottom of the testing tank, another behavior associated to fear and anxiety response. Again, graphs representing doses 0.1 and 1.0 mg/L were not presented. The mixed model comparison showed that distance from the bottom did not change over time (GLMM,
Time-course path of the time spent at the bottom of the tank (up to 5 cm from the bottom) during 60-min caffeine exposure in zebrafish. Mean ± SEM are shown for every 1-min intervals of the total 60 min recording. The caffeine doses (group designations) are shown above the graphs. Sample sizes (
Figure 5 displays the median and range of variation of the 60-min caffeine exposure in zebrafish, both for the parameters related to locomotion (Figure 5a and b) and the parameters related to anxiety-like behavior (Figure 5c and d). One-Way ANOVA between groups (caffeine doses) showed that average speed did not differ from the control condition when fish is exposed to doses up to 5 mg/L caffeine, but it is increased with doses of 10 and 25 mg/L and decreased with doses above 50 mg/L (
Box plot shows median and interquartile range of locomotor behavior: (a) average swimming speed, (b) total distance traveled, (c) freezing, and (d) time spent at the bottom of the tank, whiskers represent the range. Tendency line indicates the inverted U shape observed for increasing doses of caffeine on locomotor behavioral parameters (swimming speed and distance traveled), and the ascendant pattern observed for increase doses of caffeine on anxiety-like behavioral parameters (freezing and time at the bottom of the tank). For statistical analysis, see Section 3.
This study characterizes variations in the locomotor pattern and anxiety-like behavior derived from acute exposure to caffeine in zebrafish. We evaluated a wide spectrum of caffeine doses, from 0.5 to 150 mg/L, every 1-min interval along 60-min period of the drug exposure. This detailed analysis of different doses overtime allowed to the observation that caffeine has a biphasic effect, stimulating locomotion and decreasing anxiety at low levels, and diminishing activity and increasing anxiety-like behavior at doses above 50 mg/L.
While caffeine is accepted to act as a stimulant on the central nervous system [43], it is worth noting that in fact this drug exerts distinct responses depending on the amount used. Initially, caffeine has little or no impact on behavior, followed by the most evident effect caused by an intermediate dose, and then a remarkable suppression at the level of behavioral activity, as observed in Figure 5. High caffeine doses (50 and 100 mg/L) were previously shown to depress locomotor activity in zebrafish [15, 44], but our study is the first to present a time-course analyses of the effects of several doses of caffeine in adult zebrafish. The same dose-dependent effects observed herein in rodents, suggesting the models similarity in terms of the mechanism by which caffeine produces behavioral effects [45].
Adenosine receptor blockade seems to be the prevalent action of caffeine in the brain. The increase on locomotor activity after caffeine exposure derives from the blockade of A2A adenosine receptors, preventing the inhibitory action of adenosine on the nervous system [46]. The antagonist role of caffeine usually stimulates the central nervous system and also activates dopaminergic transmission [47–49], which is consistent with the drug reinforcing properties. Another event that occurs at the time of caffeine ingestion and which causes increased locomotor activity is the inhibition of phosphodiesterase (an enzyme that hydrolyses cAMP), which promotes the release of calcium from intracellular reserves and interferes with the sensitivity of GABA receptors [50].
Caffeine is a substance widely used by the society [1] and, if used in moderation (up to 200 mg/day/person on average), it may lead to several benefits, such as improved performance on tasks that require attention and focus [51, 52]. For instance, it was observed that zebrafish improves object discrimination when treated with moderate doses of caffeine [53]. The most notable effects of low-to-moderate doses of caffeine include increased alertness, energy, and ability to concentrate [54]. On the other hand, high and abusive use of caffeine may inhibit these effects [55]. At high concentrations, caffeine is suggested to increase glucose utilization in the CNS, what also seems to be related to its stimulatory effects [56]. The elevated sugar level (main CSN subtract) together with the blockage of adenosine inhibitory effects, in turn, is responsible to the caffeine side-effects on the motor system and sleep-wake cycle, two functions highly susceptible to caffeine.
Moreover, higher caffeine doses induce negative effects such as increased sympathetic response (tachycardia, higher ventilation), restlessness, insomnia, and anxiety [57]. The high acute dose of caffeine exacerbates anxiety-like behavior, reduces locomotion, and in many cases, causes behavior similar to seizure [58], very high doses of caffeine may also cause intoxication and death of the individuals [54, 59]. The same pattern of effect was observed in zebrafish larvae under the action of high doses of caffeine [60]. It is known that adenosine regulates the activity of several neurons, such as glutamatergic; thus, if the effect of adenosine is blocked, glutamatergic transmission increases and may turn to an extremely high excitatory response [12, 56].
Finally, our results reinforce the zebrafish as a valuable model organism for throughput screening of behavioral-related drugs. While caffeine is a legal and widely consumed substance, the amount of caffeine ingested should be taken into consideration since negative effects are observed after high doses consumption. We found that moderate caffeine intake ameliorates performance, but a robust anxiety-related response occurs following exposure to high doses of caffeine. Taken together, these results confirm zebrafish as an accurate, reliable, and efficient model for basic translational research of psychoactive drugs on physiology and behavior.
The authors are thankful to J.J. Oliveira for technical support and F. Freire for statistical assistance.
Over past two decades, there has been noticeable increase in the research publications on switched reluctance machine (SRM). The machine can be operated as both generator and motor by suitable control techniques. It has been proved from research publications that SRM is a valid alternative to conventional machines in almost all industrial applications. The characteristics of electromagnetic parameters are highly non-linear due to the following reasons; i) highly saturated working zone ii) eddy current and hysteresis current effects iii) double salient structure and iv) non uniform air gap. All these effects makes the machine’s flux linkage and torque as the non-linear function of phase current (Iph) and rotor position(θ). Flux linkage of the machine depends on its phase inductance. For the analysis and control of the machine, it is important to establish the accurate nonlinear mapping between its phase inductance, phase current and rotor position. The design and electrical analysis of the machine is greatly dependent on its electromagnetic behavior. Linear mathematical models are proposed by many publications that are not applicable for real time control. Non-linear models are developed by few researchers based on the following techniques; a) Analytical model [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10] in which Fourier series based expressions are derived. This method is highly time consuming and not suitable for real time control applications. b) magnetic model [11] c) finite element model (FEM) [11, 12] provides accurate results whereas it involves complicated mathematics computation. d) Artificial neural network models [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
All these models have either fine precision or good computation speed. Both the benefits are not satisfied in any of these models. Few of the recent research publications have reported using the Adaptive Neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) techniques for the computation of magnetic parameters [22, 23, 24] and estimation of rotor position [25]. On the overview of the publications on modeling of SRM, it is observed that none of the papers have paid attention in using Multivariate nonlinear regression technique (MVNLRT) for estimating its nonlinear inductance model. In this chapter, non-linear inductance model of SRM is developed based on the MVNLRT and ANFIS. Also the comparison between the results of ANFIS and MVNLRT inductance models are presented. This chapter is organized as follows; Section II discusses the mathematical model of SRM and the necessity of inductance modeling. The nonlinear inductance model based on MVNLRT and the one based on ANFIS are presented in section III and IV respectively. The comparative analysis of both the models is presented in section V and the inferential remarks are given in section VI.
SRM is a singly excited and doubly salient machine shown in Figure 1. The number of phases wound on the stator poles differs from machine to machine. There is certain number of suitable combinations of stator and rotor poles thus giving many machine configurations. The phase windings are excited sequentially for rotating the rotor in desired direction. For efficient control, the phase windings are excited with the current pulses based on the rotor position.
Three phase 6/4 pole SRM configuration.
The electromagnetic characteristics of the machine vary depending on the relative rotor position with respect to stator pole axis and magnitude of current in the excited phase winding. An ideal machine is one with equal stator and rotor pole axis and saturation of the core and leakage fluxes are neglected. In such a ideal machine, the variation of phase inductance is triangular in shape. However, in a practical machine, the variation is highly nonlinear. When the stator and rotor poles are coincident (aligned position), the inductance is maximum and minimum inductance is experienced when the rotor inter polar axis coincides with the excited stator pole axis (unaligned position). The position of rotor between these two positions is called intermediate positions. Upon exciting a particular stator phase, its nearest pair of rotor poles tends to move towards the path of minimum reluctance along the excited stator poles by developing a required torque. The magnitude of torque developed depends on the magnitude of the excited current and rate of change of inductance with rotor position. Accurate rotor position sensors, power converter and a controller with good control technique are required for the successful operation and precise control of SRM [26].
Owing to the high non-linearity of the machine, a mathematical model describing the behavior of the machine is required. This model can be used as a base for simulation and verification of static and dynamic characteristics of SRM.
The conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice versa by an electromechanical energy converter is illustrated by the energy-balance scheme shown in Figure 2.
Electromechanical energy conversion model.
A magnetic system couples the electrical and mechanical systems. The electromechanical energy converter illustrates the relationship between the electrical energy, mechanical energy, energy losses, energy stored and energies transferred between the electrical and mechanical systems. From Figure 2, and making an assumption that Wiron = 0 and Wleak = 0, the following equations are developed.
Thus Energy output = Energy input-Energy losses-Energy stored.
In an ideal system, if the energy losses are neglected, the output energy is equal to the energy input into the system minus energy stored in the various components of the system. However, the stored energies can be recovered through regenerative process.
Electromagnetic characteristics of a 6/4 pole SRM is shown in Figure 3. The illustration shows the mapping among the flux linkage (ψ), current (i) in excited phase and rotor position (θ) of SRM. The high non-linearity behavior of the machine is clearly visible from the figure. The curve is linear for small values of excitation current. As the rotor rotates from unaligned to aligned position, the mapping among the motor parameters becomes highly nonlinear.
Magnetization characteristics of three phase 6/4 pole SRM.
Figure 4 shows the equivalent circuit of an excited phase of the motor.
Electrical equivalent circuit of the SRM.
According to Figure 4, the instantaneous voltage across the terminals of a phase of SRM winding related to the flux linked in the winding is given by,
Due to the double salient structure and effect of magnetic saturation, the flux linkage (
When a phase of the SRM is excited by a voltage source, the instantaneous power is obtained by multiplying (12) by
where
is the energy stored in the magnetic field.
and
is the expression for instantaneous torque produced in the energized phase winding. In (15), The instantaneous electrical power supplied to the motor is given on the left hand side of the equation. On the right hand side of equation, the first term represents the power loss due to phase resistance, the derivative of stored energy in the magnetic field is represented in the second term and the mechanical power developed by the motor is represented in the third term.
The stator and rotor pole arc combinations are equal in SRM. The machine has triangular shaped inductance characteristics. The inductance value is maximum at aligned position and minimum at unaligned position. For a 6/4 pole SRM, an inductance profile for unequal stator and rotor pole arc combinations are shown in Figure 5. From the Eq. (17), it is clear that SRM develops positive torque when the phase is excited during the period of rising inductance, when
Variation of inductance for one rotor pole pitch.
The torque developed can be normally expressed in terms of the change of coenergy with respect to rotor position. The
Magnetic characteristics of SRM. (a) Electromechanical energy conversion. (b) ψ i characteristics for a given rotor position.
Consider the movement of the rotor through an infinitesimal displacement
and the change in stored field energy is
and the mechanical work done is,
The area OWX represents the change in the co-energy (
It can be observed that only a part of the energy input into the motor is utilized for torque production. If the
Regression analysis uses many techniques for modeling and analyzing parameters. It is useful in accurate mapping of dependent and independent variables even under unknown physical process. In non-linear regression model, the observed data are expressed as a nonlinear function of parameters and proved to be more accurate even for extrapolated data range. A nonlinear model is expressed as given in (23).
where
y - Vector of the observed response variables (n × 1).
X - matrix determined by the predictor variables (n × p).
β - vector of unknown parameters to be estimated (p × 1).
Multivariate analysis encompasses the observation and analysis of more than one outcome variable and gives an excellent solution for nonlinear problems. This approach executes well in high dimensional problems especially when the available data set is of very small size. In this section MVNLR model is used for estimating the inductance parameters. Coefficients of predictor variables are estimated using least square method. The inductance values between an unaligned and aligned position from the magnetization characteristics of [27] has been used in exploring the non-linear relationships between the phase inductance L(i,θ), phase current(I) and rotor position(θ) and is expressed in terms of least square polynomial approximation of third order and the MVNLRT based inductance model of the three phase, 6/4 SRG is expressed by the Eq. (24).
Comparison of true values Vs MVNLR estimated values is shown in Figure 7. From the analysis, it is clearly evident that the MVNLR predicted inductance values shows a strong agreement with the true data values used for developing the model.
True data set vs MVNLR predicted data.
The ANFIS is an adaptive neuro - fuzzy inference system (Jyh-Shing et al., 1993) [28]. The fuzzy inference system (FIS) has been developed for the inductance estimation of SR machine. FIS has two inputs and single output. Phase current (Iph) and rotor position (θ) are the input variables and phase inductance, L(I,θ) is the output variable. The input variables are fuzzified using 12 triangular membership functions. Fuzzy rule base has 12*12 (144) if-then rules. The ANFIS architecture is shown in Figure 8. There are 5 layers in the ANFIS network.
ANFIS network structure.
The output of the input membership functions specifies the degree to which the given i and θ satisfies the quantifier Ak and Bk. Triangular shaped membership functions
Similarly, the generalized triangular shaped membership function of the rotor position is given by
where ak, bk and ck are the adaptable variables. The triangular shaped functions varies with the change in the parameter values.
where k = 1, 2…12;
Output of layer 3 is
The magnetic parameter values are considered during the period of unaligned to aligned rotor position for developing the inductance model. The range of the current and rotor position during this period are 0 ≤ I ≤ 25 A and 0 ≤ θ ≤ 45 deg.
The ANFIS information are as follows.
Total number of parameters: 504; Number of nonlinear parameters: 72
Number of linear parameters: 432; Number of fuzzy rules: 144
Number of training data pairs: 182; Number of checking data pairs: 0
Number of nodes: 341.
The triangular membership functions for the two inputs: current and rotor position are given in Figure 9(a) and (b) respectively.
Fuzzy triangular membership functions for the input parameters. (a) Phase current. (b) Rotor position.
The 144 rules framed in ANFIS is shown in Figure 10. The fuzzy inference process is interpreted from this rule viewer. The AFIS surface mapping between input and output parameters is depicted in Figure 11. For low values of current, the variation in inductance is observed to be linear. After saturation, the variation is highly non linear. Figure 12 shows the comparison of the original test data with the ANFIS predicted data. From this comparison, it is clear that the inductance estimation from ANFIS is in very good concurrence with the test values of inductance. Figure 13 shows the MATLAB simulink model of ANFIS inductance predictor.
Rule viewer - ANFIS.
Mapping surface of L(i,ϴ).
True data vs ANFIS predicted data.
ANFIS inductance predictor from Simulink.
Both the proposed inductance models based on MVNLRT and ANFIS uses the data from the magnetization characteristics of the machine. Figure 14 shows the comparison chart of the inductance values obtained from the ANFIS and MVNLRT models and Figure 15 illustrates the comparison of these two models along with the actual inductance values. For both the methods, the predicted and true values are compared at various phase current values and the same is shown in Figure 16. Root-mean-squared error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and Maximum Absolute value Error (MAVE) for both the methods at different currents are given in Table 1. The RMSE for ANFIS and MVNLRT for full range of currents is shown in Figure 17. From the careful observation of comparison charts and error values, it is inferred that both ANFIS and MVNLRT models produces accurate mapping between input and output parameters. Among these two methods, ANFIS model has proved to have developed the model with higher precision and with least errors.
MVNLR vs ANFIS models.
True vs MVNLR vs ANFIS data.
MVNLR VS ANFIS at various currents.
Current in amps | For θ varying from 0 to 45 degrees at each phase current | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ANFIS Estimator(Error in Henry) | MVNRT Estimator(Error in Henry) | |||||
Labs max | Labs mean | LRMSE | Labs max | Labs mean | LRMSE | |
0 | 2.7E-03 | 3E-04 | 8E-04 | 1.1E-02 | 1.6E-03 | 4E-03 |
5 | 9E-04 | 6.5E-05 | 1.7E-04 | 3.3E-03 | 1.4E-04 | 3.6E-04 |
10 | 7.1E-04 | 1.6E-05 | 4.2E-05 | 1.3E-03 | 6.6E-05 | 1.7E-04 |
15 | 9.7E-04 | 1.6E-04 | 4.2E-04 | 1.2E-03 | 2.9E-04 | 7.6E-04 |
20 | 8.5E-04 | 1.3E-04 | 3.4E-04 | 7.5E-04 | 1.5E-04 | 4E-04 |
25 | 9.3E-04 | 8.1E-05 | 2.2E-04 | 2E-03 | 2.9E-04 | 7.7E-04 |
RMSE, MAE and MAVE at different currents and rotor position.
L_RMSE - ANFIS vs MVNLR.
This paper has presented two methods of computationally efficient modeling techniques for a 3 phase,6/4 switched reluctance generator for obtaining the nonlinear inductance model by means of adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system and Multivariate nonlinear regression technique. The developed inductance profile based on both these methods is trained with the same set of true data. Both the estimated models depicts the nonlinear relation between phase winding inductance at various operating currents and at various rotor positions at each current. MVNLR predicted model is in good concurrence with the true model. The ANFIS model shows an excellent concurrence with true data and reports only an insignificant error throughout the data range. From the observations and analysis of results obtained, it is inferred that both the techniques are proficient in estimation of SRM inductance parameter within acceptable accuracy limits. The methods are highly certain in presenting a superior performance when applied to modeling, prediction and control. Both are very simple, easy to implement and are sure to replace any computationally intensive numerical model of SRM. Of the two methods proposed in this chapter, ANFIS has high computational speed, simple structure, least training least epoch, faster learning, good convergence and presents a superior performance. The computational accuracy and easiness of estimation validate that ANFIS is highly competent tool for real time control of SR machine.
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Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:9282,totalCrossrefCites:166,totalDimensionsCites:399,abstract:null,book:{id:"2270",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"42566",doi:"10.5772/53706",title:"Challenges and Opportunities for Spark Plasma Sintering: A Key Technology for a New Generation of Materials",slug:"challenges-and-opportunities-for-spark-plasma-sintering-a-key-technology-for-a-new-generation-of-mat",totalDownloads:9164,totalCrossrefCites:99,totalDimensionsCites:211,abstract:null,book:{id:"3478",slug:"sintering-applications",title:"Sintering Applications",fullTitle:"Sintering Applications"},signatures:"M. Suárez, A. Fernández, J.L. Menéndez, R. Torrecillas, H. U. Kessel, J. Hennicke, R. Kirchner and T. Kessel",authors:[{id:"102383",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Suárez",slug:"marta-suarez",fullName:"Marta Suárez"},{id:"103822",title:"Dr.",name:"J.L",middleName:null,surname:"Menendez",slug:"j.l-menendez",fullName:"J.L Menendez"},{id:"103833",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Torrecillas",slug:"ramon-torrecillas",fullName:"Ramón Torrecillas"},{id:"162633",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"adolfo-fernandez",fullName:"Adolfo Fernández"}]},{id:"23617",doi:"10.5772/24118",title:"Collagen- vs. Gelatine-Based Biomaterials and Their Biocompatibility: Review and Perspectives",slug:"collagen-vs-gelatine-based-biomaterials-and-their-biocompatibility-review-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:9450,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:204,abstract:null,book:{id:"1487",slug:"biomaterials-applications-for-nanomedicine",title:"Biomaterials",fullTitle:"Biomaterials Applications for Nanomedicine"},signatures:"Selestina Gorgieva and Vanja Kokol",authors:[{id:"55577",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanja",middleName:null,surname:"Kokol",slug:"vanja-kokol",fullName:"Vanja Kokol"},{id:"61285",title:"BSc",name:"Selestina",middleName:null,surname:"Gorgieva",slug:"selestina-gorgieva",fullName:"Selestina Gorgieva"}]},{id:"46243",doi:"10.5772/57255",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors – Principles, Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-mechanisms-and-applications",totalDownloads:13727,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:161,abstract:null,book:{id:"3817",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection"},signatures:"Camila G. Dariva and Alexandre F. Galio",authors:[{id:"169261",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:"G.",surname:"Dariva",slug:"camila-dariva",fullName:"Camila Dariva"},{id:"170138",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Galio",slug:"alexandre-galio",fullName:"Alexandre Galio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"76780",title:"Basics of Clay Minerals and Their Characteristic Properties",slug:"basics-of-clay-minerals-and-their-characteristic-properties",totalDownloads:1904,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Clay minerals such as kaolinite, smectite, chlorite, micas are main components of raw materials of clay and formed in presence of water. A large number of clays used to form the different structure which completely depends on their mining source. They are known as hydrous phyllosilicate having silica, alumina and water with variable amount of inorganic ions like Mg2+, Na+, Ca2+ which are found either in interlayer space or on the planetary surface. Clay minerals are described by presence of two-dimensional sheets, tetrahedral (SiO4) and octahedral (Al2O3). There are different clay minerals which are categorized based on presence of tetrahedral and octahedral layer in their structure like kaolinite (1:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers), smectite group of clay minerals (2:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers) and chlorite (2:1:1 of tetrahedral, octahedral and octahedral layers). The particle size of clay minerals is <2microns which can be present in form of plastic in presence of water and solidified when dried. The small size and their distinctive crystal structure make clay minerals very special with their unique properties including high cation exchange capacity, swelling behavior, specific surface area, adsorption capacity, etc. which are described in this chapter. Due to all these unique properties, clay minerals are gaining interest in different fields.",book:{id:"10949",slug:"clay-and-clay-minerals",title:"Clay and Clay Minerals",fullTitle:"Clay and Clay Minerals"},signatures:"Neeraj Kumari and Chandra Mohan",authors:[{id:"258132",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Mohan",slug:"chandra-mohan",fullName:"Chandra Mohan"},{id:"352399",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeraj",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"neeraj-kumari",fullName:"Neeraj Kumari"}]},{id:"51535",title:"An Introduction to Hydrogels and Some Recent Applications",slug:"an-introduction-to-hydrogels-and-some-recent-applications",totalDownloads:11714,totalCrossrefCites:70,totalDimensionsCites:141,abstract:"Hydrogels have existed for more than half a century, and today they have many applications in various processes ranging from industrial to biological. There are numerous original papers, reviews, and monographs focused on the synthesis, properties, and applications of hydrogels. This chapter covers the fundamental aspects and several applications of hydrogels based on the old and the most recent publications in this field.",book:{id:"5251",slug:"emerging-concepts-in-analysis-and-applications-of-hydrogels",title:"Emerging Concepts in Analysis and Applications of Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Emerging Concepts in Analysis and Applications of Hydrogels"},signatures:"Morteza Bahram, Naimeh Mohseni and Mehdi Moghtader",authors:[{id:"179718",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",middleName:null,surname:"Bahram",slug:"morteza-bahram",fullName:"Morteza Bahram"},{id:"185713",title:"Dr.",name:"Naimeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohseni",slug:"naimeh-mohseni",fullName:"Naimeh Mohseni"},{id:"185714",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdi",middleName:null,surname:"Moghtader",slug:"mehdi-moghtader",fullName:"Mehdi Moghtader"}]},{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2641,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Environmental pollution has been rising in the past few decades due to increased anthropogenic activities. Bioremediation is an attractive and successful cleaning technique to remove toxic waste from polluted environment. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms. The main principle is degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms. Bioremediation can be carried out ex-situ and in-situ, depending on several factors, which include but not limited to cost, site characteristics, type, and concentration of pollutants. Hence, appropriate bioremediation technique is selected. Additionally, the major methodologies to develop bioremediation are biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bioventing, biopiles, and bioattenuation provided the environmental factors that decide the completion of bioremediation. Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"18275",title:"Modeling and Identification of Parameters the Piezoelectric Transducers in Ultrasonic Systems",slug:"modeling-and-identification-of-parameters-the-piezoelectric-transducers-in-ultrasonic-systems",totalDownloads:10168,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"201",slug:"advances-in-ceramics-electric-and-magnetic-ceramics-bioceramics-ceramics-and-environment",title:"Advances in Ceramics",fullTitle:"Advances in Ceramics - Electric and Magnetic Ceramics, Bioceramics, Ceramics and Environment"},signatures:"Pawel Fabijanski and Ryszard Lagoda",authors:[{id:"13086",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawel",middleName:null,surname:"Fabijański",slug:"pawel-fabijanski",fullName:"Pawel Fabijański"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16234,totalCrossrefCites:187,totalDimensionsCites:405,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"14",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82940",title:"Role of Surface Defects and Optical Band-gap Energy on Photocatalytic Activities of Titanate-based Perovskite Nanomaterial",slug:"role-of-surface-defects-and-optical-band-gap-energy-on-photocatalytic-activities-of-titanate-based-p",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106253",abstract:"In recent years, water pollution has become one of the major challenges faced by humans because of consistent rise in population and industrial activities. Water pollution due to discharge from cosmetics and pharmaceutical wastes, organic dyes, and heavy metal seen as carcinogens has the potential to disrupt hormonal processes in the body. Different approaches such as chlorination, aerobic treatment, aeration, and filtration have been deployed to treat wastewaters before being discharged into the streams, lakes, and rivers. However, more attention has been accorded to treatment approaches that involve use of nanomaterial due to non-secondary pollution, energy efficiency, and ease of operation. Titanate-based perovskite (TBP) is one of the most frequently studied nanomaterials for photocatalytic applications because of its stability and flexibility in optical band-gap modification. This chapter provided an overview of basic principles and mechanisms of a semiconductor photocatalyst, and current synthesis techniques that have been used in formulating TBP nanomaterial. The effect of reaction conditions and approaches such as doping, codoping, composites, temperature, pH, precursor type, surface area, and morphology on surface defects and optical band-gap energy of TBP nanomaterial was highlighted. Importantly, the impact of surface defects and optical band-gap energy of TBP on its photocatalytic activities was discussed. Finally, how to enhance the degradation efficiency of TBP was proposed.",book:{id:"11469",title:"Recent Advances in Perovskite Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11469.jpg"},signatures:"Izunna Stanislaus Okeke, Priscilla Yahemba Aondona, Amoge Chidinma Ogu, Eugene Echeweozo and Fabian Ifeanyichukwu Ezema"},{id:"82718",title:"Refractories for the Cast Iron Melting",slug:"refractories-for-the-cast-iron-melting",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105973",abstract:"Refractory is a very important component in economically successful melting of cast iron. Refractory is used to line the furnace or any other vessel used for melting or holding of the molten metal. This chapter has discussed the different type of furnaces used for the melting of cast iron, the special features of those furnaces and the operational parameters of those furnaces with special emphasis on the coreless induction furnace, which is most commonly used. It has dealt with the installation practices of the refractory lining and also has discussed the mode of failure of the refractory lining and the precautions to be taken during installation and during use.",book:{id:"11766",title:"Cast Iron - Production, Properties, Characterization, and Casting Defects Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11766.jpg"},signatures:"Prasunjit Sengupta"},{id:"82988",title:"Optimization of Retained Austenite and Corrosion Properties on EN-31 Bearing Steel by Cryogenic Treatment Process",slug:"optimization-of-retained-austenite-and-corrosion-properties-on-en-31-bearing-steel-by-cryogenic-trea",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106317",abstract:"In this work, the percentage of retained austenite and corrosion rate presented on EN 31 bearing steel was identified by which cryogenic treatment processes. Further investigation carried out the possible mechanism brought in by which treatment has significantly improving the properties of the EN-31 bearing steel. The hardness values of CHT and DCT were compared by using the microstructure view of the CHT and DCT samples. The optimised cryotreated samples were prepared for metallographic examination as per ASTM E3-01. Then, the specimen were subjected to factor level settings such as cooling rate, soaking period, soaking temperature and tempering temperature at various conditions. Moreover, the precipitation of fine carbides and the transformation of retained austenite to martensite showed considerable variations in the hardness of the optimised DCT samples compared with the CHT samples. The mean hardness value of this sample is 861 HV and 19.20%, 847 HV and 17.25%, 838 HV and 17.10%, 857 HV and 18.40%, 790 HV and 13.45% improvement in the hardness compared with CHT.",book:{id:"11468",title:"High Entropy Materials - Microstructures and Properties",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11468.jpg"},signatures:"Shunmuga Priyan Murugan"},{id:"82495",title:"CALPHAD as a Toolbox to Facilitate the Development of HEAs",slug:"calphad-as-a-toolbox-to-facilitate-the-development-of-heas",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105191",abstract:"This chapter would be a comprehensive review of the successful application of the CALPHAD method in the research and development of high-entropy alloys (HEAs) in recent years. The structure of this chapter is obedient to the conventional framework in materials science, and several topics would be covered, including composition and structure design, heat treatment and solidification processing, and some properties and performances, such as mechanical and electrochemical corrosion behaviors and high-temperature oxidation characteristics. A conclusion and outlook of the CALPHAD method are also provided at the end of this chapter. Hope this chapter could offer a thermodynamic and kinetic perspective for facilitating the field of HEA research and inspire other researchers to contribute more valuable ideas and works.",book:{id:"11468",title:"High Entropy Materials - Microstructures and Properties",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11468.jpg"},signatures:"Wei Wang and Zhou Li"},{id:"82860",title:"Boron Compounds for Neutron Capture Therapy in the Treatment of Brain Tumors",slug:"boron-compounds-for-neutron-capture-therapy-in-the-treatment-of-brain-tumors",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106202",abstract:"Boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT), which uses the capture reaction between neutrons and boron-10, an isotope of boron, is rapidly gaining interest. The reason for this is the successful development of a compact accelerator-type neutron generator that can be installed in a hospital and launched into the clinical setting. BNCT, which provides selective radiotherapeutic effects at the cellular level, is expected to be effective against invasive cancer. We have been investigating BNCT applications in various types of malignant brain tumors, especially malignant gliomas, as medical applications. Recently, we have conducted clinical trials using the developed accelerator neutron source. Research on pharmaceutical applications of compounds that transport boron to cancer cells is expected to be in even greater need. Currently, the only boron agent used in cancer therapy is BPA (Borofaran 10B), which takes advantage of the demand for essential amino acids, but the research and development of boron agents are an absolutely key technology to further improve the precision of this treatment modality. This chapter summarizes and discusses the results of BNCT in the treatment of brain tumors.",book:{id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg"},signatures:"Shinji Kawabata, Naonori Hu, Ryo Hiramatsu, Kohei Tsujino, Naokado Ikeda, Naosuke Nonoguchi, Motomasa Furuse and Masahiko Wanibuchi"},{id:"82918",title:"Amplitude-Dependent Acoustic Absorber",slug:"amplitude-dependent-acoustic-absorber",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106010",abstract:"In this chapter, we consider the design of 1D amplitude-dependent acoustic absorber, i.e., acoustic metamaterial composed of an air-filled waveguide periodically side-loaded by holes. Firstly we present experimental results about high-amplitude sound wave propagation in the structure. We find that there is not only the linear viscothermal and radiation losses, but also the nonlinear losses. High-amplitude sound waves at the locations of the side holes could introduce nonlinear losses, which is due to the geometrical discontinuity. This phenomenon could be found in experiments about amplitude-dependent reflection, transmission, and absorption coefficients. The experimental results show the possibility to use the system as a nonlinear absorber, that is, nonlinear losses change the nature of the device from a reflective to an absorbing one. Our results reveal the role of nonlinear losses in the proposed device and also provide a quite accurate analytical model to capture the effect of such losses. In the end, we analytically tune the parameters of the device and design 1D amplitude-dependent acoustic absorber.",book:{id:"11824",title:"Metamaterials - History, Current State, Applications, and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11824.jpg"},signatures:"Jiangyi Zhang"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:76},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. 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Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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