Characteristics of the experimental soil and organic amendment (mean ± standard error). Data are the means of four samples.
\r\n\tKey Features:
\r\n\t*Reviews the basics of plating technology including electroless and immersion technologies
\r\n\t*Covers microjoining and nanojoining processes in various device applications
\r\n\t*Examines applications of microjoining such as the wafer level packaging, biomedical research, medical implants etc.
Pesticides are important tools in agriculture that help to minimize economic losses caused by weeds, insects, and pathogens. Although their use has helped to increase crop yields and value, they may also contribute to environmental degradation [1].
Pesticides are recognized as a source of potential adverse environmental impacts and their persistent in surface and ground waters has grown considerably [2]. Some soil applied herbicides reach surface and ground waters by the losses associated with runoff and leaching processes [3]. These losses are attenuated by the natural process of sorption, since degradation, transport, and biological activity of pesticides are greatly influenced by sorption on soil constituents [2].
In order to compensate for the losses caused by transport and degradation processes, some pesticides applicators are exceeding limits on labels which greatly exceed those required for control of the target organisms, and the excessive quantities added increase the environmental impact of these compounds [4, 5]. Because of this, public concern over the residues of pesticides in environment, food and related commodities has increased over the last decades. In Europe, pesticides are considered hazardous substances in accordance with current legislation regarding water [6, 7].
Traditional agricultural requires the use of herbicides, and prevention of ground water pollution is much cheaper than restoring polluted aquifers. Thus, it is of maximum interest that development of agricultural strategies continues to be directed to the decrease in pesticide movement [8].
Triazine herbicides have been largely used in agriculture worldwide for selective and non-selective control of broadleaf and small seeded grass weeds in diverse crops, such as cotton (Gossypium hirsutum, L.), maize (Zea mays, L.), soybean (Glycine max, L.), groundnut (Arachis hypogea, L.) and vineyards (Vitis vinifera, L.). However, due to their physicochemical properties (in particular, their relatively long persistence) there have been numerous reports of their presence in surface or ground waters [3, 9]. Several bioremediation strategies have been proposed to reduce the presence of pesticides in soil from which they can reach groundwater, such as remediation by enhancing the microbial population able to degrade specifically the target compounds. This strategy has been approached by addition of organic exogenous matter of different origin [9, 10, 11].
However, the influence of organic matter on soil properties and sorption process depends upon the type, amount and dominant components of the added organic materials [12, 13]. This aspect is of great interest, since it supposes an important advance in the behavior of the herbicides in the soil after the addition of different sources of organic matter.
Earthworms are one of the important components in decomposer communities and contribute significantly to the organic decomposition, nutrient cycling and soil formation [14]. Continuous application of pesticides may present risks to lead to soil pollution affect soil fauna [15]. For this reason, the use of earthworms for toxicity testing is highly recommended by the European Communities [16] and are considered as preferred bioindicators for assessing the environmental health status of chemical pollution [17, 18]. Earthworm species such as Eisenia fetida is considered as a suitable biomonitors to determine the ecological hazard of heavy metals and chemicals contaminated soil because of its low cost, easy culturing and the standardization of the acute and sub-chronic ecotoxicological tests [14, 19].
Of the potential biomarkers, earthworm glutathione-S-transferase and cellulalse enzymes are shown to respond to toxin exposure [14]. Glutathione-S-transferase is an important detoxification enzyme and its activity has been used as a potential bioindicator and biomarker of earthworms for heavy metals, pesticides and PAHs exposure [14, 15, 20]. Also, cellulase activity of earthworms indicates their role in the decomposition of plant litter and other cellulosic materials. It has been used as a biomarker of a pesticide contamination on earthworms [14, 20].
However, the biological relevance of Eisenia fetida is still open to debate [21] since they are often less susceptible to pollutants than other species [22] and rarely found in conventionally tilled agricultural soils. In this respect, Ma and Bodt [23] found and different levels of chlorpyrifos insecticide sensitivity to earthworms (Eisenia sp.< Aporrectodea sp.< Lumbricus sp.).
Few studies have been performed comparing different sources of organic matter types on the sorption and mobility of herbicides. For this reason, the objective of this study was to investigate the sorption and mobility of terbuthylazine herbicide in a soil amended with three organic amendment and their effects on acute toxicity and morphological alterations in two earthworm species (Eisenia fetida and Lumbricus terrestris).
The soil used in this experiment is a Plagic Antrosol [24]. The main soil characteristics are shown in Table 1.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tSoil\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPM\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tMSW\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCM\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
pH (H2O) | \n\t\t\t8.6 ± 0.2 | \n\t\t\t7.1 ± 0.3 | \n\t\t\t6.2 ± 0.3 | \n\t\t\t8.3 ± 0.2 | \n\t\t
CO3\n\t\t\t\t2- (g kg-1) | \n\t\t\t203 ± 12 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Fine sand (g kg-1) | \n\t\t\t142 ± 35 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Coarse sand (g kg-1) | \n\t\t\t387 ± 26 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Silt (g kg-1) | \n\t\t\t242 ± 19 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Clay (g kg-1) | \n\t\t\t229 ± 10 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Clay types | \n\t\t\tSmectite: 66% Kaolinite: 20% Illite: 14 % | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Organic matter (g kg-1) | \n\t\t\t1.1 ± 0.2 | \n\t\t\t614 ± 26 | \n\t\t\t469 ± 15 | \n\t\t\t764 ± 29 | \n\t\t
Humic acid-C (mg kg-1) | \n\t\t\t18.5 ± 2.4 | \n\t\t\t672 ± 1.4 | \n\t\t\t1030 ± 17 | \n\t\t\t461 ± 13 | \n\t\t
Fulvic acid-C (mg kg-1) | \n\t\t\t9.8 ± 1.1 | \n\t\t\t715 ± 10 | \n\t\t\t711 ± 10 | \n\t\t\t631 ± 24 | \n\t\t
Total N (g kg-1) | \n\t\t\t0.4 ± 0.1 | \n\t\t\t38.8 ± 2.9 | \n\t\t\t17.3 ± 1.3 | \n\t\t\t29.2 ± 2.1 | \n\t\t
Fe (mg kg-1) | \n\t\t\t35.8 ± 3.7 | \n\t\t\t180 ± 22 | \n\t\t\t815 ± 38 | \n\t\t\t407 ± 28 | \n\t\t
Cu (mg kg-1) | \n\t\t\t9.7 ± 1.3 | \n\t\t\t1.6 ± 0.3 | \n\t\t\t82.6 ± 9.8 | \n\t\t\t24.2 ± 1.8 | \n\t\t
Mn (mg kg-1) | \n\t\t\t11.3 ± 2.1 | \n\t\t\t4.2 ± 0.9 | \n\t\t\t75.6 ± 8.1 | \n\t\t\t14.1 ± 1.2 | \n\t\t
Zn (mg kg-1) | \n\t\t\t8.1 ± 1.5 | \n\t\t\t3.3 ± 0.8 | \n\t\t\t134 ± 13 | \n\t\t\t10.3 ± 1.6 | \n\t\t
Cd (mg kg-1) | \n\t\t\t6.5 ± 1.2 | \n\t\t\t0.35 ± 0.07 | \n\t\t\t1.1 ± 0.3 | \n\t\t\t0.28 ± 0.09 | \n\t\t
Pb (mg kg-1) | \n\t\t\t0.36 ± 0.11 | \n\t\t\t0.94 ± 0.12 | \n\t\t\t82.4 ± 3.6 | \n\t\t\t5.3 ± 0.8 | \n\t\t
Ni (mg kg-1) | \n\t\t\t2.9 ± 0.7 | \n\t\t\t1.3 ± 0.2 | \n\t\t\t13.6 ± 1.5 | \n\t\t\t2.4 ± 0.6 | \n\t\t
Cr (mg kg-1) | \n\t\t\t5.3 ± 0.6 | \n\t\t\t0.12± 0.02 | \n\t\t\t19.4 ± 1.7 | \n\t\t\t0.29 ± 0.04 | \n\t\t
Characteristics of the experimental soil and organic amendment (mean ± standard error). Data are the means of four samples.
Soil pH was determined in distilled water with a glass electrode (soil:H2O ratio 1:2.5). Soil texture was determined by the Robinson’s pipette method [25] and quantification and dominant clay types were determined by X-ray diffraction. Total carbonates were measured by estimating the quantity of the CO2 produced by HCl addition to the soil [26]. Soil organic matter was determined by the method of Yeomans and Bremner [27]. Humic and fulvic acids-fractions were extracted with 0.1 M sodium pyrophosphate and 0.1 M sodium hydroxide at pH 13 [28]. The supernatant was acidified to pH 2 with HCl and allowed to stand for 24 h at room temperature. To separate humic acids-fraction from fulvic acids-fraction, the solution was centrifuged and the precipitate containing humic acids-fraction was dissolved with sodium hydroxide [27]. After the removal of humic acids-fraction, the acidic filtrate containing the dissolved fulvic acid-fraction was passed through a column of XAD-8 resin. The adsorbed fulvic was then recovered by elution with 0.1 M NaOH, desalted using Amberlyst 15-cation-exchange resin, and finally freeze-dried. The carbon content of humic and fulvic acids-fractions were determined by the method described. Total N was determined by the Kjeldhal method [26]. After nitric and perchloric acid digestion, total Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni and Cr concentrations were determined by atomic absorption spectrometer and K was determined by atomic emission spectrometer, according to MAPA methods [26].
The organic amendment applied were the organic fraction of a municipal solid waste (MSW), poultry manure (PM) and cow manure (CM). The general properties of the organic amendment are shown in Table 1. Organic matter was determined by dry combustion, according to the official methods of the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture [26]. Humic and fulvic acids-fraction were extracted, separated and determined by the methods previously described. Total N was determined by the Kjeldhal method [26]. After nitric and perchloric acid digestion, total Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Cd, Pb, Ni and Cr concentrations were determined by atomic absorption spectrometer and K was determined by atomic emission spectrometer, according to MAPA methods [26].
Table 2 shows the acidic functional group contents of humic acids isolated from both organic amendment. The carboxyl group content was estimated by direct potentiometric titration at pH 8, the phenolic hydroxyl group content was estimated as two times the change in charge between pH 8 and pH 10, and the total acidity was calculated by addition [29].
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tTotal acidity (mol kg-1)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCOOH\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPhenolic OH\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
PM | \n\t\t\t3.99 ± 0.13 | \n\t\t\t2.99 ± 0.09 | \n\t\t\t0.99 ± 0.05 | \n\t\t
MSV | \n\t\t\t4.29 ± 0.04 | \n\t\t\t3.19 ± 0.03 | \n\t\t\t1.10 ± 0.03 | \n\t\t
CM | \n\t\t\t2.81 ± 0.02 | \n\t\t\t2.00 ± 0.03 | \n\t\t\t0.80 ± 0.01 | \n\t\t
Acidic functional group contents (mean ± standard errors) of humic acids isolated from PM, MSW and CM
The herbicide used in this experiment was the terbuthylazine. Terbuthylazine (N2-tert-butyl-6-chloro-N4-ethyl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine) is a selective herbicide for the control of broadleaf and grass weeds in forestry, lucerne (Medicago sativa, L.), maize (Zea mays, L.), sweetcorn (Zea mays, L. var. rugosa), peas (Pisum sativum, L.), orchard and non-cropland, with a water solubility of 8.5 mg l−1 at 20 ºC. It is absorbed by roots and inhibits Hill reaction and CO2 sorption in the chlorophyllic function [30].
Two kg of soil were pre-incubated at 25 ºC for 7 days at 30–40% of their water-holding capacity, according to Moreno et al. [31], prior to the treatments. After this pre-incubation period, soil samples were treated with three concentrations of terbuthylazine (1, 10 and 50 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil) and treated with MSW at a rate of 10% or PM at a rate of 7.6% or CM at a rate of 5.8%, respectively, in order to applying the same amount of organic matter to the soil. A non-mended treated as well as a amended non-treated soil were used as controls.
The incubation treatments are detailed as follows:
C1, control soil, soil non-polluted and non-organic amended
C2, soil treated with 1 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and non-organic amended
C3, soil treated with 10 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and non-organic amended
C4, soil treated with 50 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and non-organic amended
MSW1, soil non- treated and amended with MSW
MSW2, soil treated with 1 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and amended with MSW
MSW3, soil treated with 10 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and amended with MSW
MSW4, soil treated with 50 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and amended with MSW
PM1, soil non- treated and amended with PM
PM2, soil treated with 1 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and amended with PM
PM3, soil treated with 10 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and amended with PM
PM4, soil treated with 50 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and amended with PM
CM1, soil non- treated and amended with CM
CM2, soil treated with 1 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and amended with CM
CM3, soil treated with 10 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and amended with CM
CM4, soil treated with 50 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil and amended with CM
Triplicate treatments were kept in semi-closed microcosms at 25 ºC for 3, 15, 45 and 90 days, respectively.
Twenty two earthworms of the species Eisenia fetida (approximately 210 mg fresh weight) and Lumbricus terrestris (approximately 190 mg fresh weight) were included in each microcosm. Each microcosm was covered with fine nylon mesh to prevent the soil loss and to keep earthworms from escaping. Lumbricus terrestris were collected in the field, in an area that has not been treated with pesticides for 20 years, whereas Eisenia fetida were bred in laboratory cultures on organic amendment materials, vermicomposts principally.
For adsorption studies the treatments used were:
S, non-organic amended control soil (10 g of soil)
S+CM, soil amended with CM at rate of 10% (10 g of soil + 1 g of CM)
S+PM, soil amended with PM at a rate of 12.4% (10 g of soil + 1.24 g of PM)
S+MSW, soil amended with MSW at a rate of 16.3% (10 g of soil + 1.63 g of MSW)
Terbuthylazine sorption was determined according to Cabrera et al. [32] criteria. Triplicate samples (5 g) of the non-amended and organic amended soil (S, S+CM, S+PM, S+MSW) were treated with 10 ml of terbuthylazine (50%:50%, v/v) solution (initial concentrations, Ci, ranging from 5 to 50 µM in 0.01 CaCl2). Previously, it was determined that equilibrium was reached in less than 24 h, and that no measurable degradation occurred during this period. Equilibrium concentrations (Ce) in the supernatants were determined by HPLC. Sorption isotherms were fitted to Freundlich equation (Cs=Kf x Ce1/nf) and sorption coefficients Kf and 1/nf were calculated.
Herbicide was extracted twice with methanol (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) at 1:2 soil/solution ratio for 15 min. Extracts were mixed and rotary-vacuum evaporated almost to dryness at 40 ºC. The residue was dissolved in 2 ml of methanol and analyzed by HPLC [30]. Terbuthylazine was analyzed using a Beckman, System Gold, Autosampler 508 HPLC chromatograph coupled to a Waters 2996 diode-array detector. The analytical conditions were: Nova-Pack C18 column (159 mm length X 3.9 mm internal diameter), eluent mixture, 50:50 acetonitrile/water at a flow rate of 1 ml min-1, 25 µl injection volume, and UV detection at 220 nm [33]. External calibration curves with four standard solutions between 0.2 and 26 µM were used in the calculations.
Earthworm cocoon production was determined after 30 days of exposure. Cocoons were collected by hand sorting and weighed, and then incubated for four additional weeks as described by Maboeta et al. [34]. Cocoons were cultured in Petri dishes at 25±1 ºC covered with three moist filter papers. According to Xiao et al. [14], the filter papers in these dishes were changed every three days to prevent bacterial growth. At the end of the experiment (30 days), the weight of per cocoon and number of juveniles per cocoon were determined.
After 3, 15, 45 and 90 incubation days for each treatment, three worms were selected and placed on wet filter paper in Petri dishes for 24 h to clear gut contents, and their weights were recorded after blotting them dry on paper towels. Earthworms were digested in the 1:1 nitric-perchloric extract after digestion at 450 ºC for 6 h. The terbuthylazine was measured by the method previously mentioned. Cellulase activity was measured as described by Mishra and Dash [35], and glutathione-S-transferase activity was measured according to the method described by Habig et al. [36] and Saint-Denis et al. [37].
Two-ways analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for all parameters, considering two variables involved (incubation time and the terbuthylazine concentration applied to the soil) using the Statgraphics v. 5.0 software package [38]. The means were separated by the Tukey’s test, considering a significance level of P<0.05 throughout the study. For the ANOVA, triplicate data were used for each treatment and every incubation day.
Sorption isotherms of terbuthylazine on soil, soil+CM, soil+PM and soil+MSW are shown in Figure 1. The results indicated that sorption of terbuthylazine on organic amended soils significantly increased compared to non-organic amended soil. For each organic amended soil, the herbicide sorption with MSW was higher than with PM and CM.
Terbuthylazine sorption isotherms in non-amended and organic amended soils. Symbols are experimental data points, whereas lines are the Freundlich-fit sorption isotherms.
Sorption isotherms were fit to the Freundlich equation and sorption coefficients Kf and 1/nf were calculated (Table 3). The results indicated that Kf values significantly increased in organic amended soils than for non-organic amended soils. However, terbuthylazine sorption increased by a factor of 4.5 upon amendment with MSW, whereas for PM and CM, the factor increased 4 and 3.4, respectively. Again, the results indicate significant differences between S+MSW and S+CM treatments. Also, the 1/nf coefficients significantly decreased in organic amended soils than for non-organic amended soil. For organic amended soils, the 1/nf coefficient was higher in the soil amended with MSW, followed by PM and CM, respectively.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tKf\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t1/nf\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tR2\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
S | \n\t\t\t6.93a ± 0.95 | \n\t\t\t0.92a ± 0.05 | \n\t\t\t0.963 | \n\t\t
S+MSW | \n\t\t\t31.22c ± 2.46 | \n\t\t\t0.80c ± 0.06 | \n\t\t\t0.943 | \n\t\t
S+PM | \n\t\t\t28.03bc ± 2.03 | \n\t\t\t0.83bc ± 0.05 | \n\t\t\t0.958 | \n\t\t
S+CM | \n\t\t\t23.48b ± 1.99 | \n\t\t\t0.86b ± 0.04 | \n\t\t\t0.977 | \n\t\t
Freundlich sorption coefficients Kf and 1/nf and standard error for terbuthylazine in non-amended and organic amended soils. Column (mean ± standard errors) followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different (p<0.05)
In treated and non-organic amended soils, the Eisenia fetida weight decreased during the experimental period and when increased the terbuthylazine concentration in soil (Table 4). At the end of the experiment, the worm weight decreased 23.6%, 31.4% and 39.1% in soil treated with 1, 10 and 50 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil, respectively. For Lumbricus terrestris, the weight decreased 25.6%, 33.6% and 41.8% in soil treated with 1, 10 and 50 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil, respectively.
The application of organic matter to non-treated soil increased the worm weight. However, this increased depended of the organic matter type. At the end of the experiment, Eisenia fetida weight increased 20.3%, 15.1% and 11.3% in MSW, PM and CM-amended soils, compared to control soil, whereas Lumbricus. terrestris weight increased 18.6%, 13.9% and 10.1% in MSW, PM and CM-amended soils, compared to control soil. However, the ANOVA analysis indicated no significant differences between these treatments.
In treated and organic amended soils, the both worms weight increased respect to the treated and non-organic amended soils. This increase was higher for MSW, followed by PM and CM-amended soils.
The non-treated and organic amended soils have the highest mean cocoon numbers (Table 5). For both worms, the cocoon numbers were highest in MSW followed by PM and CM-amended soils. Terbuthylazine treatments in organic amended soils decreased the cocoon numbers. However, this decrease was lowest in MSW followed by PM and CM-amended soils.
The average weight per cocoon was also higher in non-polluted and organic amended soils, compared to control soil. Again, the average weight per cocoon in terbuthylazine treated and organic amended soils were highest in MSW followed by PM and CM-amended soils.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tEisenia fetida\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tLumbricus terrestris\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tIncubation days\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tIncubation days\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t45\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t90\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t45\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t90\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
C1 | \n\t\t\t208ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t211b ± 14 | \n\t\t\t211b ± 9 | \n\t\t\t212b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t192ab ± 5 | \n\t\t\t190ab ± 8 | \n\t\t\t195ab ± 7 | \n\t\t\t199ab ± 10 | \n\t\t
C2 | \n\t\t\t206ab ± 15 | \n\t\t\t190a ± 20 | \n\t\t\t173a ± 15 | \n\t\t\t162a ± 13 | \n\t\t\t188ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t172a ± 10 | \n\t\t\t160a ± 8 | \n\t\t\t148a ± 14 | \n\t\t
C3 | \n\t\t\t201ab ± 17 | \n\t\t\t180a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t164a ± 16 | \n\t\t\t145a ± 18 | \n\t\t\t180a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t163a ± 15 | \n\t\t\t150a ± 10 | \n\t\t\t132a ± 13 | \n\t\t
C4 | \n\t\t\t197ab ± 19 | \n\t\t\t164a ± 23 | \n\t\t\t140a ± 12 | \n\t\t\t129a ± 16 | \n\t\t\t170a ± 13 | \n\t\t\t156a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t134a ± 8 | \n\t\t\t116a ± 12 | \n\t\t
MSW1 | \n\t\t\t216b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t233b ± 16 | \n\t\t\t244b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t255b ± 14 | \n\t\t\t203ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t215b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t222b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t236b ± 17 | \n\t\t
MSW2 | \n\t\t\t215b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t217b ± 18 | \n\t\t\t213b ± 18 | \n\t\t\t220b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t198ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t195ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t197ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t201ab ± 13 | \n\t\t
MSW3 | \n\t\t\t214b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t215b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t209ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t205ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t194ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t190ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t186ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t182a ± 14 | \n\t\t
MSW4 | \n\t\t\t213b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t211b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t204ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t197ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t190ab ± 14 | \n\t\t\t188ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t182a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t179a ± 12 | \n\t\t
PM1 | \n\t\t\t215b ± 14 | \n\t\t\t229b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t233b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t244b ± 11 | \n\t\t\t198ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t206b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t219b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t227b ± 14 | \n\t\t
PM2 | \n\t\t\t214b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t212b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t209ab ± 18 | \n\t\t\t207ab ± 18 | \n\t\t\t195ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t194ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t194ab ± 8 | \n\t\t\t192a ± 11 | \n\t\t
PM3 | \n\t\t\t213b ± 11 | \n\t\t\t210ab ± 15 | \n\t\t\t199ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t189a ± 15 | \n\t\t\t193ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t188ab ± 15 | \n\t\t\t180a ± 16 | \n\t\t\t172a ± 15 | \n\t\t
PM4 | \n\t\t\t212b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t205ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t190a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t180a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t190ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t181a ± 10 | \n\t\t\t175ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t168a ± 13 | \n\t\t
CM1 | \n\t\t\t213b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t220b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t225b ± 14 | \n\t\t\t236b ± 18 | \n\t\t\t196ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t202ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t210b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t219b ± 12 | \n\t\t
CM2 | \n\t\t\t221b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t201ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t195ab ± 15 | \n\t\t\t193ab ± 14 | \n\t\t\t193ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t193ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t180a ± 12 | \n\t\t\t186ab ± 11 | \n\t\t
CM3 | \n\t\t\t210ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t195ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t180a ± 10 | \n\t\t\t174a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t190ab ± 8 | \n\t\t\t185ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t170a ± 13 | \n\t\t\t162a ± 13 | \n\t\t
CM4 | \n\t\t\t209ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t190a ± 17 | \n\t\t\t173a ± 12 | \n\t\t\t165a ± 13 | \n\t\t\t188ab ± 6 | \n\t\t\t179a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t164a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t157a ± 14 | \n\t\t
Changes in weight (mean ± standard error) (mg) of Eisenia fetida and Lumbricus terrestris exposed to different concentrations of terbuthylazine herbicide. Column (mean ± standard errors) followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different (p<0.05)
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tEisenia fetida\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tLumbricus terrestris\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tCocoon numbers\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAverage weigh of per cocoon (mg)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tNumber of juveniles per cocoon\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tCocoon numbers\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tAverage weigh of per cocoon (mg)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tNumber of juveniles per cocoon\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
C1 | \n\t\t\t2.93ab ± 0.35 | \n\t\t\t8.76b ± 0.47 | \n\t\t\t3.09b ± 0.36 | \n\t\t\t2.63b ± 0.22 | \n\t\t\t8.15b ± 0.31 | \n\t\t\t2.81ab ± 0.17 | \n\t\t
C2 | \n\t\t\t2.05a ± 0.22 | \n\t\t\t6.64ab ± 0.24 | \n\t\t\t2.49ab ± 0.17 | \n\t\t\t1.78a ± 0.18 | \n\t\t\t6.06ab ± 0.23 | \n\t\t\t2.21a ± 0.14 | \n\t\t
C3 | \n\t\t\t1.74a ± 0.15 | \n\t\t\t5.68a ± 0.31 | \n\t\t\t2.34a ± 0.21 | \n\t\t\t1.54a ± 0.24 | \n\t\t\t5.20a ± 0.16 | \n\t\t\t2.13a ± 0.10 | \n\t\t
C4 | \n\t\t\t1.18a ± 0.17 | \n\t\t\t4.88a ± 0.25 | \n\t\t\t1.98a ± 0.13 | \n\t\t\t1.03a ± 0.10 | \n\t\t\t4.33a ± 0.13 | \n\t\t\t1.77a ± 0.15 | \n\t\t
MSW1 | \n\t\t\t3.42b ± 0.22 | \n\t\t\t8.95b ± 0.39 | \n\t\t\t3.37b ± 0.28 | \n\t\t\t3.03b ± 0.34 | \n\t\t\t8.31b ± 0.24 | \n\t\t\t3.03b ± 0.17 | \n\t\t
MSW2 | \n\t\t\t2.90ab ± 0.17 | \n\t\t\t7.50b ± 0.25 | \n\t\t\t2.94b ± 0.17 | \n\t\t\t2.51b ± 0.19 | \n\t\t\t6.76ab ± 0.17 | \n\t\t\t2.60ab ± 0.13 | \n\t\t
MSW3 | \n\t\t\t2.69ab ± 0.13 | \n\t\t\t7.12ab ± 0.20 | \n\t\t\t2.87b ± 0.13 | \n\t\t\t2.33b ± 0.15 | \n\t\t\t6.43ab ± 0.22 | \n\t\t\t2.54ab ± 0.19 | \n\t\t
MSW4 | \n\t\t\t2.37ab ± 0.13 | \n\t\t\t6.97ab ± 0.22 | \n\t\t\t2.55ab ± 0.11 | \n\t\t\t2.06ab ± 0.17 | \n\t\t\t6.24ab ± 0.25 | \n\t\t\t2.22a ± 0.16 | \n\t\t
PM1 | \n\t\t\t3.29b ± 0.25 | \n\t\t\t8.91b ± 0.45 | \n\t\t\t3.29b ± 0.22 | \n\t\t\t2.92b ± 0.19 | \n\t\t\t8.27b ± 0.35 | \n\t\t\t2.96b ± 0.19 | \n\t\t
PM2 | \n\t\t\t2.68ab ± 0.20 | \n\t\t\t7.39b ± 0.18 | \n\t\t\t2.82b ± 0.16 | \n\t\t\t2.34b ± 0.22 | \n\t\t\t6.67ab ± 0.24 | \n\t\t\t2.46ab ± 0.23 | \n\t\t
PM3 | \n\t\t\t2.41ab ± 0.18 | \n\t\t\t6.82ab ± 0.24 | \n\t\t\t2.73ab ± 0.19 | \n\t\t\t2.19ab ± 0.15 | \n\t\t\t6.28ab ± 0.26 | \n\t\t\t2.41ab ± 0.18 | \n\t\t
PM4 | \n\t\t\t2.10a ± 0.15 | \n\t\t\t6.38ab ± 0.21 | \n\t\t\t2.39a ± 0.23 | \n\t\t\t1.91ab ± 0.11 | \n\t\t\t6.10ab ± 0.28 | \n\t\t\t2.12a ± 0.15 | \n\t\t
CM1 | \n\t\t\t3.17b ± 0.19 | \n\t\t\t8.83b ± 0.53 | \n\t\t\t3.21b ± 0.17 | \n\t\t\t2.83b ± 0.14 | \n\t\t\t8.21b ± 0.39 | \n\t\t\t2.89a ± 0.29 | \n\t\t
CM2 | \n\t\t\t2.47ab ± 0.10 | \n\t\t\t7.09ab ± 0.21 | \n\t\t\t2.68ab ± 0.19 | \n\t\t\t2.16ab ± 0.12 | \n\t\t\t6.35ab ± 0.22 | \n\t\t\t2.38ab ± 0.21 | \n\t\t
CM3 | \n\t\t\t2.19a ± 0.11 | \n\t\t\t6.42ab ± 0.15 | \n\t\t\t2.58ab ± 0.13 | \n\t\t\t1.88ab ± 0.15 | \n\t\t\t5.78a ± 0.21 | \n\t\t\t2.28ab ± 0.12 | \n\t\t
CM4 | \n\t\t\t1.90a ± 0.13 | \n\t\t\t5.95a ± 0.13 | \n\t\t\t2.23a ± 0.15 | \n\t\t\t1.66a ± 0.17 | \n\t\t\t5.35a ± 0.18 | \n\t\t\t1.98a ± 0.16 | \n\t\t
Cocoon production, average weight of cocoons (mg) and number of juveniles per coccon (mean ± standard error) of Eisenia fetida and Lumbricus terrestris exposed to different concentrations of terbuthylazine herbicide. Column (mean ± standard errors) followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different (p<0.05)
The number of juveniles per cocoon decreased when terbuthylazine concentration increased. This decrease was higher for Lumbricus terrestris than for Eisenia fetida. The application of organic matter in terbuthylazine treated soils increased this parameter. Again, this increase was higher MSW followed by PM and CM-amended soils.
At the end of the experiment and for 50 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil treatment, the cellulase activity of Eisenia fetida and Lumbricus terrestris worms was significantly recudec (29.4% and 31.1%) compared to the control soil (Table 6). The application of organic matter in herbicide treated soil increased the cellulase activity. At the end of the incubation day and for the higher concentration of terbuthylazine, the Eisenia fetida cellulase activity decreased 25%, 21.4% and 19% in soils amended with CM, PM and MSW, respectively, compared to organic amended and non-treated soils. For Lumbricus terrestris, cellulase activity decreased 26.8%, 23.9% and 21.5% in soils amended with CM, PM and MSW, respectively, compared to organic amended and non-treated soils.
Compared to the control soil, the glutathione-S-transferase activity of Eisenia fetida decreased 12.3%, 19.6% and 30.9% in soils treated with 1, 10 and 50 µg terbuthylazine g-1 soil, respectively, whereas for Lumbricus terrestris the glutathione-S-transferase activity decreased 14%, 21% and 32.4%, respectively (Table 7). At the end of the experiment, the glutathione-S-transferase activity of both worms had higher increase in MSW, PM and CM-amended soils, respectively, compared to control soil. The application of organic matter in herbicide treated soils increased the glutathione-S-transferase activity. Again, this increase was higher in MSW followed by PM and CM-amended soils.
Our results indicated that terbuthylazine induced negative effects on weight, reproductive and enzymatic activities on the both earthworms. These negative effects increased with increasing herbicide concentration and/or exposure time. These results are in accordance with Brunninger et al. [39] who studied the toxicity of terbuthylazine on the growth and reproduction of Eisenia andrei over a period of three generations.
The weight loss may indicate a feeding inhibition situation, with the earthworms regulating the intake of the terbuthylazine by reducing consumption rate and thus affecting their subsequent growth rate. This strategy is commonly used by earthworms to avoid poisoning with herbicides and heavy metals [40].
The decrease of earthworm cellulase and gluthatione-S-transferase activities possibly is due to a physiological adaptability to compensate for pesticide stress. To overcome the stress situation, animals require high energy, and this energy demand may have led to protein catabolism [41]. Furthermore, this decrease in protein content might be a result of mechanical lipoprotein formation, which is used to repair damaged cells, tissues, and organs [40].
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tEisenia fetida\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tLumbricus terrestris\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tIncubation days\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tIncubation days\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t45\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t90\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t45\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t90\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
C1 | \n\t\t\t556b ± 22 | \n\t\t\t624bc ± 28 | \n\t\t\t610bc ± 19 | \n\t\t\t590b ± 20 | \n\t\t\t527b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t542b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t575bc ± 18 | \n\t\t\t558bc ± 13 | \n\t\t
C2 | \n\t\t\t550b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t543b ± 18 | \n\t\t\t538b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t529ab ± 22 | \n\t\t\t520b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t508b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t496b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t489b ± 17 | \n\t\t
C3 | \n\t\t\t544b ± 20 | \n\t\t\t529ab ± 20 | \n\t\t\t510ab ± 19 | \n\t\t\t491ab ± 17 | \n\t\t\t511b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t492b ± 18 | \n\t\t\t470ab ± 14 | \n\t\t\t450ab ± 15 | \n\t\t
C4 | \n\t\t\t530ab ± 17 | \n\t\t\t498ab ± 15 | \n\t\t\t456a ± 21 | \n\t\t\t416a ± 13 | \n\t\t\t510b ± 11 | \n\t\t\t479b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t425a ± 18 | \n\t\t\t384a ± 12 | \n\t\t
MSW1 | \n\t\t\t563b ± 26 | \n\t\t\t679c ± 25 | \n\t\t\t710c ± 19 | \n\t\t\t748c ± 22 | \n\t\t\t539b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t568bc ± 18 | \n\t\t\t602c ± 20 | \n\t\t\t687c ± 18 | \n\t\t
MSW2 | \n\t\t\t558b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t652c ± 21 | \n\t\t\t684c ± 17 | \n\t\t\t703c ± 15 | \n\t\t\t520b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t547b ± 14 | \n\t\t\t589bc ± 13 | \n\t\t\t595bc ± 21 | \n\t\t
MSW3 | \n\t\t\t549b ± 14 | \n\t\t\t624bc ± 18 | \n\t\t\t643bc ± 22 | \n\t\t\t663c ± 19 | \n\t\t\t511b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t530b ± 11 | \n\t\t\t559b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t539b ± 19 | \n\t\t
MSW4 | \n\t\t\t536b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t560b ± 24 | \n\t\t\t582b ± 26 | \n\t\t\t606bc ± 20 | \n\t\t\t505b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t520b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t528b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t676c ± 17 | \n\t\t
PM1 | \n\t\t\t570b ± 24 | \n\t\t\t668b ± 26 | \n\t\t\t700c ± 15 | \n\t\t\t738c ± 21 | \n\t\t\t528b ± 20 | \n\t\t\t560b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t608c ± 15 | \n\t\t\t616c ± 18 | \n\t\t
PM2 | \n\t\t\t552b ± 23 | \n\t\t\t601bc ± 17 | \n\t\t\t643bc ± 19 | \n\t\t\t683c ± 18 | \n\t\t\t515b ± 18 | \n\t\t\t547b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t590bc ± 22 | \n\t\t\t568bc ± 13 | \n\t\t
PM3 | \n\t\t\t540b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t590b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t628bc ± 22 | \n\t\t\t642bc ± 16 | \n\t\t\t504b ± 14 | \n\t\t\t530b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t546b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t568bc ± 13 | \n\t\t
PM4 | \n\t\t\t529ab ± 22 | \n\t\t\t541b ± 20 | \n\t\t\t561b ± 20 | \n\t\t\t580b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t493b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t519b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t522b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t514b ± 16 | \n\t\t
CM1 | \n\t\t\t575b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t647c ± 24 | \n\t\t\t680c ± 17 | \n\t\t\t700c ± 22 | \n\t\t\t524b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t555b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t586bc ± 15 | \n\t\t\t650c ± 19 | \n\t\t
CM2 | \n\t\t\t539b ± 21 | \n\t\t\t565b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t596b ± 23 | \n\t\t\t642bc ± 17 | \n\t\t\t510b ± 21 | \n\t\t\t532b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t558b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t588bc ± 15 | \n\t\t
CM3 | \n\t\t\t520ab ± 18 | \n\t\t\t540b ± 18 | \n\t\t\t573b ± 22 | \n\t\t\t525ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t498b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t517b ± 11 | \n\t\t\t524b ± 18 | \n\t\t\t483b ± 13 | \n\t\t
CM4 | \n\t\t\t500ab ± 19 | \n\t\t\t509ab ± 21 | \n\t\t\t516ab ± 20 | \n\t\t\t525ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t480b ± 18 | \n\t\t\t496b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t482b ± 19 | \n\t\t\t476ab ± 11 | \n\t\t
Cellulase activity (mean± standard error) (mg glucose mg protein hour-1) of Eisenia fetida and Lumbricus terrestris exposed to different concentrations of terbuthylazine herbicide. Column (mean ± standard errors) followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different (p<0.05)
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tEisenia fetida\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tLumbricus terrestris\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tIncubation days\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tIncubation days\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t45\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t90\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t45\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t90\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
C1 | \n\t\t\t118ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t116ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t121ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t120ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t110ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t113ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t117ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t115ab ± 11 | \n\t\t
C2 | \n\t\t\t116ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t111ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t108a ± 9 | \n\t\t\t105a ± 10 | \n\t\t\t110ab ± 7 | \n\t\t\t106a ± 10 | \n\t\t\t104a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t98.9a ± 6.2 | \n\t\t
C3 | \n\t\t\t113ab ± 8 | \n\t\t\t108a ± 12 | \n\t\t\t103a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t96a ± 8 | \n\t\t\t108a ± 10 | \n\t\t\t104a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t95.3a ± 8.6 | \n\t\t\t90.9a ± 5.8 | \n\t\t
C4 | \n\t\t\t110a ± 11 | \n\t\t\t102a ± 9 | \n\t\t\t90a ± 10 | \n\t\t\t82.9a ± 6.9a | \n\t\t\t104a ± 6 | \n\t\t\t99.6a ± 7.8 | \n\t\t\t82.4a ± 7.2 | \n\t\t\t77.7a ± 4.9 | \n\t\t
MSW1 | \n\t\t\t130ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t140ab ± 14 | \n\t\t\t152b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t161b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t123ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t131b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t142b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t154b ± 10 | \n\t\t
MSW2 | \n\t\t\t127ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t134b ± 8 | \n\t\t\t140b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t148b ± 16 | \n\t\t\t118ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t127b ± 11 | \n\t\t\t135b ± 9 | \n\t\t\t140b ± 12 | \n\t\t
MSW3 | \n\t\t\t122ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t130ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t135b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t141b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t115ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t120ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t126b ± 11 | \n\t\t\t132b ± 11 | \n\t\t
MSW4 | \n\t\t\t118ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t121ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t123ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t126ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t109a ± 7 | \n\t\t\t112ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t115ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t117ab ± 10 | \n\t\t
PM1 | \n\t\t\t128ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t136b ± 17 | \n\t\t\t147b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t156b ± 11 | \n\t\t\t120ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t129ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t140b ± 11 | \n\t\t\t148b ± 11 | \n\t\t
PM2 | \n\t\t\t124ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t130ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t135b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t142b ± 13 | \n\t\t\t117ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t124ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t130b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t134b ± 12 | \n\t\t
PM3 | \n\t\t\t120ab ± 8 | \n\t\t\t125ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t129ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t134b ± 15 | \n\t\t\t112ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t118ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t120ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t124ab ± 10 | \n\t\t
PM4 | \n\t\t\t115ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t119ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t121ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t120ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t107a ± 9 | \n\t\t\t111ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t107ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t109ab ± 9 | \n\t\t
CM1 | \n\t\t\t124ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t130ab ± 15 | \n\t\t\t140b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t150b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t117ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t125b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t136b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t142b ± 13 | \n\t\t
CM2 | \n\t\t\t123ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t128ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t133b ± 10 | \n\t\t\t135b ± 12 | \n\t\t\t113ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t116ab ± 8 | \n\t\t\t123ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t127b ± 11 | \n\t\t
CM3 | \n\t\t\t118ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t122ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t123ab ± 12 | \n\t\t\t125ab ± 13 | \n\t\t\t106a ± 8 | \n\t\t\t113ab ± 7 | \n\t\t\t115ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t118ab ± 10 | \n\t\t
CM4 | \n\t\t\t111ab ± 9 | \n\t\t\t112ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t113ab ± 11 | \n\t\t\t113ab ± 10 | \n\t\t\t100a ± 9 | \n\t\t\t104a ± 9 | \n\t\t\t108a ± 8 | \n\t\t\t106a ± 9 | \n\t\t
Glutathione-S-transferase activity (mean ± standard error) (nmol mg protein min-1) of Eisenia fetida and Lumbricus terrestris exposed to different concentrations of terbuthylazine herbicide. Column (mean ± standard errors) followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different (p<0.05)
However, these negative effects were higher in Lumbricus terrestris than for Eisenia fetida. Therefore, the sensitivity of each worm is different to the terbuthylazine herbicide. According to Ma and Bodt [23] this can be due to some physiological property of the worms or to factors governing the exposure to herbicide. Studies on the effect of benomyl and carbofuran on earthworms have similarly shown that the toxicity is much greater to Lumbricus terrestris than for Eisenia fetida when tested under standardized conditions in soil substrates [42].
The addition of organic matter to the herbicide treated soil increased the earthworm weight, reproductive and enzymatic activities probably due to the sorption of terbuthylazine with the organic matter. These results are in agreement with Dolaptsoglou et al. [43] and Cabrera et al. [30, 32], who found a decrease of terbuthylazine in the soil solution after the addition of organic matter to soil due to the herbicide sorption.
The terbuthylazine sorption isotherms and Freundlich sorption coefficients obtained in this study, suggested that organic matter play a fundamental role in the sorption of the herbicide in agricultural soils, probably as a result of the humic substances containing several major functional groups, such as carboxyl, phenolic, alcohol and carbonyl [44, 45]. However, our results also suggested that the chemical composition of the organic matter influenced in the terbuthylazine sorption.
Several studies of metal complexation with organic matter indicated that the sorption of heavy metals increased when the humic acid-fraction content increased in the organic matter, compared to the fulvic acid-fraction content, probably due to the humic acid-fraction possess a higher number of carboxylic groups than fulvic acid-fraction [12, 13].
The terbuthylazine sorption isotherms and Freundlich sorption coefficients indicated higher herbicide sorption in MSW-amended soils, followed by PM and CM. Therefore, and similar to the heavy metals complexation, the sorption of herbicide increased with the humic acid-fraction content in the organic amendment applied to the soil. The higher sorption probably caused a larger decrease of herbicide in the soil solution, and therefore, lowest availability of terbuthylazine availability for earthworms. This fact probably is the responsible of the increase in earthworm weight, reproductive and enzymatic activities.
It can be concluded that the sensitivity of earthworm to pesticides differ depending on the taxonomic species, Lumbricus terrestris being more sensitive than Eisenia fetida to terbuthylazine herbicide. The application of organic matter have a positive effect on reducing the toxic effect of terbuthylazine on both Eisenia fetida and Lumbricus terrestris, which is attributable to their capability of absorbing the pesticide decreasing its concentration in soil solution. This positive effect will depend on the organic amendment characteristics, those with higher amount or reactive humic acid being the most effective.
Biomedical signals are electrical activities recorded by sensors from a part of the body, such as the brain, heart, muscles, etc. They can be recorded as images e.g. functional Magnetic resonance Image (fMRI) from brain or a temporal signal e.g. Electrocardiogram (ECG), Electroencephalogram (EEG), Electromyogram (EMG), Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), etc. These signals contain useful information to analyse and understand the underlying physiological response of the body, thus they are also referred to as physiological signals. Biomedical signals are extensively used in healthcare to diagnose deceases and monitor health. With recent advancements and ease of using the devices to record the biomedical signals have open a window to use it to analyse and understand the day-to-day activities, emotions, and, experiences [1, 2, 3]. While recording the physiological activities through sensors, the signals are usually contaminated by noise and various artefacts [4]. Corrupted signals mislead the analysis and understanding of the underlying physiology [5]. The characteristics of wavelet to identify the time-localised events makes it suitable for the biomedical signals to clean, process, feature extraction, and analyse for various applications. Recent studies have shown the promising results of using wavelet in biomedical signals [6].
In this chapter, first, we introduce one kind of biomedical signal - EEG. We will explain the conventional features used in EEG studies. We will introduce the artefacts that commonly contaminate EEG signals, which makes it harder to use. The chapter then will move towards a short description of Wavelet analysis techniques, namely Continues Wavelet Transform (CWT), Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), and Wavelet Packet Decomposition (WPD). We would, then, compare CWT and STFT for EEG signal. Then, we will discuss artefact removal algorithms, with more details on Wavelet-based algorithms. The chapter will show the comparative analysis of artefact removal algorithm. The approach and analysis shown in this chapter for EEG signals can easily be applied to other biological signals.
The brain processes any information by means of neurons that use electrical and chemical signals to communicate by releasing and receiving neurotransmitters. The neural activity in the human brain is an electrical change. The brain generates electrical signals throughout the day for various activities. Studying these electrical signals is vital to understanding the neurophysiological behaviour of the brain [4]. A number of techniques are used to study brain activities. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (firs), and Electroencephalography (EEG) recordings widely used techniques. The fMRI measures brain activity by scanning the blood flow. The fNIRS measures brain activity by measuring hemodynamic response in the brain through detecting the temporal changes in infrared light source. The EEG measures the electrical activity of the brain by electrodes placed on the scalp. Comparing to the other two, EEG measures brain activity directly, with high temporal resolution and most accessible and portable for the research. The fMRI has a high spatial resolution but very expensive, therefore it is mostly limited to medical diagnosis and treatments.
The EEG signal is measured by placing multiple electrodes on the scalp that measure the current flow from neurons. A setup for EEG recording is shown in Figure 1. Each neuron (brain cell), when activated, it produced an electrical and magnetic field around the scalp. Since there are 100 billion neurons in the brain, when an electrode is placed on the scalp, it measures the accumulative activity of many neurons together. The complex structure of the brain attenuates the electrical signals, therefore an electrode can record the brain activity, only when a large number of neurons generate enough potential. The EEG devices amplify the recorded signal to store and process it [4].
EEG recording setup: (a) a wireless device Emotiv Epoch mounted on a subject, transmitting EEG signal to a computer. (b) Electrode positions as 10–20 system, source: https://www.emotiv.com/.
The placement of electrodes has been standardised with the specific anatomical landmarks with a distance between electrodes as 10% or 20% of total length. This placement is called the 10–20 system, as shown in Figure 1b. The number of electrodes used for EEG recording varies, depending on the device. One of the low spatial resolutions can be of a 14-channel EEG device and high spatial resolution with 128 or 256 channels. The name of the electrode position is labelled as character followed by a number to identify the part of the brain. The characters are Fop for pre-frontal, F for frontal, P for parietal, T for temporal, O for occipital, and C for central lobe of the brain. A few in between two landmarks are named with two characters, such as AF, between Fp and F and FC, between F and C [4]. An example of 14-channel is shown in Figure 1b.
The raw recording of EEG signal in the time-domain is complex to interpret. Similar to many other signals, frequency domain analysis has been widely used. The decades of work on EEG studies have identified five major frequency bands for EEG signals and established the correlation between behaviour and neural activity of a certain part of the brain. The frequency bands widely used are; Delta (
The signal channel raw EEG signal and corresponding frequency bands: Delta (0.1−4 Hz), theta (4−8 Hz), alpha (8−14 Hz), Beta (14−30 Hz), gamma (30−63 Hz).
Due to multichannel signals, it is usually viewed as topographical brain activity (heatmap over an image of head) under different frequency bands. An example of 5 seconds EEG recording with a 14-channel device is shown in Figure 3. The first second of all the channels are used to compute the energy distribution over brain regions. In Figure 3, the top left shows the raw EEG signal and corresponding brain activity, which shows a high activity in the frontal lobe of the brain. However, under different frequency bands, the different part of the brain shows higher activity.
Topographical view of brain activity: Energy distribution of EEG recording over different brain regions under five frequency bands and raw signal.
The frequency bands; Delta, Theta, Alpha, Beta, and Gamma, are also called brain rhythms. Brain rhythms have been investigated over decades and a few characteristic behaviour of these brain rhythms have been established [4].
Delta: Delta waves were first introduced by Walter in 1936, it ranges from 0.1 (or 0.5) to 4 Hz in frequency. Delta waves are usually observed in deep sleep. Since delta wave is the low-frequency wave, it is easily confused by the movement artefact, due to similar nature. Delta waves have also been linked to continuous attention tasks.
Theta: Theta waves were introduced by Dovey and Wolter, ranges from 4 to 8 Hz in frequency. Theta waves are linked to drowsiness and deep meditation state.
Alpha: Alpha waves, perhaps are the most widely investigated waves in EEG studies. Alpha waves were introduced by Berger in 1929. They lie in a range from 8 to 14 Hz. Alpha waves usually appear on the occipital lobe of the brain. Alpha waves are the most common indication of a relaxing state of mind and are also linked to closing eyes. Any sign of anxiety or attention reduces the alpha waves.
Beta: Beta waves lie in the range of 14–30 Hz of frequency. Beta waves have been associated with active thinking, anxious, high alert, and focus of the brain.
Gamma: Gamma waves are the higher frequency waves, ranges from 30 to onwards. Gamma wave is considered to play a complex role in brain functionality, such as combining information from two different sensory inputs. It is also used to confirm certain brain diseases.
While recording, EEG signals are frequently contaminated with various artefacts. The most common types of artefacts are motion, muscular, ocular, and cardiac artefacts [4], which are shown in Figure 4. The motion artefacts are caused by the physical movement of the person’s body. As shown in Figure 4a, motion artefacts produce a sudden high valued spike in all the channels of EEG recording. The muscular artefacts, shown in Figure 4b are caused by any muscular contraction such as grinding the teeth. It produces high-frequency bursts in EEG recording as circled in the Figure 4b. The cardiac artefacts, shown in Figure 4c, are caused by the electrical activities of the heart. They appear as a weak form of QRS wave of heart and most likely to be appeared in the channels near to ears (temporal lobe), though it can be sometimes present in channels from the frontal lobe [7]. The ocular artefacts are slow oscillating waves appear on the frontal lobe, caused by the eye movements or closed eyes, as circled in the Figure 4d. The higher magnitude of the artefacts corrupts the EEG recording and leads to misinterpretations of the results and analysis [5]. Even though there are many algorithms to remove the artefacts, but there is always a possibility of losing the cerebral information while removing the artefacts.
Common type of artefacts in EEG. Corresponding artefacts are circled in the figure.
Most of the real-life signals are non-stationary in behaviour, which means their properties change over time. To localise the events of interest, time-frequency analysis is widely used. The conventional way of time-frequency analysis is the Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT), where Fourier transform of the signal is taken over short-windows, resulting spectrogram plot. STFT has limitations on resolutions, due to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, e.g. improvement in time resolution results in poorer frequency resolution and vice-versa. The alternative to STFT is wavelet transform, which exploits the property of low-frequency signals being widespread over time and high-frequency bursts occurring on short intervals. Wavelet transform uses the variable size of windows with a wavelet function.
Wavelet analysis is usually applied in two ways, Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) and Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT). CWT uses a wavelet function
4-level decomposition tree for (a) discrete wavelet transform (DWT), (b) wavelet packet decomposition (WPD).
As shown in Figure 5, block LP is a lowpass filter
As discussed, a conventional way to time-frequency analysis is STFT, however, using CWT with different wavelet functions can enrich the analysis with more details. In this section, we will show, how a continuous wavelet function (
A spectrogram is obtained using STFT, which is Fourier Transform computed for a short windows. STFT
CWT operation from Eq. (2) can be seen as convolution of input signal
where
Continues wavelet functions.
Gaussian Wavelet: A time-domain wavelet it derived from a Gaussian function centered at
where
Gabor Wavelet: Gabor wavelet is perhaps the most widely used function for various applications. It is essentially the same as Gaussian wavelet function, with simplified equations, as follow [8, 9];
where
Morlet Wavelet: Morlet is considered very similar to Gabor wavelet and Gabor filters. The oscillation of Morlet wavelet is controlled by
where
Poisson Wavelet: Poisson wavelet is defined by positive integers (
where
Complex Mexican hat wavelet: Complex Mexican hat wavelet is derived from the conventional Mexican hat wavelet. It is a low-oscillation wavelet which is modulated by a complex exponential function with frequency
where
Complex Shannon wavelet: Complex Shannon wavelet is the most simplified wavelet function, exploiting Sinc function by modulating with sinusoidal, which results in an ideal bandpass filter. Real Shannon wavelet is modulated by only a cos function [14].
where
An example of using the above six wavelet functions for a small single-channel EEG segment is shown in Figure 7, along with spectrogram. It can be observed, spectrogram highlights a few events in signal (sharp peaks and lowpass wave), however, using CWT with different Wavelet functions, much richer information can be observed. Since, we observed that in the formulation of wavelet functions that they are similar to the underlying principle, we could also observe the similarities across different scalograms. Specifically, spectrogram using Complex Shannon and Complex Mexican hat wavelet are much similar. Interestingly, Morlate and Poisson wavelet functions are able to produce a better resolution towards lower frequencies.
Scalogram and spectrogram of a segment of signal channel EEG signal with six wavelet functions and STFT. Figure obtained using spkit python library - https://spkit.github.iohttps://spkit.github.io
Artefacts in EEG recording is a primary obstacle that all researchers have to deal with. There are decades of research work in literature to remove these artefacts [15, 16]. A range of methods have been proposed to remove the artefacts, starts with a statistical with interpolation method [17] and regression method [18]. The most commonly used approaches are based on Blind Source Separation (BSS) using Independent Component Analysis (ICA) [19, 20]. ICA based approach have been widely explored with statistical measures [21, 22, 23, 24], and variant of ICA as FastICA, InfoMax, and Extended InfoMax [25, 26, 27]. Wavelet-based approaches are well suited for time-localised short events, as opposed to ICA. This property has been exploited to remove artefacts from single-channel EEG. In contrast to a single channel, wavelet has also been used for multi-channel EEG [28] and in combination with ICA [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34], in which identified artifactual component is cleaned with wavelet rather than removed. The ICA-based approaches can only be applied to multi-channel EEG and need an expert to select artifactual component, which has been automated with heuristics [21, 35, 36]. In contrast, most wavelet-based algorithms remove artefacts from each channel individually.
The key idea of wavelet-based artefact removal algorithms is to apply DWT on single-channel EEG signal
Global Threshold: Also known as the optimal threshold for removing white-gaussian noise from any signal [40] using DWT. Global Threshold (
where
Standard Deviation (STD) Threshold: As name suggests, STD threshold is based on Standard Deviation (
ATAR algorithm: A recent study has shown that approaches based on above thresholds are very aggressive, since, statistically, a few wavelet coefficients of any signal will always fall above these thresholds [14]. In contrast, an Automatic and Tunable Artefact Removal (ATAR) Algorithm based on WPD was proposed [41], which provides three different wavelet filtering modes and a tunable parameter. As shown a block diagram of ATAR algorithm in Figure 8, a single channel EEG signal
A block diagram of ATAR algorithm [41].
where
Wavelet filtering modes for ATAR algorithm. For θα=200,θγ=0.8θα=160,θβ=2θα=400 [41].
where
Figure 10 shows a visual comparative analysis of wavelet-based approaches (i.e. Global threshold, STD threshold, and ATAR algorithm) and ICA based approaches (FastICA, InfoMax, and Extended-InfoMax) to remove the artefacts. It is visually apparent that wavelet-based approaches are better than ICA-based approaches. Among wavelet-based approaches, using ATAR gives much control over Global and STD based threshold selection. Other quantitative analyses of the above-mentioned approaches are discussed in the article [41], which also demonstrate the effect of tuning parameter and filtering modes on different predictive tasks of EEG signal. The formulation of relationship, algorithmic implementation details, and comparative results are given in article [41].
Comparison of artefact removal approaches from [41].
This chapter presents the overview of Wavelet for EEG analysis. The first chapter introduces EEG signal, commonly used features for predictive analysis, and artefacts that often contaminate EEG signal. Then chapter discusses the Wavelet analysis approaches, namely CWT, DWT, and WPD. The richness of CWT over STFT for time-frequency analysis using various wavelet functions is demonstrated. Finally, the artefact removal algorithms based on wavelet and ICA are discussed. The comparative analysis present in the chapter shows that the wavelet-based approach outperforms ICA based approach. Specifically, a recent algorithm (ATAR) allows controlling the removal or suppression of assumed artifactual components in the signal, which can be tuned to improve the performance of any predictive tasks. The techniques presented in this chapter show how wavelet can be used for EEG studies to extract rich information and removing the artefacts. The comparative analysis shows wavelet based approaches are well suited for EEG signal processing. Further, similar approaches can be used with other biomedical signals such as electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG), Electromyography (EMG) etc.
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links.
",metaTitle:"List of Institutions by Country",metaDescription:"If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. However, if your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"open-access-funding-institutions-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Book Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\n\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Book Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5239},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15810}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118377},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"16"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9816",title:"Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"365bb9762ba33db2d07e677690af1772",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Salim Surani and Dr. Venkat Rajasurya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9816.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15654",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim",surname:"Surani",slug:"salim-surani",fullName:"Salim Surani"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10343",title:"Ocular Hypertension",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0ff71cc7e0d9f394f41162c0c825588a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Michele Lanza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10343.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10704",title:"Cardiac Arrhythmias - Translational Approach from Pathophysiology to Advanced Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0e5d67464d929fda6d8c83ec20c4138a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Endre Zima",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10704.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"201263",title:"Dr.",name:"Endre",surname:"Zima",slug:"endre-zima",fullName:"Endre Zima"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10705",title:"Healthcare Access",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e8e9561a91e5f7771932aa5d49c3b687",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Amit Agrawal and Dr. Srinivas Kosgi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10705.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"100142",title:"Prof.",name:"Amit",surname:"Agrawal",slug:"amit-agrawal",fullName:"Amit Agrawal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10706",title:"Fighting the COVID-19 Pandemic",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1a5246f0b6ba4f0e9ad1fbfa4134c598",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Manal Mohammad Baddour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10706.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"174598",title:"Dr.",name:"Manal Mohammad",surname:"Baddour",slug:"manal-mohammad-baddour",fullName:"Manal Mohammad Baddour"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10707",title:"Primary Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bdb1aeb61b1eb116c1bdb09d25593686",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10707.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10708",title:"Topics in Regional Anesthesia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"264f7f37033b4867cace7912287fccaa",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo and Dr. José Ramón Saucillo-Osuna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10708.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10709",title:"Heart Valve Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cb3479fd272d968ee7eee95ae09ea9db",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10709.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10710",title:"Recent Advances in the Treatment of Orofacial Clefts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ec438b5e4be44dc63870c1ace6a56ed2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marcos Roberto Tovani Palone",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10710.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"221178",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Roberto",surname:"Tovani Palone",slug:"marcos-roberto-tovani-palone",fullName:"Marcos Roberto Tovani Palone"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10711",title:"Arthroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"afa83f11ba2442e7612f5b8c6aa3c659",slug:null,bookSignature:"M.D. Carlos Suarez-Ahedo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10711.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"235976",title:"M.D.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Suarez-Ahedo",slug:"carlos-suarez-ahedo",fullName:"Carlos Suarez-Ahedo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10712",title:"Thrombectomy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"853e71d74c3dd5007277d3770e639d47",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10712.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:51},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5249},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1410",title:"Viticulture",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-viticulture",parent:{title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:122,numberOfWosCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitations:61,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-viticulture",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8054",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6b9b3b3d887ed9e7c0ad09cb07edf2b",slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata and Iris Loira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8054.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6077",title:"Grapes and Wines",subtitle:"Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"61fe601d66e441800c8ed9503f86280f",slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",bookSignature:"António Manuel Jordão and Fernanda Cosme",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6077.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186821",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:null,surname:"M. Jordão",slug:"antonio-m.-jordao",fullName:"António M. Jordão"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"58633",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72800",title:"The Evolution of Polyphenols from Grapes to Wines",slug:"the-evolution-of-polyphenols-from-grapes-to-wines",totalDownloads:1328,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Violeta-Carolina Niculescu, Nadia Paun and Roxana-Elena Ionete",authors:[{id:"187102",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionete",slug:"roxana-ionete",fullName:"Roxana Ionete"},{id:"206056",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",middleName:"Carolina",surname:"Niculescu",slug:"violeta-niculescu",fullName:"Violeta Niculescu"},{id:"207020",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Paun",slug:"nadia-paun",fullName:"Nadia Paun"}]},{id:"59216",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73132",title:"Potential for Use of the Residues of the Wine Industry in Human Nutrition and as Agricultural Input",slug:"potential-for-use-of-the-residues-of-the-wine-industry-in-human-nutrition-and-as-agricultural-input",totalDownloads:945,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Renato Vasconcelos Botelho, Gabriela Datsch Bennemann,\nYohandra Reyes Torres and Alessandro Jefferson Sato",authors:[{id:"64335",title:"Prof.",name:"Renato",middleName:"Vasconcelos",surname:"Botelho",slug:"renato-botelho",fullName:"Renato Botelho"},{id:"208714",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Datsch Bennemann",slug:"gabriela-datsch-bennemann",fullName:"Gabriela Datsch Bennemann"},{id:"208715",title:"Dr.",name:"Yohandra",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes Torres",slug:"yohandra-reyes-torres",fullName:"Yohandra Reyes Torres"},{id:"208716",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro Jefferson",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"alessandro-jefferson-sato",fullName:"Alessandro Jefferson Sato"}]},{id:"57946",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71627",title:"Microbiological, Physical, and Chemical Procedures to Elaborate High-Quality SO2-Free Wines",slug:"microbiological-physical-and-chemical-procedures-to-elaborate-high-quality-so2-free-wines",totalDownloads:1088,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego, Miquel Puxeu, Laura Martín, Enric Nart, Claudio\nHidalgo and Imma Andorrà",authors:[{id:"207221",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrer-Gallego",slug:"raul-ferrer-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Ferrer-Gallego"},{id:"208597",title:"Dr.",name:"Miquel",middleName:null,surname:"Puxeu",slug:"miquel-puxeu",fullName:"Miquel Puxeu"},{id:"208598",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martín",slug:"laura-martin",fullName:"Laura Martín"},{id:"208599",title:"Mr.",name:"Enric",middleName:null,surname:"Nart",slug:"enric-nart",fullName:"Enric Nart"},{id:"208600",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",middleName:null,surname:"Hidalgo",slug:"claudio-hidalgo",fullName:"Claudio Hidalgo"},{id:"208601",title:"Dr.",name:"Imma",middleName:null,surname:"Andorrà",slug:"imma-andorra",fullName:"Imma Andorrà"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58638",title:"Occurrence and Analysis of Sulfur Compounds in Wine",slug:"occurrence-and-analysis-of-sulfur-compounds-in-wine",totalDownloads:1193,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Daniela Fracassetti and Ileana Vigentini",authors:[{id:"207271",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Fracassetti",slug:"daniela-fracassetti",fullName:"Daniela Fracassetti"},{id:"220967",title:"Dr.",name:"Ileana",middleName:null,surname:"Vigentini",slug:"ileana-vigentini",fullName:"Ileana Vigentini"}]},{id:"57041",title:"Fingerprints of Anthocyanins and Flavonols in Wild Grapes (Vitis vinifera L. ssp. sylvestris (Gmelin) Hegi)",slug:"fingerprints-of-anthocyanins-and-flavonols-in-wild-grapes-vitis-vinifera-l-ssp-sylvestris-gmelin-heg",totalDownloads:924,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Eugenio Revilla, Rosa Arroyo-Garcia, Alberto Bellido, David\nCarrasco, Anna Puig and Leonor Ruiz-Garcia",authors:[{id:"154744",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Adela",middleName:null,surname:"Arroyo-Garcia",slug:"rosa-adela-arroyo-garcia",fullName:"Rosa Adela Arroyo-Garcia"},{id:"207857",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugenio",middleName:null,surname:"Revilla",slug:"eugenio-revilla",fullName:"Eugenio Revilla"},{id:"207926",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bellido",slug:"alberto-bellido",fullName:"Alberto Bellido"},{id:"207927",title:"Dr.",name:"Davis",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco",slug:"davis-carrasco",fullName:"Davis Carrasco"},{id:"207928",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Puig",slug:"anna-puig",fullName:"Anna Puig"},{id:"207929",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonor",middleName:null,surname:"Ruiz",slug:"leonor-ruiz",fullName:"Leonor Ruiz"}]},{id:"58633",title:"The Evolution of Polyphenols from Grapes to Wines",slug:"the-evolution-of-polyphenols-from-grapes-to-wines",totalDownloads:1326,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Violeta-Carolina Niculescu, Nadia Paun and Roxana-Elena Ionete",authors:[{id:"187102",title:"Dr.",name:"Roxana",middleName:null,surname:"Ionete",slug:"roxana-ionete",fullName:"Roxana Ionete"},{id:"206056",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",middleName:"Carolina",surname:"Niculescu",slug:"violeta-niculescu",fullName:"Violeta Niculescu"},{id:"207020",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Paun",slug:"nadia-paun",fullName:"Nadia Paun"}]},{id:"67039",title:"The Microvine: A Versatile Plant Model to Boost Grapevine Studies in Physiology and Genetics",slug:"the-microvine-a-versatile-plant-model-to-boost-grapevine-studies-in-physiology-and-genetics",totalDownloads:583,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Anne Pellegrino, Charles Romieu, Markus Rienth and Laurent Torregrosa",authors:[{id:"284414",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurent",middleName:null,surname:"Torregrosa",slug:"laurent-torregrosa",fullName:"Laurent Torregrosa"},{id:"285872",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Romieu",slug:"charles-romieu",fullName:"Charles Romieu"},{id:"285873",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Pellegrino",slug:"anne-pellegrino",fullName:"Anne Pellegrino"},{id:"298280",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus",middleName:null,surname:"Rienth",slug:"markus-rienth",fullName:"Markus Rienth"}]},{id:"59187",title:"Grapevine Trunk Diseases (GTDs): Impact on Table Grapes and Wine Vineyards in Chile",slug:"grapevine-trunk-diseases-gtds-impact-on-table-grapes-and-wine-vineyards-in-chile",totalDownloads:930,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Ximena Besoain",authors:[{id:"207574",title:"Prof.",name:"Ximena",middleName:null,surname:"Besoain",slug:"ximena-besoain",fullName:"Ximena Besoain"}]},{id:"58458",title:"Water Balance Indices for Tropical Wine Grapes",slug:"water-balance-indices-for-tropical-wine-grapes",totalDownloads:748,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Antônio Heriberto de Castro Teixeira, Jorge Tonietto and Janice F.\nLeivas",authors:[{id:"212840",title:"Dr.",name:"Antônio",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",slug:"antonio-teixeira",fullName:"Antônio Teixeira"},{id:"212843",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Tonietto",slug:"jorge-tonietto",fullName:"Jorge Tonietto"},{id:"213180",title:"Dr.",name:"Janice",middleName:null,surname:"Leivas",slug:"janice-leivas",fullName:"Janice Leivas"}]},{id:"67760",title:"Production and Marketing of Low-Alcohol Wine",slug:"production-and-marketing-of-low-alcohol-wine",totalDownloads:735,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Tamara Bucher, Kristine Deroover and Creina Stockley",authors:[{id:"289140",title:"Dr.",name:"Creina",middleName:null,surname:"Stockley",slug:"creina-stockley",fullName:"Creina Stockley"},{id:"289141",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamara",middleName:null,surname:"Bucher",slug:"tamara-bucher",fullName:"Tamara Bucher"},{id:"289142",title:"Ms.",name:"Kristine",middleName:null,surname:"Deroover",slug:"kristine-deroover",fullName:"Kristine Deroover"}]},{id:"57206",title:"Viticulture in Warmer Climates: Mitigating Environmental Stress in Douro Region, Portugal",slug:"viticulture-in-warmer-climates-mitigating-environmental-stress-in-douro-region-portugal",totalDownloads:1967,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Manuel Oliveira",authors:[{id:"181227",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:"T.",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"manuel-oliveira",fullName:"Manuel Oliveira"}]},{id:"58589",title:"Convenience of Applying of Viticulture Technique as a Function of the Water Status of the Vine-Stock",slug:"convenience-of-applying-of-viticulture-technique-as-a-function-of-the-water-status-of-the-vine-stock",totalDownloads:1023,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"grapes-and-wines-advances-in-production-processing-analysis-and-valorization",title:"Grapes and Wines",fullTitle:"Grapes and Wines - Advances in Production, Processing, Analysis and Valorization"},signatures:"Ester Gamero, Francisco Espinosa, Daniel Moreno, David Uriarte,\nMaría Henar Prieto, Inmaculada Garrido and María Esperanza\nValdés",authors:[{id:"209994",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Espinosa",slug:"francisco-espinosa",fullName:"Francisco Espinosa"},{id:"222512",title:"Dr.",name:"Esperanza",middleName:null,surname:"Valdés",slug:"esperanza-valdes",fullName:"Esperanza Valdés"},{id:"222515",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Uriarte",slug:"david-uriarte",fullName:"David Uriarte"},{id:"222516",title:"Dr.",name:"Inmaculada",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"inmaculada-garrido",fullName:"Inmaculada Garrido"},{id:"222518",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Gamero",slug:"esther-gamero",fullName:"Esther Gamero"},{id:"222519",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria-Henar",middleName:null,surname:"Prieto",slug:"maria-henar-prieto",fullName:"Maria-Henar Prieto"},{id:"222520",title:"Mr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno",slug:"david-moreno",fullName:"David Moreno"}]},{id:"67444",title:"Somatic Variation and Cultivar Innovation in Grapevine",slug:"somatic-variation-and-cultivar-innovation-in-grapevine",totalDownloads:487,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"advances-in-grape-and-wine-biotechnology",title:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology",fullTitle:"Advances in Grape and Wine Biotechnology"},signatures:"Pablo Carbonell-Bejerano, Carolina Royo, Nuria Mauri, Javier Ibáñez and José Miguel Martínez Zapater",authors:[{id:"287215",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez Zapater",slug:"jose-miguel-martinez-zapater",fullName:"Jose Miguel Martinez Zapater"},{id:"287226",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Ibáñez",slug:"javier-ibanez",fullName:"Javier Ibáñez"},{id:"300441",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Carbonell-Bejerano",slug:"pablo-carbonell-bejerano",fullName:"Pablo Carbonell-Bejerano"},{id:"300442",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",middleName:null,surname:"Royo",slug:"carolina-royo",fullName:"Carolina Royo"},{id:"300444",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",middleName:null,surname:"Mauri",slug:"nuria-mauri",fullName:"Nuria Mauri"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-viticulture",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/156605/jian-wu",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"156605",slug:"jian-wu"},fullPath:"/profiles/156605/jian-wu",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()