Main features of the heat transfer passive devices.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Nowadays the advance in the development of computer systems has helped the science to find out computational solutions on understanding phenomena inherent to the problems faced by engineering [1]. The increase of computer system performance has resulted in a high heat generation. On the other hand, the computers’ performance can be potentially reduced due to these high heat flux densities [2]. Therefore, the thermal management of this kind of electronic equipment has become a challenge in order to avoid the overheating and, as a consequence, the hardware failure [3].
\nAccording to Sun et al. [4], passive cooling systems such as air, liquid, and heat exchangers with phase change are used to regulate the temperature of CPU and other electronic components at desired levels. Nevertheless, these traditional passive cooling systems are restricted to the working fluid limitations. In this scenario, the thermoelectric cooling (TEC) system can be considered as an alternative to the thermal management of CPU and other electronic components.
\nA TEC system is composed of a thermoelectric module, a cold, and a hot region. Thermoelectric modules work under the Peltier effect when a DC current passes through a cell made of semiconductor materials; one of the junctions is cooled while the other is heated. In general, the cold region of TEC can be used for cooling the components of personal computers, CPU, graphics processors, and so on. However, its cooling performance is restricted by the thermal resistance at TEC hot region. Besides, TEC is attractive for cooling these devices due to its low weight, compact size, and vibration free characteristics [5].
\nIn order to improve the TEC cooling performance, the heat pipes or thermosyphons can be used as an alternative for TEC hot side cooling [6]. A schematic diagram of a TEC/Heat Pipes (or thermosyphons) system coupled to CPU is shown in Figure 1. The principle of this technology is: the heat generated in CPU is transferred to the TEC cold region, where the conversion of electrical energy into thermal energy occurs by Peltier effect, and after this process, the heat is transferred to the TEC hot side. In order to increase the TEC hot side cooling, a heat dissipation system is used, which is composed of a heat sink and heat pipes (or thermosyphons). Thus, the evaporators of heat pipes (or thermosyphons) are fixed in the heat sink and absorb the heat generated by CPU and transfer this heat to the condensers of the heat pipes (or thermosyphons), where finally it is dissipated to the environment.
\nSchematic diagram of a TEC/heat pipes (or thermosyphons) system coupled to CPU.
Heat pipes and thermosyphons are passive heat transfer devices capable of transferring large amounts of heat with a small temperature difference. They became popular in recent decades because of their effectiveness and convenience. These devices are used to improve heat transfer in many industrial fields such as electronics, telecommunications, aerospace, among others [7]. The heat transmitted through these devices is based on phase change. Major advantages of heat pipes include a very high thermal conductance, no pumping power requirements, no moving parts, and relatively low-pressure drops [8]. Furthermore, the heat pipes and thermosyphons are devices relatively simple to manufacture and, therefore, have low cost when their geometry is favorable [9].
\nThe heat pipes and thermosyphons operate according to the following principle [10]: in the evaporator region, heat is transferred to the heat pipe or thermosyphon, vaporizing the working fluid contained inside this region. The steam generated is moved, due to the pressure and density differences, to the cooling regions of the heat pipe or thermosyphon (condenser region) where heat transported is rejected to the cold source. In the heat rejection process, the steam condenses, and the condensate returns back to the evaporator closing the cycle. The adiabatic region, which may have variable dimensions (in some cases it is absent), is located between the evaporator and the condenser being insulated from the external environment. In the heat pipes, the working fluid returns from the condenser to the evaporator due to capillary pumping effect while in the thermosyphon the working fluid returns exclusively by gravity because it has no capillary structure. A schematic diagram of the operating principle of heat pipes is presented in Figure 2 [11]. More details on the principle of the heat pipes and thermosyphons can be found in [7, 8, 9, 10].
\nSketch of the operating principle of a heat pipe [11].
The heat pipes basically consist of a metal tube sealed with capillary structure internally, which is embedded with a working fluid [12]. This capillary structure can be made of screen meshes, grooves, or sintered media [13]. The metal screen is the most commonly used capillary structure because of availability, ease of construction and good capillary pumping [14]. The grooves, as capillary structure, have a high thermal conductivity and good permeability [15]. The sintered metal wicks are manufactured by packing tiny metal particles between the inner heat pipe wall and a mandrel in powder form [16]. As mentioned earlier, the thermosyphon is a heat pipe assisted by gravity, which means that it has no capillary structure to return the working fluid [17]. Some researches available in the literature about thermal management of thermoelectric cooling used heat pipes and thermosyphons [4, 5, 18, 19, 20].
\nThus, in this chapter, manufacturing of low cost and easy-to-manufacture heat pipes and thermosyphon is described in detail, and an experimental evaluation of the thermal performance is accomplished for several different passive devices that can be used for thermal management of thermoelectric cooling. The considered devices were a rod, a thermosyphon, a mesh heat pipe, a grooved heat pipe, and a sintered heat pipe. In order to evaluate the best passive heat transfer device, their thermal performance was compared.
\nIn this section, each step of a heat pipe and a thermosyphon manufacturing is described in detail. The proposed procedure has low-cost and the heat transfer passive devices are easy-to-manufacture. The steps are cleaning, assembly, tightness test, evacuation procedure, and filling with the working fluid. These procedures were based on [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26].
\nIf the operation conditions are favorable to gravity, a thermosyphon can be manufactured. As a result, a capillary structure is not necessary. However, in adverse conditions, a wick should be selected and accommodated in the involucre inner. As mentioned before, the capillary structures can be screen meshes, grooves, sintered powder, among others.
\nThe involucre material, capillary structure (if applicable), and the working fluid depend on the application, and they need to be chemically and mechanically compatible. For thermoelectric cooling, the operation temperature is around 150°C, which makes suitable to use copper and distilled water for involucre and working fluid, respectively.
\nFirst of all, the main components of the heat pipe or the thermosyphon have to be prepared. The sintered heat pipe involucre consists of the casing, the closing lids, and the capillary, as shown in Figure 3.
\nSintered heat pipe components.
The cleaning of the heat pipe or the thermosyphon is necessary to ensure the working fluid wettability, the impurity elimination, and the vacuum quality improvement [27]. Consequently, the heat pipe or thermosyphon components need to be thoroughly cleaned, before the introduction of the working fluid. For this purpose, first, the casing, the closing lids, the capillary, and the capillary structure (if applicable) are cleaned with acetone in order to remove larger dirties. Then, they are thoroughly cleaned with a sulfuric acid solution (H2SO4 of 0.1 M). After that, these components are taken to an ultrasonic bath, where they remained immersed in acetone for 30 min. Finally, the cleaning is completed. Figure 4 shows the cleaning of the sintered heat pipe components in an ultrasonic bath.
\nCleaning procedure in the ultrasonic bath.
After the cleaning process, the heat pipe or thermosyphon can be properly assembled. As the wick is inside the casing, the closing lids and the capillary are welded to the tube extremities (Figure 5). In the case of copper involucres, the welding process can be performed with the aid of a soldering iron and the parts can be brazed using a tin alloy as filler material.
\nAssembled heat pipe.
A tightness test has to be conducted to verify if there was no flaw in the welding process of the heat pipe or thermosyphon. A manual positive displacement pump, a water container (e.g., a sink full of water), and a polymeric tube are necessary to accomplish a low-cost test (Figure 6). The polymeric tube makes the connection between the pump and the capillary tube. The heat pipe or thermosyphon is inserted into the water container and the air is pumped into the tube using the positive displacement pump. If there are any flaws in the solder, bubbles will appear in the water. In case of the presence of bubbles, the heat pipe or thermosyphon has to be disassembled, cleaned, welded, and retested.
\nLow-cost tightness test.
First, the heat pipe or thermosyphon is connected to a vacuum pump (Lab1000™) that can remove some residual liquid from the cleaning process. Then, the heat pipe or thermosyphon is linked to a vacuum pump EOS Value™ i260SV by a polymeric hose. This second pump will do the evacuation process, which the internal pressure should reach at least 90 mbar (9 kPa) – Figure 7. To make sure the connections do not leak, the polymeric hose is connected to the capillary with high vacuum grease Dow Corning™, prior to starting the vacuum process. The evacuation procedure has a duration of at least 8 h. At the end of the procedure, the polymeric hose is sealed with the assistance of a forceps and the vacuum pump is turned off.
\nEvacuation procedure.
The amount of working fluid inserted in the heat pipe or thermosyphon is essential for capillary pumping system because the heat transfer depends on that amount of fluid. If there is not enough fluid, the pumping system stop to work and the heat pipe or thermosyphon collapses and as a result, the transferring heat is ceased. As a result, the filling ratio should be carefully chosen. Usually, the filling ratio is based on the evaporator volume.
\nTo perform the filling procedure with the working fluid, a small filling station has to be developed. The filling station is composed of a universal support, a graduated burette (scale of 0.1 mL) with a capacity of 25 mL, and a forceps (Figure 8). The burette and the polymeric hose are completely filled with the working fluid. The evacuated heat pipe or thermosyphon is coupled to the burette by the polymeric hose. Make sure that there are no air bubbles in the tube connecting the burette and the heat pipe or thermosyphon. The next step is to carefully open the burette valve. The forceps are carefully opened to drain the working fluid until the heat pipe or thermosyphon was charged with the correct quantity. It is emphasized that at the moment of filling, great care must be taken; otherwise, the heat pipe or thermosyphon vacuum will be lost. If this happens, the entire vacuum process must be performed again. After charging, the capillary is closed with grip pliers and the capillary end is welded to the completely sealing (Figure 9).
\nFilling station with the heat pipe.
Welding the capillary end.
The heat pipes and thermosyphon were produced by copper tubes ASTM B-75 Alloy 122 with an outer diameter of 9.45 mm, an inner diameter of 7.75 mm, and a length of 200 mm. The rod was obtained from a full copper bar ASTM B-75 Alloy 122 with the same dimensions of the developed heat pipes and thermosyphon. All the devices had an evaporator of 80 mm in length, an adiabatic region of 20 mm in length, and a condenser of 100 mm in length. The working fluid used is distilled water with filling ratios related to the evaporator volume based on the best performance of each capillary structure. Table 1 shows the main characteristics of the heat transfer passive devices analyzed in this research.
\nCharacteristics | \nRod | \nThermosyphon | \nHeat Pipe | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mesh | \nGrooved | \nSintered | \n|||
Inner diameter [mm] | \n— | \n7.75 | \n7.75 | \n6.20 | \n7.75 | \n
Outer diameter [mm] | \n9.45 | \n9.45 | \n9.45 | \n9.45 | \n9.45 | \n
Evaporator length [mm] | \n80.0 | \n80.0 | \n80.0 | \n80.0 | \n80.0 | \n
Adiabatic section length [mm] | \n20.0 | \n20.0 | \n20.0 | \n20.0 | \n20.0 | \n
Condenser length [mm] | \n100 | \n100 | \n100 | \n100 | \n100 | \n
Working fluid | \n— | \nWater | \nWater | \nWater | \nWater | \n
Volume of working fluid [mL] | \n— | \n2.26 | \n2.19 | \n1.73 | \n2.26 | \n
Filling ratio [%] | \n— | \n60 | \n60 | \n60 | \n80 | \n
Capillary structure | \n— | \nNo capillary structure | \nPhosphor bronze screen mesh #100 | \nMicrogrooves by the wire-EDM | \nCopper powder sintered | \n
Main features of the heat transfer passive devices.
The mesh heat pipe used one layer of phosphor bronze screen mesh #100 (Figure 10a) as capillary structure. A microscale image of screen mesh #100 is shown in Figure 10b. The image was obtained by backscattered electron detector (BSD) for scanning electron microscope (SEM). More information about this mesh heat pipe can be found in [23].
\nPhosphor bronze screen mesh #100. (a) General view (b) micro-scale image.
The grooved heat pipe shown schematically in Figure 11a had 32 microgrooves made by the wire electrical discharge machining (wire-EDM). Figure 11b presents the axial microgrooves details with an average diameter of 220 μm by a micro-scale image. The image was obtained by backscattered electron detector (BSD) for scanning electron microscope (SEM). More details about this heat pipe can be found in [24, 28].
\nMicrogrooves made by wire-EDM. (a) Scheme of microgroove profile and (b) microscale image.
The sintered heat pipe was produced by the sintering process with a copper powder and a temporary mandrel. The average diameter of the copper powder particle is 10.9 μm. The porous structure manufactured has a thickness of 1.5 mm (Figure 12a). The microscale image of the capillary structure of sintered copper powder is presented in Figure 12b. More information about this sintered heat pipe can be found in [26].
\nStructure sintered copper powder. (a) General view and (b) microscale image.
To achieve successful results, the experimental tests must reproduce the operation conditions as close as possible to the application for thermal management of thermoelectric cooling. Then, to evaluate the thermal performance of the analyzed passive heat transfer devices, an experimental apparatus and some experimental procedures were used.
\nThe essential experimental apparatus for the experimental tests, shown in Figure 13, is composed of a data logger (Agilent™ 34970A with 20 channels), a power supply unit (Keysight ™ U8002A), a laptop (Dell™), an uninterruptible power supply (NHS™), a universal support, and a fan (Ultrar™).
\nExperimental apparatus.
For the evaluation of the temperature of the different heat transfer passive devices, K-type thermocouples Omega Engineering™ are used. They should be fixed on the outer surface of devices by a thermosensitive adhesive strip Kapton™. They should be distributed in the length of the heat pipes and thermosyphon. Thus, there are three thermocouples in the evaporator (Tevap,1, Tevap,2, and Tevap,3), one thermocouple in the adiabatic section (Tadiab) e four thermocouples in the condenser (Tcond,1, Tcond,2, Tcond,3, and Tcond,4) in passive devices (heat pipes and thermosyphon), as shown in Figure 14. For the rod, two thermocouples were fixed in the evaporator (Tevap,1 and Tevap,2), one thermocouple in the adiabatic section (Tadiab) and three thermocouples in the condenser (Tcond,1, Tcond,2, and Tcond,3).
\nThermocouple positions in heat pipes.
As is already known, for the correct operation of the heat pipe and thermosyphon, a heating system is needed in the evaporator and a cooling system in the condenser. The evaporator can be power dissipation in any kind of resistor (strip, cartridge) or a heat source, as the TEC hot side. The cooling system can consist of forced convection by air, water, or coolant, in most of the cases. The adiabatic section may have variable dimensions (in some cases, it is absent) and should be insulated from the external environment.
\nThus, in this research, the heating system of the evaporator is conducted by power dissipation from the passage of an electric current in a nickel-chromium alloy power strip resistor Omega Engineering™ with 0.1 mm of thickness and 3.5 mm of width. To ensure that the generated heat by Joule effect is transmitted to the evaporator, an aeronautic thermal insulation and a layer of polyethylene are installed in this region. A fiberglass tape is used in adiabatic section as heat insulation between the support and the passive device. The cooling system using air forced convection consisted of a fan in the condenser region.
\nTo ensure the best results and the repeatability of experimental tests, the environment temperature was maintained at 20°C ± 0.5°C. A thermal conditioning system Carrier™ was used for this purpose. A detailed check of the equipment and the heat pipe or thermosyphon (fixing thermocouples, thermal insulation, resistor connection, among others) must be made before each experimental test. The heat pipe or thermosyphon was carefully fixed to the universal support bracket in the adiabatic region in the desired position. The cooling system was turned on in the condenser region and set at a speed of 5 m/s controlled by a potentiometer with a combined error of ±0.2 m/s. The data acquisition system was turned on, collecting the temperatures measured by the K-type thermocouples. The temperatures should be verified according to the environment temperature, and if these were stable and approximately 20°C, finally, the heating system can be turned on and adjusted to the dissipation power desired. The initial load was 5 W and, after approximately 15 min, the thermocouples showed stationary values. If it happened, the thermal load has been increased by 5 W. The load increment was made until the maximum temperature of the device reached the critical temperature (150°C), where the melting of the materials could happen. Data were acquired every 5 s, recorded on the desktop by the software Agilent™ Benchlink Data Logger 3.
\nThe thermal performance of the heat pipes and the thermosyphon was analyzed and compared by the operating temperatures (Top), the global thermal resistance (Rth), and the effective thermal conductivity (keff). The analyzed operating temperature is the temperature of the adiabatic region. The global thermal resistance, Rth, of a heat pipe and a thermosyphon can be defined as the difficulty of the passive device to transport the heat power and can be calculated by:
\nwhere, q is the heat transfer capability of the device, Tevap and Tcond are the mean temperature of the evaporator and the condenser, respectively.
\nThe effective thermal conductivity, keff, is the property of a certain material to conduct heat. Defined by:
\nwhere, Leff is the effective length and AC is the heat transfer cross-sectional area. The effective length can be defined by:
\nwhere, Levap is the evaporator length, Ladiab is the adiabatic section length, and Lcond is the condenser length.
\nThe heat transfer cross-sectional area can be defined by:
\nwhere Di is the inner diameter of the heat transfer passive device.
\nIn general, the experimental uncertainties are associated to the K-type thermocouples, the data logger, and the power supply unit. The experimental measurement uncertainties were analyzed using the uncertainty combination method described in [29] considering the combination of uncertainties of correlated quantities. They are shown in the obtained results. It is known that the accuracy of the thermocouples is ±2.2°C and the uncertainty was evaluated as the rectangle type. Thus, the uncertainty values of the temperature sensors were estimated in:
\nThe combined uncertainties of the evaporator, adiabatic section, and condenser temperatures were calculated according to the following equations respectively:
\nThe measurement uncertainties associated with the dissipated power in the evaporator were estimated according to the power supply in the electrical resistance of the tests. The uncertainties were evaluated as the rectangle type, considering the voltage accuracy of 0.35% + 20 mV and the current accuracy of 0.35% + 20 mA. The electrical power dissipated by the electric resistance, P, is calculated as shown below:
\nwhere V is the voltage and I is the current.
\nConsidering that thermal losses in the evaporator region are negligible and that all energy is transferred to the wall of the heat pipe, the uncertainty of the heat transfer capacity can be estimated as:
\nThe global thermal resistance uncertainty can be calculated by the following equation:
\nwhere the uncertainty of the temperature difference can be defined as:
\nTo summarize the analysis of the thermal performance of the heat pipes and the thermosyphon, different types of passive heat transfer devices were experimentally evaluated and compared. The considered devices were a rod, a thermosyphon, a mesh heat pipe, a grooved heat pipe, and a sintered heat pipe. The analyzed operating positions were vertical and horizontal. The experimental tests were repeated three times and the errors were compared taking into account the difference between the mean values less than 0.5°C. The tests were performed at increasing heat loads of 5 W, ranging from 5 to 45 W for both positions.
\nFigure 15 shows the temperature distributions as a function of time for the heat pipe with axial microgrooves in the vertical position. The heat pipe starts to work at a temperature of 44° C, for a heat load of 5 W. The maximum dissipated power of the grooved heat pipe was 45 W. Figure 16 presents the temperature distribution in function of the thermocouple position in the heat pipe length for different heat loads.
\nTemperature distribution versus time: Grooved heat pipe in vertical.
Temperature distribution versus thermocouple position: Grooved heat pipe in vertical.
The behavior of the operating temperature as a function of the dissipated power for different passive devices is shown in Figure 17. It may be noted that as the dissipated power increases, the operating temperature also increases for all the devices in both positions.
\nOperating temperature versus power dissipation. (a) Vertical and (b) horizontal.
Figure 18 presents the global thermal resistance as a function of the power dissipation considering the rod, the thermosyphon, and the heat pipes. The results of two operating positions are compared. As the heat dissipation is increased, the thermal resistance decreases for the thermosyphon and the heat pipes in the vertical position. In horizontal, the heat pipes obtain the same behavior; however, the thermosyphon has changed dramatically. It happens due to the necessity of gravity for the fluid return in the thermosyphon. The rod thermal resistance remains almost constant for the entire heat loads in both positions.
\nThermal resistance versus power dissipation. (a) Vertical and (b) horizontal.
As mentioned, the global thermal resistance of the heat pipes and the thermosyphon take into consideration the temperature difference between the evaporator and the condenser and, the dissipated power. However, the processes governing the global thermal resistance are related to the fluid dynamics and the heat transfer. The fluid dynamics is influenced by the gravity and the capillary pumping. In the thermosyphon, the fluid flow from the condenser to the evaporator occurs exclusively by gravity. On the other hand, in the heat pipes, besides gravity, the capillary pumping also has a positive influence on the fluid flow. The heat transfer in the evaporators is governed by boiling, which is facilitated due to the existence of nucleation sites. Thermosyphon nucleation sites happen due to the surface roughness (imperfections). In the heat pipes, the capillary structures (screen meshes, microgrooves, or sintered media) provide the nucleation sites, making the boiling process more efficient. Thus, according to Figure 18, the global thermal resistance of the heat pipes is lower than the rod and the thermosyphon. This can be explained by the influence of gravity and the capillary pumping. Also, the boiling process is more efficient due to the existence of more nucleation sites. Finally, note that values of global thermal resistance could be lower if the overall heat transfer coefficient in the condenser of the passive devices were higher, which could be achieved, for example, using fins or liquid cooling.
\nIn Figure 19, the behavior of the effective thermal conductivity of the passive heat transfer devices is shown as a function of the power dissipated for vertical (a) and horizontal (b) positions. As expected, it can be seen that the passive devices that use phase change (heat pipes and thermosyphon) have a higher effective thermal conductivity and that this parameter increases with increasing power dissipation.
\nEffective thermal conductivity versus power dissipation. (a) Vertical and (b) horizontal.
In this research, each step of the heat pipes and the thermosyphon manufacturing (cleaning, assembly, tightness test, evacuation procedure, and filling with the working fluid) was described in detail. The proposed procedure has low-cost and the heat transfer passive devices are easy-to-manufacture. Then, an experimental investigation of the thermal performance of different heat transfer passive devices (solid rod, thermosyphon, mesh heat pipe, grooved heat pipe, and sintered heat pipe) was performed. These passive heat transfer devices were tested in vertical and horizontal positions under thermal loads between 5 and 45 W and worked satisfactorily, except rod and thermosyphon in the horizontal position. The vertical position showed better results than the horizontal one due to gravity. The thermosyphon showed a satisfactory thermal performance in the vertical position. However, in the horizontal, its behavior was worse than a rod. The heat pipes were the devices with the best thermal performance due to the use of the vaporization heat of the working fluid concurrently with the capillary structure. The grooved heat pipe had a better thermal performance based on the lower global thermal resistance or the higher effective thermal conductivity. The experimental results showed that heat pipes and thermosyphon can be successfully used in TEC hot side cooling, and due to the behavior of the global thermal resistance and the effective thermal conductivity, on the other hand, a solid rod cannot be used.
\nAcknowledgments are provided to the CAPES, the CNPq, the PROPPG/UTFPR, the DIRPPG/UTFPR, the PPGEM/UTFPR/Ponta Grossa, and the DAMEC/UTFPR/Ponta Grossa.
\nAC | cross-sectional area, [m2] |
Di | inner diameter, [m] |
I | current, [A] |
k | thermal conductivity, [W/mK] |
L | length, [m] |
P | electrical power dissipated, [W] |
q | heat transfer rate, [W] |
Rth | total thermal resistance, [°C/W] |
t | time, [s] |
T | temperature, [°C] |
V | voltage, [V] |
Subscripts | |
adiab | adiabatic section |
Cu | copper |
cond | condenser |
eff | effective |
evap | evaporator |
The use of social media is growing at a rapid pace and the twenty-first century could be described as the “boom” period for social networking. According to reports provided by Smart Insights, as at February 2019 there were over 3.484 billion social media users. The Smart Insight report indicates that the number of social media users is growing by 9% annually and this trend is estimated to continue. Presently the number of social media users represents 45% of the global population [1]. The heaviest users of social media are “digital natives”; the group of persons who were born or who have grown up in the digital era and are intimate with the various technologies and systems, and the “Millennial Generation”; those who became adults at the turn of the twenty-first century. These groups of users utilize social media platforms for just about anything ranging from marketing, news acquisition, teaching, health care, civic engagement, and politicking to social engagement.
\nThe unethical use of social media has resulted in the breach of individual privacy and impacts both physical and information security. Reports in 2019 [1], reveal that persons between the ages 8 and 11 years spend an average 13.5 hours weekly online and 18% of this age group are actively engaged on social media. Those between ages 12 and 15 spend on average 20.5 hours online and 69% of this group are active social media users. While children and teenagers represent the largest Internet user groups, for the most part they do not know how to protect their personal information on the Web and are the most vulnerable to cyber-crimes related to breaches of information privacy [2, 3].
\nIn today’s IT-configured society data is one of, if not the most, valuable asset for most businesses/organizations. Organizations and governments collect information via several means including invisible data gathering, marketing platforms and search engines such as Google [4]. Information can be attained from several sources, which can be fused using technology to develop complete profiles of individuals. The information on social media is very accessible and can be of great value to individuals and organizations for reasons such as marketing, etc.; hence, data is retained by most companies for future use.
\nPrivacy or the right to enjoy freedom from unauthorized intrusion is the negative right of all human beings. Privacy is defined as the right to be left alone, to be free from secret surveillance, or unwanted disclosure of personal data or information by government, corporation, or individual (
Privacy, or even the thought that one has this right, leads to peace of mind and can provide an environment of solitude. This solitude can allow people to breathe freely in a space that is free from interference and intrusion. According to Richards and Solove [6], Legal scholar William Prosser argued that privacy cases can be classified into four related “torts,” namely:
Intrusion—this can be viewed as encroachment (physical or otherwise) on ones liberties/solitude in a highly offensive way.
Privacy facts—making public, private information about someone that is of no “legitimate concern” to anyone.
False light—making public false and “highly offensive” information about others.
Appropriation—stealing someone’s identity (name, likeness) to gain advantage without the permission of the individual.
Technology, the digital age, the Internet and social media have redefined privacy however as surveillance is no longer limited to a certain pre-defined space and location. An understanding of the problems and dangers of privacy in the digital space is therefore the first step to privacy control. While there can be clear distinctions between informational privacy and physical privacy, as pointed out earlier, intrusion can be both physical and otherwise.
\nThis chapter will focus on informational privacy which is the ability to control access to personal information. We examine privacy issues in the social media context focusing primarily on personal information and the ability to control external influences. We suggest that breach of informational privacy can impact: solitude (the right to be left alone), intimacy (the right not to be monitored), and anonymity (the right to have no public personal identity and by extension physical privacy impacted). The right to control access to facts or personal information in our view is a natural, inalienable right and everyone should have control over who see their personal information and how it is disseminated.
\nIn May 2019 the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) clearly outlined that it is unlawful to process personal data without the consent of the individual (subject). It is a legal requirement under the GDPR that privacy notices be given to individuals that outline how their personal data will be processed and the conditions that must be met that make the consent valid. These are:
“Freely given—an individual must be given a genuine choice when providing consent and it should generally be unbundled from other terms and conditions (e.g., access to a service should not be conditional upon consent being given).”
“Specific and informed—this means that data subjects should be provided with information as to the identity of the controller(s), the specific purposes, types of processing, as well as being informed of their right to withdraw consent at any time.”
“Explicit and unambiguous—the data subject must clearly express their consent (e.g., by actively ticking a box which confirms they are giving consent—pre-ticked boxes are insufficient).”
“Under 13s—children under the age of 13 cannot provide consent and it is therefore necessary to obtain consent from their parents.”
Arguments can be made that privacy is a cultural, universal necessity for harmonious relationships among human beings and creates the boundaries for engagement and disengagement. Privacy can also be viewed as instrumental good because it is a requirement for the development of certain kinds of human relationships, intimacy and trust [7]. However, achieving privacy is much more difficult in light of constant surveillance and the inability to determine the levels of interaction with various publics [7]. Some critics argue that privacy provides protection against anti-social behaviors such as trickery, disinformation and fraud, and is thought to be a universal right [5]. However, privacy can also be viewed as relative as privacy rules may differ based on several factors such as “climate, religion, technological advancement and political arrangements” [8, 9]. The need for privacy is an objective reality though it can be viewed as “culturally rational” where the need for personal privacy is viewed as relative based on culture. One example is the push by the government, businesses and Singaporeans to make Singapore a smart nation. According to GovTech 2018 reports there is a push by the government in Singapore to harness the data “new gold” to develop systems that can make life easier for its people. The [10] report points out that Singapore is using sensors robots Smart Water Assessment Network (SWAN) to monitor water quality in its reservoirs, seeking to build smart health system and to build a smart transportation system to name a few. In this example privacy can be describe as “culturally rational” and the rules in general could differ based on technological advancement and political arrangements.
\nIn today’s networked society it is naïve and ill-conceived to think that privacy is over-rated and there is no need to be concerned about privacy if you have done nothing wrong [5]. The effects of information flow can be complex and may not be simply about protection for people who have something to hide. Inaccurate information flow can have adverse long-term implications for individuals and companies. Consider a scenario where someone’s computer or tablet is stolen. The perpetrator uses identification information stored on the device to access their social media page which could lead to access to their contacts, friends and friends of their “friends” then participate in illegal activities and engage in anti-social activities such as hacking, spreading viruses, fraud and identity theft. The victim is now in danger of being accused of criminal intentions, or worse. These kinds of situations are possible because of technology and networked systems. Users of social media need to be aware of the risks that are associated with participation.
\nThe concept of social networking pre-dates the Internet and mass communication as people are said to be social creatures who when working in groups can achieve results in a value greater than the sun of its parts [11]. The explosive growth in the use of social media over the past decade has made it one of the most popular Internet services in the world, providing new avenues to “see and be seen” [12, 13]. The use of social media has changed the communication landscape resulting in changes in ethical norms and behavior. The unprecedented level of growth in usage has resulted in the reduction in the use of other media and changes in areas including civic and political engagement, privacy and safety [14]. Alexa, a company that keeps track of traffic on the Web, indicates that as of August, 2019 YouTube, Facebook and Twitter are among the top four (4) most visited sites with only Google, being the most popular search engine, surpassing these social media sites.
\nSocial media sites can be described as online services that allow users to create profiles which are “public, semi-public” or both. Users may create individual profiles and/or become a part of a group of people with whom they may be acquainted offline [15]. They also provide avenues to create virtual friendships. Through these virtual friendships, people may access details about their contacts ranging from personal background information and interests to location. Social networking sites provide various tools to facilitate communication. These include chat rooms, blogs, private messages, public comments, ways of uploading content external to the site and sharing videos and photographs. Social media is therefore drastically changing the way people communicate and form relationships.
\nToday social media has proven to be one of the most, if not the most effective medium for the dissemination of information to various audiences. The power of this medium is phenomenal and ranges from its ability to overturn governments (e.g., Moldova), to mobilize protests, assist with getting support for humanitarian aid, organize political campaigns, organize groups to delay the passing of legislation (as in the case with the copyright bill in Canada) to making social media billionaires and millionaires [16, 17]. The enabling nature and the structure of the media that social networking offers provide a wide range of opportunities that were nonexistent before technology. Facebook and YouTube marketers and trainers provide two examples. Today people can interact with and learn from people millions of miles away. The global reach of this medium has removed all former pre-defined boundaries including geographical, social and any other that existed previously. Technological advancements such as Web 2.0 and Web 4.0 which provide the framework for collaboration, have given new meaning to life from various perspectives: political, institutional and social.
\nSocial medial and the information/digital era have “redefined” privacy. In today’s Information Technology—configured societies, where there is continuous monitoring, privacy has taken on a new meaning. Technologies such as closed-circuit cameras (CCTV) are prevalent in public spaces or in some private spaces including our work and home [7, 18]. Personal computers and devices such as our smart phones enabled with Global Positioning System (GPS), Geo locations and Geo maps connected to these devices make privacy as we know it, a thing of the past. Recent reports indicate that some of the largest companies such as Amazon, Microsoft and Facebook as well as various government agencies are collecting information without consent and storing it in databases for future use. It is almost impossible to say privacy exists in this digital world (@nowthisnews).
\nThe open nature of the social networking sites and the avenues they provide for sharing information in a “public or semi-public” space create privacy concerns by their very construct. Information that is inappropriate for some audiences are many times inadvertently made visible to groups other than those intended and can sometimes result in future negative outcomes. One such example is a well-known case recorded in an article entitled “The Web Means the End of Forgetting” that involved a young woman who was denied her college license because of backlash from photographs posted on social media in her private engagement.
\nTechnology has reduced the gap between professional and personal spaces and often results in information exposure to the wrong audience [19]. The reduction in the separation of professional and personal spaces can affect image management especially in a professional setting resulting in the erosion of traditional professional image and impression management. Determining the secondary use of personal information and those who have access to this information should be the prerogative of the individual or group to whom the information belongs. However, engaging in social media activities has removed this control.
\nPrivacy on social networking sites (SNSs) is heavily dependent on the users of these networks because sharing information is the primary way of participating in social communities. Privacy in SNSs is “multifaceted.” Users of these platforms are responsible for protecting their information from third-party data collection and managing their personal profiles. However, participants are usually more willing to give personal and more private information in SNSs than anywhere else on the Internet. This can be attributed to the feeling of community, comfort and family that these media provide for the most part. Privacy controls are not the priority of social networking site designers and only a small number of the young adolescent users change the default privacy settings of their accounts [20, 21]. This opens the door for breaches especially among the most vulnerable user groups, namely young children, teenagers and the elderly. The nature of social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter and other social media platforms cause users to re-evaluate and often change their personal privacy standards in order to participate in these social networked communities [13].
\nWhile there are tremendous benefits that can be derived from the effective use of social media there are some unavoidable risks that are involved in its use. Much attention should therefore be given to what is shared in these forums. Social platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube are said to be the most effective media to communicate to Generation Y’s (Gen Y’s), as teens and young adults are the largest user groups on these platforms [22]. However, according to Bolton et al. [22] Gen Y’s use of social media, if left unabated and unmonitored will have long-term implications for privacy and engagement in civic activities as this continuous use is resulting in changes in behavior and social norms as well as increased levels of cyber-crime.
\nToday social networks are becoming the platform of choice for hackers and other perpetrators of antisocial behavior. These media offer large volumes of data/information ranging from an individual’s date of birth, place of residence, place of work/business, to information about family and other personal activities. In many cases users unintentionally disclose information that can be both dangerous and inappropriate. Information regarding activities on social media can have far reaching negative implications for one’s future. A few examples of situations which can, and have been affected are employment, visa acquisition, and college acceptance. Indiscriminate participation has also resulted in situations such identity theft and bank fraud just to list a few. Protecting privacy in today’s networked society can be a great challenge. The digital revolution has indeed distorted our views of privacy, however, there should be clear distinctions between what should be seen by the general public and what should be limited to a selected group. One school of thought is that the only way to have privacy today is not to share information in these networked communities. However, achieving privacy and control over information flows and disclosure in networked communities is an ongoing process in an environment where contexts change quickly and are sometimes blurred. This requires intentional construction of systems that are designed to mitigate privacy issues [13].
\nEthics can be loosely defined as “the right thing to do” or it can be described as the moral philosophy of an individual or group and usually reflects what the individual or group views as good or bad. It is how they classify particular situations by categorizing them as right or wrong. Ethics can also be used to refer to any classification or philosophy of moral values or principles that guides the actions of an individual or group [23]. Ethical values are intended to be guiding principles that if followed, could yield harmonious results and relationships. They seek to give answers to questions such as “How should I be living? How do I achieve the things that are deemed important such as knowledge and happiness or the acquisition of attractive things?” If one chooses happiness, the next question that needs to be answered is “Whose happiness should it be; my own happiness or the happiness of others?” In the domain of social media, some of the ethical questions that must be contemplated and ultimately answered are [24]:
Can this post be regarded as oversharing?
Has the information in this post been distorted in anyway?
What impact will this post have on others?
As previously mentioned, users within the ages 8–15 represent one of the largest social media user groups. These young persons within the 8–15 age range are still learning how to interact with the people around them and are deciding on the moral values that they will embrace. These moral values will help to dictate how they will interact with the world around them. The ethical values that guide our interactions are usually formulated from some moral principle taught to us by someone or a group of individuals including parents, guardians, religious groups, and teachers just to name a few. Many of the Gen Y’s/“Digital Babies” are “newbies” yet are required to determine for themselves the level of responsibility they will display when using the varying social media platforms. This includes considering the impact a post will have on their lives and/or the lives of other persons. They must also understand that when they join a social media network, they are joining a community in which certain behavior must be exhibited. Such responsibility requires a much greater level of maturity than can be expected from them at that age.
\nIt is not uncommon for individuals to post even the smallest details of their lives from the moment they wake up to when they go to bed. They will openly share their location, what they eat at every meal or details about activities typically considered private and personal. They will also share likes and dislikes, thoughts and emotional states and for the most part this has become an accepted norm. Often times however, these shares do not only contain information about the person sharing but information about others as well. Many times, these details are shared on several social media platforms as individuals attempt to ensure that all persons within their social circle are kept updated on their activities. With this openness of sharing risks and challenges arise that are often not considered but can have serious impacts. The speed and scale with which social media creates information and makes it available—almost instantaneously—on a global scale, added to the fact that once something is posted there is really no way of truly removing it, should prompt individuals to think of the possible impact a post can have. Unfortunately, more often than not, posts are made without any thought of the far-reaching impact they can have on the lives of the person posting or others that may be implicated by the post.
\nAccording to Berger and Milkman [25] there are five (5) main reasons why users are compelled to share content online, whether it is every detail or what they deem as highlights of their lives. These are:
cause related
personal connection to content
to feel more involved in the world
to define who they are
to inform and entertain
People generally share because they believe that what they are sharing is important. It is hoped that the shared content will be deemed important to others which will ultimately result in more shares, likes and followers.
\n\nFigure 1 below sums up the findings of Berger and Milkman [25] which shows that the main reason people feel the need to share content on the varying social media platform is that the content relates to what is deemed as worthy cause. 84% of respondents highlighted this as the primary motivation for sharing. Seventy-eight percent said that they share because they feel a personal connection to the content while 69 and 68%, respectively said the content either made them feel more involved with the world or helped them to define who they were. Forty-nine percent share because of the entertainment or information value of the content. A more in depth look at each reason for sharing follows.
\nWhy people share source: Global Social Media Research. \nthesocialmediahat.com\n [26].
Social media has provided a platform for people to share their thoughts and express concerns with others for what they regard as a worthy cause. Cause related posts are dependent on the interest of the individual. Some persons might share posts related to causes and issues happening in society. In one example, the parents of a baby with an aggressive form of leukemia, who having been told that their child had only 3 months to live unless a suitable donor for a blood stem cell transplant could be found, made an appeal on social media. The appeal was quickly shared and a suitable donor was soon found. While that was for a good cause, many view social media merely as platforms for freedom of speech because anyone can post any content one creates. People think the expression of their thoughts on social media regarding any topic is permissible. The problem with this is that the content may not be accepted by law or it could violate the rights of someone thus giving rise to ethical questions.
\nWhen social media users feel a personal connection to their content, they are more inclined to share the content within their social circles. This is true of information regarding family and personal activities. Content created by users also invokes a deep feeling of connection as it allows the users to tell their stories and it is natural to want the world or at least friends to know of the achievement. This natural need to share content is not new as humans have been doing this in some form or the other, starting with oral history to the media of the day; social media. Sharing the self-created content gives the user the opportunity of satisfying some fundamental needs of humans to be heard, to matter, to be understood and emancipated. The problem with this however is that in an effort to gratify the fundamental needs, borders are crossed because the content may not be sharable (can this content be shared within the share network?), it may not be share-worthy (who is the audience that would appreciate this content?) or it may be out of context (does the content fit the situation?).
\nOne of the driving factors that pushes users to share content is the need to feel more in tune with the world around them. This desire is many times fueled by jealousy. Many social media users are jealous when their friends’ content gets more attention than their own and so there is a lot of pressure to maintain one’s persona in social circles, even when the information is unrealistic, as long as it gets as much attention as possible. Everything has to be perfect. In the case of a photo, for example, there is lighting, camera angle and background to consider. This need for perfection puts a tremendous amount of pressure on individuals to ensure that posted content is “liked” by friends. They often give very little thought to the amount of their friend’s work that may have gone on behind the scenes to achieve that perfect social post.
\nSocial media platforms have provided everyone with a forum to express views, but, as a whole, conversations are more polarized, tribal and hostile. With Facebook for instance, there has been a huge uptick in fake news, altered images, dangerous health claims and cures, and the proliferation of anti-science information. This is very distressing and disturbing because people are too willing to share and to believe without doing their due diligence and fact-checking first.
\nEstablishing one’s individuality in society can be challenging for some persons because not everyone wants to fit in. Some individuals will do all they can to stand out and be noticed. Social media provides the avenue for exposure and many individuals will seek to leverage the media to stand out of the crowd and not just be a fish in the school. Today many young people are currently being brought up in a culture that defines people by their presence on social media where in previous generations, persons were taught to define themselves by their career choices. These lessons would start from childhood by asking children what they wanted to be when they grew up and then rewarding them based on the answers they give [27]. In today’s digital era, however, social media postings and the number of “likes” or “dislikes” they attract, signal what is appealing to others. Therefore, post that are similar to those that receive a large number of likes but which are largely unrealistic are usually made for self-gratification.
\nThe acquisition of knowledge and skills is a vital part of human survival and social media has made this process much easier. It is not uncommon to hear persons realizing that they need a particular knowledge set that they do not possess say “I need to lean to do this. I’ll just YouTube it.” Learning and adapting to change in as short as possible time is vital in today’s society and social media coupled with the Internet put it all at the finger tips. Entertainment has the ability to bring people together and is a good way for people to bond. It provides a diversion from the demands of life and fills leisure time with amusement. Social media is an outlet for fun, pleasurable and enjoyable activities that are so vital to human survival [28]. It is now common place to see persons watching a video, viewing images and reading text that is amusing on any of the available social media platforms. Quite often these videos, images and texts can be both informative and entertaining, but there can be problems however as at times they can cross ethical lines that can lead to conflict.
\nThe use of modern-day technology has brought several benefits. Social media is no different and chief amongst its benefit is the ability to stay connected easily and quickly as well as build relationships with people with similar interests. As with all technology, there are several challenges that can make the use of social media off putting and unpleasant. Some of these challenges appear to be minor but they can have far reaching effects into the lives of the users of social media and it is therefore advised that care be taken to minimize the challenges associated with the use of social media [29].
\nA major challenge with the use of social media is oversharing because when persons share on social media, they tend to share as much as is possible which is often times too much [24]. When persons are out and about doing exciting things, it is natural to want to share this with the world as many users will post a few times a day when they head to lunch, visit a museum, go out to dinner or other places of interest [30]. While this all seems relatively harmless, by using location-based services which pinpoint users with surprising accuracy and in real time, users place themselves in danger of laying out a pattern of movement that can be easily traced. While this seems more like a security or privacy issue it stems from an ethical dilemma—“Am I sharing too much?” Oversharing can also lead to damage of user’s reputation especially if the intent is to leverage the platform for business [24]. Photos of drunken behavior, drug use, partying or other inappropriate content can change how you are viewed by others.
\nAnother ethical challenge users of social media often encounter is that they have no way of authenticating content before sharing, which becomes problematic when the content paints people or establishments negatively. Often times content is shared with them by friends, family and colleagues. The unauthenticated content is then reshared without any thought but sometimes this content may have been maliciously altered so the user unknowingly participates in maligning others. Even if the content is not altered the fact that the content paints someone or something in a bad light should send off warning bells as to whether or not it is right to share the content which is the underlying principle of ethical behavior.
\nSome of the challenges experienced by social media posts are a result of a lack of understanding and sometimes a lack of respect for the varying ethical and moral standpoints of the people involved. We have established that it is typical for persons to post to social media sites without any thought as to how it can affect other persons, but many times these posts are a cause of conflict because of a difference of opinion that may exist and the effect the post may have. Each individual will have his or her own ethical values and if they differ then this can result in conflict [31]. When an executive of a British company made an Instagram post with some racial connotations before boarding a plane to South Africa it started a frenzy that resulted in the executive’s immediate dismissal. Although the executive said it was a joke and there was no prejudice intended, this difference in views as to the implications of the post, resulted in an out of work executive and a company scrambling to maintain its public image.
\nIn this age of sharing, many young persons spend a vast amount of time on social media checking the activities of their “friends” as well as posting on their own activities so their “friends” are aware of what they are up to. Apart from interfering with their academic progress, time spent on these posts at can have long term repercussions. An example is provided by a student of a prominent university who posted pictures of herself having a good time at parties while in school. She was denied employment because of some of her social media posts. While the ethical challenge here is the question of the employee’s right to privacy and whether the individual’s social media profile should affect their ability to fulfill their responsibilities as an employee, the impact on the individual’s long term personal growth is clear.
\nIn today’s information age, one’s digital footprint can make or break someone; it can be the deciding factor on whether or not one achieves one’s life-long ambitions. Unethical behavior and interactions on social media can have far reaching implications both professionally and socially. Posting on the Internet means the “end of forgetting,” therefore, responsible use of this medium is critical. The unethical use of social media has implications for privacy and can result in security breaches both physically and virtually. The use of social media can also result in the loss of privacy as many users are required to provide information that they would not divulge otherwise. Social media use can reveal information that can result in privacy breaches if not managed properly by users. Therefore, educating users of the risks and dangers of the exposure of sensitive information in this space, and encouraging vigilance in the protection of individual privacy on these platforms is paramount. This could result in the reduction of unethical and irresponsible use of these media and facilitate a more secure social environment. The use of social media should be governed by moral and ethical principles that can be applied universally and result in harmonious relationships regardless of race, culture, religious persuasion and social status.
\nAnalysis of the literature and the findings of this research suggest achieving acceptable levels of privacy is very difficult in a networked system and will require much effort on the part of individuals. The largest user groups of social media are unaware of the processes that are required to reduce the level of vulnerability of their personal data. Therefore, educating users of the risk of participating in social media is the social responsibility of these social network platforms. Adapting universally ethical behaviors can mitigate the rise in the number of privacy breaches in the social networking space. This recommendation coincides with philosopher Immanuel Kant’s assertion that, the Biblical principle which states “Do unto others as you have them do unto you” can be applied universally and should guide human interactions [5]. This principle, if adhered to by users of social media and owners of these platforms could raise the awareness of unsuspecting users, reduce unethical interactions and undesirable incidents that could negatively affect privacy, and by extension security in this domain.
\nGeneral requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
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