\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He has done extensive research in andrology, sex education, and counseling.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167875/images/system/167875.jpg",biography:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. 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1. Introduction
Excitons are electron‐hole pairs and as such known in many materials, even in Si. Generally, it is not easy to create so many excitons that they can interact with each other and finally can even condense in an exciton liquid. In standard experiments with laser pulses, one can excite in semiconductors electrons from a valence band into a conduction band and then, due to the electron‐hole attraction, the final state of the excited electron drops to somewhat below the bottom of the conduction band. An exciton is thus mobile, but it does not carry an electrical current due to its charge neutrality.
However, if one uses rare‐earth compounds, where the uppermost occupied state is a localized 4f state and the lowest conduction band is a 5d band and one makes an optically induced 4f‐5d transition, the hole in the 4f state will be localized and the electron just below the bottom of the conduction band will also be localized since it binds by Coulomb attraction to its hole, and the whole exciton will stay at the atom where the photoexcitation occurred and it will not be mobile. Then, this excitation energy will decay in typically 10−8 sec with the emission of a photon or phonons at the same atom where it is originated, resulting only in a localized excited atom in the lattice.
However, a p6–5d exciton is always possible since the initial state is in a band. Thus, Mitani and Koda [1] found Mott‐Wannier excitons with thermo‐reflectance in Eu chalcogenides with about 4 eV (consult similar TmTe in Figure 1). The Tm mono‐chalcogenides exhibit a metal‐semiconductor transition inasmuch as Tm3+S2− + e is a trivalent metal with one free electron in the 5d conduction band (Figure 1). The occupied 4f12 level is about 6.5 eV below the Fermi energy EF, and the empty 4f13 level is little above EF. Experimental evidence comes mainly from X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) and Bremsstrahlen isochromat spectroscopy (BIS) [2]. TmTe on the other hand is a divalent semiconductor Tm2+Te2− with an occupied 4f13 level 0.3 eV below the bottom of an empty 5d band (Figure 1). The driving force behind this different character is the crystal field splitting of the 5d band, which depends on the lattice constant due to the different anion radii.
Figure 1.
Electronic structure and density of states of the Tm chalcogenides, normalized to the Fermi level EF.
TmSe, on the other hand, with an intermediate anion radius between sulfide and telluride has such a crystal field splitting of the 5d band that the bottom of this band overlaps with the 4f13 level. This f‐d hybridization on the one hand leads to some d‐character of the f‐state and as a consequence to a narrow f‐band and on the other hand to some f‐character of the bottom of the d‐band. It has been conventional to describe the new hybridized f‐state as 4f13‐4f125d, consisting of a quantum mechanically mixed state [3]. This new phenomenon is called intermediate valence, since the valence of rare‐earth ions is defined by the occupation of the f‐state, and thus. TmSe has a valence, between 3+ and 2+, in fact 2.85+. This can only be achieved if the 4f‐state is a narrow band, which is partially filled with electrons [3]. But also in the 5d band there are some free electrons, which yield in the visible a coupled plasma resonance of these electrons and are responsible for the copper‐like color of the crystals.
2. Material tailoring
One can now make mixtures between the semiconducting TmTe and the metallic intermediate valence TmSe and thus tune the energy gap ΔE between 300 meV and zero (metal) [3, 4]. Experimentally semiconducting TmSe1−xTex has been created with x = 0.40, 0.55, 0.68, corresponding to ΔE of 40 meV, 110–120 meV, 170 meV. For these compositions the f‐state is so close to the 5d band that some hybridization occurs between the tails of the wave functions. We have the unexpected situation of intermediate valence semiconductors. This in turn means that the originally localized 4f13‐state acquires now some bandwidth in the order of tens of meV.
Concerning now the existence of 4f‐5d excitons, we have created a situation where the hole state in the 4f is mobile and the electron is in a 5d state below the bottom of the 5d band. Now we have the possibility of 4f‐5d excitons. Of course the hole in a narrow 4f‐band has a large effective mass, so that the 4f‐5d exciton is a heavy (mh ≈ 50 me) nearly immobile particle. These excitons without application of external pressure have a low concentration at low temperatures because thermal excitations into the excitonic state are rare.
From Bohr’s formula for the hydrogen radius aH = 0.53 ε Å and from Figure 2 with the reflectivity for ω → 0 = 50%, we obtain n=1+R1−R=5.8=ε. So the static dielectric constant is ε = 34, and the radius of the orbit of the exciton is about 18 Å. This would be a Mott–Wannier exciton. Its binding energy from the optical result is theoretically EB = 13.6/ε2 = 15 meV, about the same as from the electrical measurement [4], but experimentally from Figure 2 EB ≈ 60 meV. The most complete measurements have been performed on TmSe0.45Te0.55 with an energy gap ΔE of 110–120 meV, confirmed by far infrared reflectivity (see inset of Figure 2). Similar absorptive peaks as for TmSe0.45Te0.55 are absolutely missing in other divalent rare‐earth chalcogenides with only localized 4f‐states (Figure 3).
Figure 2.
Reflectivity of TmSe0.45Te0.55 between 1 meV and 6 eV photon energy. At low temperatures, the transverse optical (TO) phonons are the dominant feature. The inset in Figure 2 shows the absorptive part of the dielectric function and the energy gap ΔE ≈ 110 meV, and the binding energy of an exciton is EB ≈ 60 meV [5].
Figure 3.
Schematic band structure of TmSe0.45Te0.55. Due to 4f‐5d hybridization, the 4f13‐state becomes a narrow band and has a dispersion. The exciton level with binding energy EB is indicated below the bottom of the 5d conduction band (black curve). The red curve represents the band structure at 5 kbar with the exciton level at X at the same height as the 4f‐level at Γ. In green is the Γ–X phonon [6].
In the fcc rocksalt structure, the 4f13‐band has a maximum at the Γ point of the Brillouin zone and a minimum at the X point. The 5d band dispersion has its minimum at the X point. An optical transition between the maximum of 4f and the minimum of 5d would be an indirect transition and requires maximal the assistance of a Γ–X phonon for k conservation (black curve).
3. Creation of excitons
Under hydrostatic pressure, the bottom of the 5d band at X with its exciton level will be lowered with respect to its center of gravity (5dt2g‐5deg) and shown for 5 kbar the exciton level is exactly at the energy of the 4f‐state at Γ (red curve). Now the highest energy electrons in the 4f13‐band can spill without energy loss into the excitonic state at X leaving behind a positive hole. This transition needs the emission or absorption of Γ–X phonons which couple to the excitons. So in fact we are dealing with an exciton‐polaron. With higher pressure, the bottom of the 5d band at X will approach the energy of the 4f13‐state at Γ and the 4f electrons will enter directly the 5d band and perform a first‐order semiconductor–metal transition.
In Figure 4, these transitions can be observed directly with resistivity in the isotherms versus pressure for TmSe0.45Te0.55. We look at first at room temperature (300 K) and find a classical pressure dependence of a resistivity, namely the resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with increasing pressure, because the energy gap ΔE decreases with pressure and bands widen and finally the metallic state is achieved (above 11 kbar). Starting with about 5 kbar and best observed at 5 K, the resistivity now increases by about three orders of magnitude with pressure. This is exactly the pressure where excitons become stable states and electrons from the f‐band, which have been thermally excited into the 5d conduction band, drop into the excitonic state and are no longer available for electric conduction. We have created an excitonic insulator, a term coined by Sir Nevil Mott [7]. With further pressure increase, the resistivity drops again, until now the 4f electrons can enter the 5d band directly, which leads to a first‐order semiconductor–metal transition. Here we want to make a remark of another possibility of the semiconductor-metal transition, namely a Mott transition to an electron-hole plasma or an electron-hole liquid. The experimentally derived exciton concentration is 3.9 x 1021cm−3 (see below). This is in fact too high (because of screening effects) for an electron-hole liquid as has been shown by Monnier et al. [8]. There it is calculated that the electron-hole liquid must be less than 1020cm−3 excitons. In fact the rare earth nitrides may serve as experimental examples [9].
Figure 4.
Isotherms of the electrical resistivity in TmSe0.45Te0.55 [5].
4. Exciton condensation
Since for the exciton creation no energy is needed, their number is enormous. But not all 4f electrons can form excitons, because as electric dipoles and according to the Pauli principle [10, 11] they repel each other. This goes so far that the formation of this incredible high concentration of excitons forces the whole crystal lattice to expand against the applied pressure. We show this in Figure 5 where we measure the lattice constant (Figure 5a) (with strain gauges) and the expansion coefficient (Figure 5b) of the crystal in an isobar at 11.9 kbar. We observe that at about 230 K the lattice expands by 1.6% isostructurally, an enormous amount. The expansion coefficient becomes negative, of course. We even think that the expansion is of first order (dashed–dot line), but the point‐by‐point measurement cannot reproduce this exactly, because we go from the semimetallic state to the excitonic state.
Figure 5.
a, b. Isobar lattice constant and expansion coefficient of TmSe0.45Te0.55 [12].
We can estimate the maximal number of excitons with the help of Figure 5a, and we observe that the lattice expansion occurs spontaneously when entering the excitonic phase. There must be an energy balance between the lattice energy causing the expansion and the electronic energy of the excitons. The energy balance can be described by the first equation in Figure 6. We take the lattice constant change from Figure 5a to go from 5.93 to 6.03 Å and compute Δl/l and ΔV/V. We choose a pressure of 8.5 kbar and an EB of 70 meV and compute the number of excitons nex = 3.9 × 1021 cm−3 (red field). We also can compute the number of Tm ions in the crystal in the fcc structure, and it is nTm = 1.8 × 1022 cm−3 (yellow field). In other words, the exciton concentration is about 22% of the atomic density, an enormous amount of excitons. With the exciton orbit of 18 Å, it is quite clear that we have an exciton band or an exciton condensation. Since the exciton couples to a phonon, the condensation is a Bose condensation, not a Bose–Einstein condensation. We can also estimate the Bose condensation temperature shown in Figure 6, where the general accepted formula yields TB = 130 K, the right order of magnitude. The holes of the exciton are in a narrow 4f‐band, and with a pressure change of 5 to 8 kbar (Figure 4), one scans the width of the 4f‐band [12]. The closing rate of the semiconductor rate has been measured to be dΔE/dp = −11 meV/kbar [4], so 3 kbar · 11 meV = 33 meV for the width of the narrow 4f‐band. From this in turn, we use the general estimate that a band width of 1.5 eV yields an effective mass of me and derive that a band width of 30 meV corresponds to an effective hole mass mh ≈ 50 me. The excitons are thus heavy bosons.
Figure 6.
Calculations of the exciton concentration.
Here we want to make some remarks about this exciton condensation. Nobody in the world (to the best of our knowledge) has a comparable concentration of excitons which exist as long as we can sustain the pressure and as the liquid Helium lasts, this means for days. We can make all kinds of experiments in this condition, such as electrical conductivity, Hall effect, compressibility, heat conductivity, superfluidity, ultrasound velocity, phonon dispersion and specific heat. Nobody else has these possibilities. But the experiments are very demanding at low temperatures with simultaneous pressure and doing the measurements.
5. Phase diagram of semiconductor, excitonic insulator and semimetal
We plot in Figure 7 the coexistence ranges of the intermediate valence semiconductor, the excitonic insulator and the intermediate valence semimetal. We see that the highest temperature for which the excitonic insulator exists is about 260 K and the pressure range is between 7 and 13–14 kbar (pressures applied at room temperature). Experimentally one can only measure isobars in a clamped pressure cell. However, the isobars in Figure 7 are no straight lines, because the pressure applied at room temperature relaxes somewhat at low temperatures. In the inset of Figure 7, we see the Hall effect, which measures the free electron concentration in the 5d band. In the semimetallic state (curve M) at 13 kbar, the electron concentration is about 3 × 1021 cm−3. For the excitonic insulator at 8 kbar, the free electron concentration is about 1018 cm−3 because now the free electrons condense into the excitons and do not contribute anymore to the Hall effect. In fact we observe that the carrier concentration reduces by about three orders of magnitude, the same as has been observed in Figure 4 for the electrical resistivity. The change in resistivity is thus mainly an effect in the carrier concentration though the mobility changes also somewhat [13]. The concentration of the excitons is then 3 × 1021 cm−3–1018 cm−3 = 3 × 1021 cm−3, about the same as has been obtained in Figure 4.
Figure 7.
Temperature–pressure diagram of TmSe0.45Te0.55 with three regions: intermediate valence semiconductor, excitonic insulator (A, B), intermediate valence semimetal. The lines K, L, M, N represent isobars, which are curved since the pressure applied at 300 K relaxes somewhat at low temperatures. The inset shows the 5d free carrier concentration from a Hall effect in function of pressure and at 5 K [6, 13].
We can consider in an analogy a pot with soup. The pot is the hard surrounding of the crystal and inside is a soup of liquid excitons.
In Figure 8, we show in the upper part a proposal from Kohn [14] from 1968 with the three‐phase semiconductor, excitonic insulator and semimetal plotted against the energy gap ΔE with increased pressure going to the left. When ΔE = EB, the excitonic instability starts. In the lower part of the figure, we show the E‐k diagram again for the three phases. It is surprising and satisfying that the foresight of Walter Kohn has practically reached reality by comparing the inset of Figure 8 with the real phases of TmSe0.45Te0.55 as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 8.
In the upper part, we show a proposal by Kohn [14] of the excitonic insulator, long before any experimental evidence. When ΔE = EB,the excitonic instability starts. In the lower part, we show again the E‐k diagram of TmSe0.45Te0.55 in three phases.
6. Isotherm and compressibility
We may ask what the direct evidence for the condensed excitonic state is. Typical for any liquid is its incompressibility. We can, for instance, at 1.5 K, apply an increasing pressure to TmSe0.45Te0.55, and this is shown in Figure 9 [12]. At first, we cool at zero pressure from 300 to 1.5 K and volume and lattice constant decrease. Then, we increase pressure and measure the lattice constant with elastic neutrons through the pressure cell. Of course, lattice constant and volume decrease further, corresponding to a Birch–Mournaghan equation (red curve). This is a very time‐consuming experiment, because for each pressure change the pressure cell had to be heated to room temperature to change to a higher pressure and then cooled down again and adjust the sample in the neutron beam and wait for beam time. Therefore, this experiment has only four points, but at the relevant pressures. As can be seen in Figure 9 when entering the excitonic state, the lattice constant remains unchanged with increasing pressure, which means a compressibility of zero, as shown in Figure 10.
Figure 9.
Isotherm of TmSe0.45Te0.55 at 1.5 K at relevant pressures. In brackets values at 300 K [12].
Figure 10.
At room temperature (left‐hand figures), the volume change with pressure has a dramatic change near 11 kbar at the transition semiconductor‐semimetal, because the material is intermediate valence between Tm2+ and Tm3+ (also shown as reference in Figure 10), and it becomes soft with pressure. On the right‐hand side, we show the material at 1.5 K and the compressibility goes to zero; the material becomes extremely hard, because we have now the exciton condensation.
Taking experimental uncertainties into account, we have at least a compressibility just as for diamond. Thus, we can take this experiment as evidence of an excitonic liquid.
7. Heat conductivity and superfluidity in the excitonic liquid
We now want to discuss the possibility of superfluidity in the excitonic liquid. Here we resort at first to theory [11, 15]. There is a similarity between pairs of particles: two electrons can condense and produce superconductivity, and an electron–hole pair (exciton) can upon condensation result in superfluidity. A positron pair should also result in superconductivity, but no such experiment is known.
In any case, our exciton condensation may result in superfluidity. What would be the experiment to prove this? In our opinion, this is heat conductivity [16], because it would diverge when the material becomes superfluid, just as in 4He [17].
The experimental arrangement to measure heat conductivity and thermal diffusivity in a pressure cell is described in detail in Ref. [16], but the essence is isobars between 4 and 300 K at various pressures. We show the results of measurements of the heat conductivity λ with isobars at four different pressures, one in the semiconducting range (compare Figure 7) with 7 kbar, one in the semimetallic range at 15 kbar, both outside the excitonic region, and at two pressures 13 and 14 kbar within the excitonic range. Temperature has been measured automatically for each degree. In Figure 11, we collect a few relevant formulae for the heat conductivity λ and the thermal diffusivity a. We see that the heat conductivity depends on the specific heat cv and lph in direction x, the mean free path for phonon scattering. In short, lph will increase with decreasing temperature because the density of phonons decreases and we have Umklapp processes involving three phonons. But the specific heat cv definitely will go toward zero for zero temperatures; thus, the heat conductivity outside the excitonic region will display a maximum near 50 K, as well for the semiconducting range (7 kbar) as for the metallic range (15 kbar); this is displayed in Figure 12, and this behavior is quite normal. The difference of the heat conductivity near 300 K for both cases is due to the electronic part of the heat conductivity in the metallic state, and it corresponds roughly to the Wiedemann–Franz relation. This gives confidence to the measurements. We continue with the heat conductivity in the excitonic region at 13 and 14 kbar. We observe an unexpected downward jump in a first‐order transition when entering the excitonic phase. Consulting Figure 7, it is obvious that at different pressures one enters the excitonic phase at different temperatures. At these temperatures and pressures, one enters the insulating excitonic phase mainly from the semimetallic phase, thus with a metal–insulator transition. The downward jumps in the heat conductivity λ reflect the loss of the electronic part of the heat conductivity. The fascinating aspect of the heat conductivity in the excitonic region is the sharp increase of λ below about 20 K, quite in contrast with the λ outside the excitonic region. Since λ follows mainly the specific heat cv and the phonon mean free path lph, (Figure 11) and cv nevertheless must go to zero for T→0, it is the phonon mean free path which goes faster to infinite than cv toward zero. Finally, it means that the phonon mean free path becomes infinite. When one makes a heat pulse at one end of the crystal, the excited phonon transports its energy without scattering on other phonons to the other side of the crystal, meaning an infinite heat conductivity. This is, however, only possible if the concentration of phonons as running waves is substantially reduced, because most of them couple to the heavy excitons as exciton‐polarons, as we have seen before and thus more or less correspond to local modes.
Figure 11.
Formalities for the heat conductivity and the thermal diffusivity.
Figure 12.
Heat conductivity λ of TmSe0.45Te0.55 for various pressures in function of temperature. Dotted and full line in the excitonic region, dashed in the semimetallic region and dash–dotted line in the semiconducting phase. The inset shows the heat conductivity at 14 kbar in a linear scale [16].
Unfortunately, the measurements were limited to 4.2 K, because at the time of the measurements one did not realize the implications. In any case 20 K, the onset of the sharp increase of λ with decreasing temperature can be considered as the onset of superfluidity, which, however, is different from the one of 4He, inasmuch as there the onset of superfluidity is a first‐order transition [17]. For our exciton case, we propose a superthermal current in the two‐fluid model, where the superfluid part increases gradually toward zero temperature [17]. A λ‐anomaly in the specific heat as in the first‐order Bose–Einstein transition in 4He is here not to be expected and also not found [17].
The proposed evidence of superfluidity within the condensed excitonic state necessitates an additional excitation spectrum of other quasiparticles, namely rotons or vortices [17]. λtot is the sum of individual contributions (Figure 11), and below about 20 K λtot = λph + λex. λph is the heat conductivity due to uncoupled phonons, which is proportional to T3 and can be neglected compared to λex at low temperatures. Thus, we obtain for λex an Arrhenius law for the increase of the heat conductivity toward zero temperature λex∝ exp Δ/kBT. This is shown in Figure 13 at 13 kbar. The activation energy or the gap Δ is 1 meV or about 10 K. The application of heat in the heat conductivity experiment can excite quasiparticles, e.g., rotons with gap energy of about 5 K, which is the right order of magnitude. In superfluid 4He, the roton gap is 8.65 K [18].
Figure 13.
Excitonic part of the heat conductivity λex at 13 kbar, shown in an Arrhenius plot [16].
8. Thermal diffusivity
In Figure 14, we display the thermal diffusivity a for the same four pressures as in Figure 12. The thermal diffusivity a = vxlx and thus follows mainly the phonon mean free path lx, with vx being about constant outside the excitonic region, consulting Figure 11. In fact outside the excitonic region with 7 and 15 kbar, it does exactly this, as can be seen in the theoretical curve for lx in Figure 15. For the lowest temperatures, the phonon mean free path becomes the dimension of the crystal and is thus constant. But in the excitonic region, again below about 20 K, the thermal diffusivity increases dramatically. Why then in the excitonic region the dimensions of the crystal do not seem to be important now? Just as in superfluid Helium heat can be transferred not only via phonon‐phonon scattering in a diffuse manner, but ballistically via a highly directional quantum mechanical wave, the second sound. Also above 20 K, there are anomalies, but they can be explained with the velocity of sound vx, which increases now strongly in the excitonic region (see below).
Figure 14.
The thermal diffusivity in the semiconducting (7 kbar), semimetallic (15 kbar) and the excitonic phase (13 and 14 kbar) for TmSe0.45Te0.55 [16].
Figure 15.
Theoretical curve for the mean free phonon path.
In principle, the two measurements of heat conductivity and thermal diffusivity permit the calculation of the specific heat cv = λ/ρa, with ρ the density (see Figure 11) [16] and we did this in Figure 7 of Ref. [16]. But we never felt very happy with this curve because we divided two point‐by‐point measurements. But the specific heat in the excitonic range is definitely below the one of the specific heat outside this range. But it is also very complex since the density ρ diminishes when entering the excitonic phase, because the crystal expands (see Figure 5). It took us several years before we could make a direct measurement of the specific heat under pressure and below 300 K [6, 19].
9. The specific heat
The specific heat cv has been measured for TmSe0.45Te0.55 [6, 19] along isobars with 0 kbar, and corresponding to the curves K, N, M in Figure 7, which is shown in Figure 16 [6, 19].
Figure 16.
The measured specific heat of TmSe0.45Te0.55 at various pressures. The colors and letters are the same as in Figure 7 [6].
The molar specific heat cm in J/mole K/f.u. has been matched at 300 K to the Dulong‐Petit value of 52 J/mole K/f.u. The specific heat at ambient pressure represents a normal Debye curve (black curve). This curve has been measured by our colleagues at the university of Geneva and ETH Zürich for T > 1 K and T > 0.3 K [20]. A Schottky anomaly due to crystal field splitting of the Tm ions and an exchange splitting due to magnetic order at 0.23 K has been subtracted from the measured curve, and the pure phonon contribution could be plotted as cv/T versus T2; thus, a Debye temperature ϴ of 117 K could be obtained [16]. Curve N is in the semimetallic high‐pressure phase outside the excitonic region, and we find again a normal Debye curve (blue curve), but with a lower Debye temperature than at ambient pressure. This is at first sight surprising since at high pressure a solid becomes harder with a higher Debye temperature, but it has also been observed in reference [16]. A simple explanation can be that with high pressure we change somewhat the degree of valence mixing in the intermediate valence semimetal. Curve M (red curve) starts with about 13 kbar at 300 K in the metallic region, but enters the excitonic region at about 150 K. This occurs with a first‐order transition as we see in Figure 5a. The specific heat should reveal a delta‐function at the phase transition, but experimentally the spike reduces to a Gaussian shape [21]. All curves entering the excitonic region in Figure 7 from the semimetallic region in a first‐order transition (red squares and downward triangles in Figure 7) exhibit the Gaussian anomaly. We now discuss curve K (mauve), which enters the excitonic region in a second‐order transition without a spike in the specific heat. We observe that the specific heat is no longer a Debye curve, but below about 250 K (arrow in Figure 17) one finds a quasi‐linear drop of the specific heat until below about 30 K the specific heat joins the other curves. These measurements reveal a fundamental difference of the thermodynamic phases A and B in Figure 7.
Figure 17.
The specific heat of two typical schematic curves. One representing curve N in Figure 7 and typical for a Debye curve. The second representing curve K in Figure 7. The inset shows an assumed linear temperature dependence of the optical phonon density of states [6].
In fact, such a specific heat like curve K with a non‐Debye like curvature has never been seen before. Since the specific heat over a higher and larger temperature interval is entirely given by the phonons (in the absence of magnetic order and special effects like Schottky anomalies), we must conclude a strong renormalization of the phonon spectrum.
As we have stated already several times above the excitons in this indirect semiconductor couple strongly to phonons in a triple particle entity of hole‐electron and phonon as an exciton polaron. But when the phonons couple to the heavy excitons with effective masses of the holes around mh = 50 me they become more or less localized like a local mode and do no longer contribute significantly to the specific heat. So an essential part of the Debye spectrum of the specific heat is missing.
So in Figure 17 we have made a model calculation of the specific heat with the assumption that the optical phonons are bound to the excitons below about 250 K (arrow in Figure 17). The acoustic branches of the phonons are modelled with a Debye and the optical phonons with an Einstein ansatz, respectively [6]. The seeming disappearance of phonons, i.e., the binding of the optical phonons on the excitons is represented with a linear decrease of the density of states below 250 K (inset to Figure 17). The model calculation in Figure 17 represents well the intriguing behavior of curve K in Figure 16. A strong coupling regime for the phonons to excitons prevails, and thus, while cooling, more and more wave‐like phonons become locked onto the excitons, giving no more contribution to the specific heat. This renormalization of the phonon spectrum and the resulting effect on the specific heat has never been seen before, and it is due to the extreme large concentration of exciton–polarons. Regarding now the Debye temperature ϴ of curve K in comparison with curve N, we observe a further reduction of the Debye temperature, i.e., a minimum in the Debye temperature versus pressure in the excitonic region (red curve in Figure 17).
In a quantitative formula, we can express cexp(T)=cac(T)+ρopt(ω,T)(ΘE/T)2e(ΘE/T)(e(ΘE/T)−1)2
(Debye) + (Einstein) with ρopt a temperature‐dependent density of optical phonons (see inset Figure 17). In fact, the model calculation in Figure 17 represents quite well the measured specific heat of curve K in Figure 16. Thus, the acoustic phonons alone exhibit a Dulong‐Petit value c/R of 3 cal/degree and the optical phonons have a temperature‐dependent density, their decrease with temperature representing the increase of excitons–polarons with decreasing temperature. The free optical phonons get lost for, e.g., the thermal conductivity. However, below about 20 K the excitons–polarons take over in the heat conductivity or the thermal diffusivity and with a diverging increase in these entities finally lead to superfluidity.
Curve M in Figure 16 is on the decreasing branch of exciton concentration (see Figure 7) where more and more free electrons in the 5d band are screening the Coulomb interaction between electron and hole. In dissolving the excitons in region B of Figure 7, the electrons from the excitons enhance the 5d electrons, further which leads to a cumulative process and a collective breakdown of the rest excitons in a first‐order transition. Curve M enters the excitonic region at a temperature of about 150 K where the exciton concentrations are already about two orders of magnitude lower than at the maximum.
10. Sound velocity
An ultrasound transducer has been glued to one end of the crystal, and with a multiple echo from the other end of the crystal over the known length of the crystal, the sound velocity could be obtained. This is shown in Figure 18 for various pressures. At zero pressure and at 7 and 18 kbar, the sound velocity is about 4000 m/s and there is not much change with pressure. But best seen at 12 kbar, when entering the excitonic phase at 180 K, the sound velocity is enhanced by nearly a factor 2 (see Figure 7). With 10 kbar, we are entering the excitonic phase at 240 K, again with a jump of nearly a factor 2 but near 90 K the pressure loss in the cell was just the size for a reentrant transition to the non‐excitonic phase. This was a unique phenomenon, but supporting the experimental measurements.
Figure 18.
Longitudinal sound velocity outside and inside the excitonic region.
As mentioned above in the chapter about the thermal diffusivity a, the upwards jumps in the excitonic region are indeed caused by the jumps in the sound velocity. But not only this, the increase in sound velocity contributes directly to the thermal conductivity above 20 K and is responsible for the bumps in the thermal diffusivity.
The sound velocity is related to the bulk modulus B and its inverse the compressibility. For a cubic material B depends on the elastic moduli cij as B = 1/3 (c11 + 2c12) the elastic moduli instead, depend on the sound velocity as c11 = ρvL2[100] and c12 = ρ(vL2[100] – 2vT22[110]). Assuming that in general vL is about 3 times vT2 we get the simplified relation B ≈ ρvL2. Thus in the excitonic phase we find a 2 times larger vL and thus a 4 times larger B or a 4 times smaller compressibility. The material gets indeed appreciable harder in the excitonic state.
In Figure 9, we have shown that between 5 and 8 kbar the lattice constant remained practically constant during exciton condensation, meaning that the compressibility is close to zero. Putting a maximal error bar through the points of measurement a bulk modulus B = 20 GPa outside the excitonic region and a bulk modulus B = 70 GPa in the excitonic region could be obtained. From the sound velocity measurement in Figure 18, we calculate a bulk modulus B = 24 GPa outside the excitonic region and one of 100 GPa in the excitonic region. So both types of measurements agree reasonable well and confirm the fact that during exciton condensation the material becomes extremely hard.
We offer two explanations for this phenomenon: the electron from the exciton enters a 5d‐like orbit, which is much larger than the original 4f orbit it came from, and this in spite of the increasing pressure. Or the excitons, being electric dipoles, repel each other at short distances and large concentrations, creating a counter‐pressure to the applied pressure.
The dominant feature in Figure 18 is the sharp increase by a factor two of the sound velocity when entering the excitonic phase. But also at 300 K in an isotherm taken from Figure 18 with the relevant pressures the sound velocity is changing. Now at 300 K this is shown in Figure 19, but it has nothing to do with excitons and the change is much smaller than the one due to excitons. Here we find a minimum of the sound velocity with increasing pressure, inverse to what we have discussed in the excitonic region. The relation of bulk modulus B with sound velocity is B ≈ ρvL2, and a minimum of sound velocity implies a minimum in the bulk modulus, which is inverse to the compressibility. Thus, the minimum in the sound velocity means a maximum in the compressibility. This can be compared with the compressibility for 300 K in Figure 10, and we obtain a similar curve. At 300 K, the softening of the bulk modulus or a maximum in the compressibility is here due to a change of the degree of valence mixing with pressure. So these completely different experiments (also by different authors [4]) support each other and give again confidence into the experiments.
Figure 19.
Sound velocity measurements at 300 K as a function of pressure [16].
11. Dispersion of exciton‐polarons
We mentioned above regarding Figures 16 and 17 that the Debye temperature in the excitonic region is less than the Debye temperature ϴ = 117 K at 300 K but in Figure 18 we observe that the sound velocity is enhanced in the excitonic region. This seems to be a contradiction since in the Debye model the sound velocity is the slope of a linear phonon dispersion curve where the maximum frequency ωmax determines the Debye temperature ϴ. A lower Debye temperature has thus a lower sound velocity and a lower bulk modulus. In order to explain a lower ωmax together with a higher sound velocity, we have to leave the simple Debye model for bare longitudinal acoustic (LA) phonons ω ∝ sin(ka/2) and use a new dispersion curve of an exciton–polaron quasi‐particle. This is no longer a simple sinus function. The dispersion of such an exciton–polaron is treated in textbooks, e.g., [22]. The result is that the phonon spectrum will be greatly renormalized in the excitonic region [23]. We show in Figure 20 a LA phonon in Γ‐X direction with ωLA (Γ‐X) ≈ 14 meV [12], in Figure 20b an exciton with 4f character EB ‐ ℏ2k2/2M, where M is the sum of electron and hole mass of the exciton M = mh + me ≈ mh with mh ≈ 50 me.
Figure 20.
a. Dispersion of a LA phonon. b. Dispersion of a 4f exciton. c. Dispersion of an exciton–polaron.
We can see in Figure 20 that now the dispersion of the exciton‐polaron has indeed simultaneously a steeper slope (larger sound velocity) than the LA phonon and a lower ωmax than the simple phonon (smaller Debye temperature).
12. Theoretical Models
Since the binding energy EB of the exciton-polaron is with 60-70 meV relatively large also a Frenkel type of exciton-polaron is conceivable. Thus in a theoretical paper [24] it is proposed that the exciton condensation occurs in an extended Falikov-Kimball model [25] where, instead of the original model with localized 4f states a narrow hybridized 4f band is used, which is more realistic in this case. Extensively discussed has also been an effective mass model [26] with large differences between electron and hole mass, just as we proposed above. In a further paper [27] it has been shown, that weakly overlapping Frenkel type excitons can condense. Especially the coupling of excitons with phonons has been discussed in Ref. [28] and the formation of exciton-polarons. Finally in [29] exciton densities and superconductivity (sic) are discussed where for low exciton densities a Bose-Einstein condensate is proposed and for high density a Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer condensate should prevail, especially in coupled bilayers. This certainly is not the case in our experiments.
13. Conclusion
In this review paper, we treat a special rare‐earth material, TmSe0.45Te0.55 which has been tailored so that with moderate pressures (up to 20 kbar) and low temperatures (down to 4 K) an enormous amount of excitons (1021 cm−3), about 22% of the atomic density, can be statically obtained. This high concentration of excitons with Bohr orbits of about 18 Å leads to a condensation of excitons, which forms a liquid inside a crystalline surrounding. The existence range of condensed excitons is below 250 K and between 5 and 14 kbar. The condensation is accompanied with a phenomenon of incompressibility and as such with a compressibility near zero. In this condition, the heat conductivity and the thermal diffusivity have been measured in order to investigate a possible superfluidity which has been proposed by Keldysh and Kopaev [11] and Kozlov and Maksimov [15]. Outside the excitonic region, both entities behave quite normal, whereas in the excitonic region the heat conductivity diverges to ever‐increasing values. This can be explained below 20 K within a two‐fluid model, where the superfluid part always increases until at temperature zero the complete condensed excitons become superfluid. Also the thermal diffusivity expands in the excitonic region above the phonon mean free path corresponding to the size of the crystal. This can be explained with the quantum‐mechanical second sound, which is a ballistic transport of heat. The Debye temperature exhibits a minimum in the excitonic region where nevertheless the sound velocity is increasing. These two incompatible measurements can be explained with a strong phonon renormalization in the excitonic region, and the Debye phonon dispersion of LA phonons changes into the dispersion of an exciton–polaron, because every exciton binds to a phonon. This in turn means that the number of free phonons is strongly reduced in the excitonic region so that the specific heat becomes extremely anomalous, far away from a Debye specific heat. In general, it can be said that the anomalous physical properties of condensed excitons are unprecedented.
TmSe0.45Teo.55 is not the only material where these phenomena can be observed. YbO and YbS are similar materials though one will need much larger pressures to close their gaps of about 1 eV [30]. But also Sm0.75La0.25S [31] is a possible candidate for which much lower pressures are needed. So with a good feeling for materials new and exciting effects can be found.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank Prof. Benno Bucher of HSR, Switzerland, for rechecking the experimental results and fruitful discussions.
Laboratorium für Festkörperphysik, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
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1. Introduction
This chapter explores the relationship between globalization and sustainability and proposes an approach for sustainable globalization. There is an ongoing debate about the impacts of globalization on sustainability [1, 2] with arguments for both positive [3] and negative [4] impacts. An attempt is made in this chapter to advance this debate by proposing a framework for sustainable globalization. Interactions between globalization and sustainability are analyzed to tackle a complex question of whether globalization can be made sustainable.
The term sustainability is used here to refer to sustainable ecological systems that can be affected by factors such as resources consumption and pollution that impact biosphere functions [5]. The traditional three pillars [6] of sustainability, namely environmental, economic, and social pillars, are considered while also acknowledging that a primary core of sustainability is its concern for the well-being of the future generations [7]. Likewise, this chapter adopts the broad definition of globalization as a process that encompasses the causes, modalities, and consequences of transnational and transcultural integration of human and nonhuman activities [8]. Focus is given to economic and social components of globalization while also touching upon its political component.
Firstly, interaction between globalization and environment is examined by considering energy and resources consumption, greenhouse gases emission, and pollution (Section 2). Then, relationships of sustainability with the current green growth paradigm and alternative economic approaches are explored in the context of globalization (Section 3). Implication of globalization on social sustainability is then examined by taking into account the quality of life, urbanization, and social equality (Section 4). Based on the analyses of different interactions, existing knowledge gaps are discussed (Section 5). Then, an approach for sustainable globalization is proposed (Section 6), and finally, the conclusions are presented.
2. Globalization and the environment
There are several approaches to evaluate environmental sustainability. Environmental Performance Index has been used as a composite indicator to evaluate the state of sustainability of 180 countries by considering 11 issue categories [9]. These categories are air quality, sanitation and drinking water, heavy metals, waste management, biodiversity and habitat, ecosystem services, fisheries, climate change, pollution emission, water resources, and agriculture. Similarly, Environmental Performance Assessment Composite Index has been developed in [10] by combining three indices associated with natural resources, sustainable and efficient use of resources, and use of alternative resources. Likewise, six broad thematic categories—energy performance; waste management; air quality and pollution; water quality and pollution; land use, agriculture, and fisheries; and biodiversity, forests, and soils—have been proposed by [11] as indicators of environmental sustainability.
Ecological footprint is another common quantitative metric for measuring environmental sustainability. Basically, it is the amount of land, measured in global hectares, required to support a particular lifestyle [12]. Although the ecological footprint gives a valuable quantitative measure of environmental sustainability and enables comparisons of biocapacities of different nations, it does not take technological change and underground resources into account [13]. Furthermore, it does not take land degradation into account [14].
Based on the adaptations from abovementioned studies, this chapter characterizes environmental sustainability in three broad categories of energy and resources consumption, greenhouse gases emission, and pollution to evaluate the interactions between globalization and environmental sustainability.
2.1 Energy and resources consumption
Globalization has a potential to cause both increase and decrease in energy and resources consumption. Globalization can increase the applications of improved technologies in low- and middle-income nations that lead to higher process and energy efficiencies, eventually reducing the energy and resources consumption. Contrastingly, globalization could also support economic growth that requires higher energy and resources consumption [15].
A popular measure of globalization is the KOF Globalization Index (KOFGI), which measures globalization along the economic, social, and political dimensions for different countries [16]. The 10 most globalized nations based on KOFGI [17] are all high-income nations in Europe that also have very high energy consumption per capita [18]. However, the material footprints of these nations are decreasing over time with the exception of Sweden and Denmark [19]. Material footprint is one of indicators of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and refers to the total amount of raw materials extracted to meet final consumption demands [20]. It may be noted here that the 10 most globalized nations have material footprints higher than the global average, and the majority of them have footprints higher than the European Union average [19]. It is also noteworthy that 50 most globalized nations [17] are primarily high-income nations with a few upper middle-income nations such as Malaysia and Thailand [21].
Energy consumption of top Asian economies has been found to increase with globalization [22]. It has been reported that the physical quantities of goods traded internationally only represent one-third of the actual natural resources that were used to produce these traded goods [23]. Therefore, it can be argued that globalization is currently increasing energy and resources consumption.
2.2 Greenhouse gases emission
Globalization, evaluated in terms of KOFGI, has been shown to increase greenhouse gases (GHG) emission in European Union [24] and Japan [25]. On the other hand, globalization has been found to reduce GHG emission in emerging economies such as Brazil, Russia, India, China, Mexico, Indonesia, and Turkey [26, 27] showing some evidence for Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis. This hypothesis states that an inverted-U-shaped relationship exists between different pollutants and per capita income, i.e., environmental pressure increases up to a certain level as income goes up and then decreases. The KEC hypothesis is based on a notion that environmental quality deteriorates at the early stages of economic development and subsequently improves at the later stages [28]. The hypothesis is that as the economic development occurs at the expense of the environment, average income of the population increases. Once the average income is sufficiently high, a turning point is reached where people start to value and take care of their local environment. Technological solutions and energy efficiency enabled by the economic growth then allow for improvement of the local environment, since people can afford to take care of the environment.
2.3 Pollution
Impacts of globalization on local pollution other than GHG emission are presented here. International trade has been found to contribute to significant portion of total air pollution, which is negatively impacting human health [29, 30, 31]. It has recently been estimated that almost everyone on Earth is affected by air pollution [32]. Likewise, globalization may also be contributing toward land degradation. For instance, clearance of native vegetation and land degradation across much of Latin America and Asia has been linked to agricultural expansion and intensification at a commercial scale for export markets [23]. Likewise, there is also an indication that international trades facilitated by globalization are causing higher water pollution in emerging economies such as China [33].
In the context of emerging economies, there are studies showing support for, as well as against, the EKC hypothesis. For instance, support for EKC hypothesis where environmental quality first degraded due to globalization and then improved after the average income became sufficiently high was reported in several Chinese cities by [34]. Contrarily, continued environmental degradation in China was found by [35] despite the average income being sufficiently high, thereby showing evidence against the EKC hypothesis.
Plastic pollution may also be affected by globalization. For instance, China banned the import of plastic waste in 2017 to tackle its plastic pollution problem [36]. Although many high-income nations have agreed to place a strict limit on export of plastic waste to poorer nations, American exporters are still exporting plastic wastes to poor nations [37]. This can cause significant plastic pollution in poor nations that import plastic wastes.
3. Globalization and economy
This section analyzes the interaction between the existing green growth economic model and sustainability in the context of globalization. Alternatives to green growth economic models are also explored.
3.1 Green growth paradigm
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has a green growth strategy set in place since 2011 [38]. The OECD views green growth as an approach to foster economic growth and development while ensuring that natural assets continue to provide the resources and environmental services on which our well-being relies [38]. The United Nations has a similar concept of green economy, which is a low-carbon, resource-efficient, and socially inclusive economy. Growth in the green economy is driven by public and private investments based on the understanding that natural assets are critical economic assets [39]. An umbrella term “green growth” is adopted in this chapter to refer to any growth-based economic models.
Green growth assumes that economic growth can be decoupled from environmental pressures. In order to evaluate green growth, an approach to measure it has been proposed by comparing gross domestic product (GDP) with resources productivity [40]. Green growth is said to occur when percentage increase in resources productivity is higher than the percentage increase in GDP. For instance, if a country experiences a GDP growth of 2%, and its carbon productivity improves by 4%, the country displays green growth in the climate dimension [40]. Carbon productivity here is an example of resource productivity and is a measure of GHG emission reduction. Overall, green growth should reduce environmental pressure.
Economic components of globalization such as foreign direct investment and trade openness are promoted in OECD countries to accelerate green growth, and it has been found that these components help reduce GHG emission [41]. However, although the implementation of green growth has the tendency to reduce GHG emission [42], global GHG emission is expected to be record high as the world economy recovers from coronavirus [43]. For instance, both China and India surpassed their 2019 emission peaks in 2021. Chinese emission grew by 5.5% between 2019 and 2021, while Indian emission grew by 4.4% [43].
3.2 Alternative economic models
Critics of the green growth paradigm argue that empirical evidence on resource use and carbon emission does not support green growth theory [44]. It has been argued that there is no empirical evidence to suggest that absolute decoupling from resource use can be achieved on a global scale while continuing economic growth [44]. Consequently, alternatives to green growth have been explored. Degrowth and policies for social equity are examples of alternative to green growth [45].
Degrowth paradigm relies on a construct that continuous economic growth and ecological sustainability are incompatible. Therefore, it argues for reduced production and consumption. Likewise, policies for social equity (PSE) are based on a concept that inequality leads to environmental degradation. The PSE is actually a type of green growth with two added radical social policies, namely a job guarantee program and working time reduction [45]. Degrowth, on the other hand, contains the PSE but also argues for downscaling economy. While all the three economic models have their own advantages and disadvantages, simulations of green growth, PSE, and degrowth have shown degrowth model to be most effective in tackling environmental pressures [45].
4. Globalization and society
This section explores the interaction between globalization and society in the context of social sustainability. Three aspects of society, namely quality of life, urbanization, and equality, are considered.
4.1 Quality of life
In low-income nations, life expectancy has been positively correlated with globalization [46]. Likewise, quality of life measured in terms of human development index has been found to increase with globalization in several Asian countries [47]. At global scale, aggregate positive effect from globalization-related trade has been reported while also acknowledging disproportionate distributional concerns. The disproportionate concern is that globalization-related trade can lead to unemployment, reduced wages, and slower decline in poverty in some geographical regions and commercial sectors [48].
The overall effect of globalization on high-income, as well as low-income, nations is reported to be improved quality of life. Positive impacts include harmonization of the labor market, development of digital society [49], and reduced macroeconomic volatility due to diversification of risks.
4.2 Urbanization
Urbanization is primarily happening in low- and middle-income countries due to economic growth and globalization [50]. Benefits of urbanization are increase in employment opportunities, abundance of unskilled labor, and expansion of industrial, residential, entertainment, and commercial areas. Urbanization and trade openness can also reduce income inequality [51, 52], particularly when coupled with high institutional quality and democracy. However, a study in Africa has found that urbanization alone may not significantly impact equality in the absence of democratic reforms and institutional quality [52]. Institutional quality here refers to corruption control, law and order, and sound bureaucracy. On the flip side, disadvantages of urbanization include increased crime and land use change [50]. Farmland loss, ecological degradation, and decrease in biodiversity are some of the negative consequences of urbanization [53].
4.3 Equality
The relationship between equality and globalization is very complex. Generally, globalization increases inequality within a nation but decreases inequality between nations [54]. It can therefore be argued that the benefits of globalization have not reached everyone equally. There are also mixed relationships between income inequality and globalization with some countries seeing the benefit of globalization while others have not [55]. Statistical analyses have shown that social spending may not necessarily cushion the impact of inequality brought about by globalization [55]. Overall, better approach to globalization is needed to ensure that inequality does not rise due to globalization and outweigh its positive effects.
5. Knowledge gaps in sustainable globalization
Extensive and rigorous research is needed to understand the interactions between globalization and sustainability. The foremost question is whether globalization can be made sustainable. This chapter assumes that globalization can be made sustainable based on the synthesis of existing literature as mentioned in preceding sections and the author’s reflection. However, if future studies and empirical evidence categorically confirm that sustainable globalization is not possible, alternative models to globalization need to be investigated.
In order to tackle a complex question of whether globalization can be made sustainable or not, the following three unanswered questions need to be addressed:
5.1 How do big tech companies impact sustainability in the context of globalization?
Globalization allows multinational corporations, especially the big tech companies such as Google, Amazon, Facebook, Apple, and Microsoft (GAFAM) to have global influence and strongly affect environmental, economic, and social dimensions of global sustainability. From environmental standpoint, the big tech companies provide assistance to mining of fossil fuels through artificial intelligence and cloud technologies as previously reported by the author [56]. Cloud technology can reduce complexity of information collection and control time in the petroleum production processes. Likewise, artificial intelligence can improve the accuracy of identifying oil fields for effective mining. The assistance of big tech companies to fossil fuel industry raises questions about their commitment to renewable energy transition. On the other hand, GAFAM also have a potential to greatly facilitate renewable energy transition by the application of artificial intelligence and cloud computing. For instance, machine learning could improve the predictability of intermittent renewable energy resources. How should the GAFAM support environmental sustainability in a globalized world needs to be investigated thoroughly.
From economic sustainability viewpoint, the GAFAM could monopolize global markets of intangible assets and digital services [57] threatening economic sustainability. Intangible assets such as intellectual properties and services play major role in today’s global economy [58]. Another very important intangible asset is personal data of global population that GAFAM possess [59]. The GAFAM have been referred to as data-driven intellectual monopolies [57] as they have huge control over digital services and personal data of the global market. Their monopolization and opaque practices could severely harm small and local businesses [60]. On the other hand, the GAFAM have helped the booming of mobile software industry, created avenues for advertisers and ushered in a new generation of entrepreneurs including influencers, podcasters, and marketing experts [61]. Increased globalization will allow GAFAM to penetrate global market more strongly, and the impacts this will have on economic sustainability need to be examined.
Big tech companies also have massive impacts on social dimension of sustainability, particularly on quality of life, freedom, privacy, and equality. Lawsuits have been filed against several big tech companies [59] for possibly maintaining monopoly illegally. There are also testimonials from small and local businesses about how they fear Google more than the Government [60]. For instance, the Government could place limited amount of fine on a small business with minimal impact, but delisting from advertising by Google could mean that the business could go bankrupt, particularly given Google’s dominant market share on Internet searches. The arbitrary control of GAFAM over small businesses [60] could therefore lead to unemployment and freedom to independently run business. This could also greatly increase inequality where few people running the GAFAM have control on large population, and globalization could exacerbate this problem by allowing GAFAM to control more people than they already do. On the other hand, the big tech companies can also allow voices of common people to reach global audience and thereby empower people.
Privacy is another major threat to social sustainability posed by the GAFAM. They have contributed to global surveillance for US National Security Agency [57], and loss of privacy is a major concern with GAFAM. Globalization could enable the GAFAM to surveille more people around the world.
5.2 What is the role of globalization in the context of green growth versus degrowth debate?
Another important theme that needs detailed investigation is the role of globalization in advancing the green growth versus degrowth debate. For instance, can globalization support green growth model? Renewable energy and technology play central role in enabling green growth. Globalization could enhance the diffusion of technologies that reduce environmental pressures, but it is yet to be proven that growth can be universally sustained indefinitely. Therefore, a case for degrowth in high-income nations can be made, and it is necessary to understand how globalization could enable degrowth. Overall, it is necessary to investigate how globalization could enable the conflicting economic models of growth and degrowth in order to advance the green growth versus degrowth debate.
5.3 How can globalization maximize its benefits uniformly to environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability?
While globalization may have helped the economic growth of many low- and middle-income nations, globalization may also have contributed to increasing inequality within countries. Likewise, there is a perception that globalization is a threat to national sovereignty [62]. It has also been argued that globalization increases the propensity of obesity, particularly among women, in low- and middle-income nations [63]. From an environmental viewpoint, a study of 130 countries [64] found no significant relationship between globalization and environmental footprint.
All in all, there are positive as well as negative impacts of globalization, and further research is needed to investigate models of globalization that enhance environmental, economic, and social pillars of sustainability holistically.
6. Approach for sustainable globalization
It may not be possible to generalize the degree of globalization that is sustainable, and it is very likely that different countries need different degrees of globalization for sustainability. However, few basic principles could be adopted to decide on the degree of globalization as guidelines. This section proposes such guidelines as below for social, environmental, and economic dimensions of sustainability. A need for holistic approach is also highlighted.
6.1 Social sustainability guidelines
There are several crucial aspects [65] of social sustainability such as human rights, equity, justice, democracy, and health and safety that cannot be compromised. Adoption of any element of globalization should not negatively impact these crucial aspects even if the globalization has other benefits. Since globalization has complex interactions with society, it may not be possible to only have positive impacts from any element of globalization. However, an element of globalization should only be adopted if it has positive or neutral effects on human rights, equity, justice, democracy, and health and safety even if other aspects of social sustainability are compromised for trade-offs.
6.2 Environmental sustainability guidelines
Decision-making on the adoption of globalization from environmental sustainability perspective is not straightforward due to the nature of environmental impacts of globalization. Both positive and negative impacts of globalization on environment can be temporary and reversible. For instance, globalization can initially cause environmental degradation due to economic growth propelled by trade openness and foreign investments, but later lead to improved environment after the population has sufficiently increased average income and technical capabilities, thereby validating EKC hypothesis [66]. However, global study on EKC hypothesis is inconclusive [67] indicating the complex nature of interaction between economics, environment, and globalization. It has also been argued that while political and overall globalization improves the environment, economic globalization harms the environment [66].
In order to decide on the adoption of any element of globalization, it is first necessary to evaluate the immediate short-term and long-term positive and negative environmental effects. If short-term negative environmental impacts are identified, it is necessary to evaluate other benefits of creating the short-term negative impacts. In a situation where it is found that the short-term negative impacts are outweighed by benefits, for example, economic growth, it is necessary to identify future measures to reverse the short-term negative environmental impacts with a concrete timeframe. Therefore, careful planning is required by first evaluating whether the negative environmental impact can be reversed or not. If the negative environmental impact is reversible, the cost of reversing it needs to be weighed against the benefit of allowing it. The element of globalization may be adopted if the benefit outweighs the cost of reversing negative short-term environmental impact.
On the other hand, if the environmental impact is irreversible, it is necessary to analyze if this irreversibility compromises the livelihood, needs, and prosperity of future generations permanently. In a case where future generations need are severely compromised permanently, that element of globalization should not be adopted.
Availability and depletion rates (both in quality and quantity) of critical natural resources are other important environmental sustainability considerations. Although the current focus is primarily centered on reducing greenhouse gases emission by implementing renewable energy systems, the use of critical natural resources by these systems cannot be neglected. Renewable energy systems require huge amounts of rare earths and other minerals such as lithium, nickel, copper, manganese, cobalt, etc., and these minerals exist only in fixed quantities on Earth. A typical electric car needs six times the mineral inputs of a conventional fossil fuel car, and an onshore wind plant needs nine times more mineral resources than a gas-fired plant [68]. From a globalization perspective, it is noteworthy that minerals required by renewable energy systems are concentrated in small geographic areas unlike fossil fuels. For example, the Democratic Republic of the Congo was responsible for 70% of cobalt production, and China was responsible for 60% of rare earth minerals production in 2019 [68]. China alone has nearly 90% share in refining of rare earth minerals [68] such as neodymium, terbium, indium, dysprosium, and praseodymium that are required for solar photovoltaics and wind energy systems. Since critical natural resources for renewable energy are concentrated in small geographical areas, monopolization of the supply chain of these resources by few multinational corporations and nations is a real threat that needs to be addressed with urgency. This is particularly important as major fossil fuel monopolies—BP, Shell, Chevron, Total, Eni, and Exxon—are heavily investing in renewable energy [69]. Fossil fuel industry has held tremendous political power in the United States and globally [70], and if this same industry is again allowed to monopolize the new fuel, i.e., critical natural resources required for renewable energy, what are the implications for sustainability? There is an urgent need to critically tackle this question. All in all, globalization needs to tackle any potential monopolization issues associated with renewable energy systems in order to be sustainable.
Impacts of globalization on plastic pollution and e-waste are another major environmental consideration. Adoption of any element of globalization that increases plastic pollution and e-waste needs very careful cost–benefit analysis.
6.3 Economic sustainability guidelines
Green growth versus degrowth debate is still unsolved, and therefore, every country might first need to rethink whether it wants to follow green growth, degrowth, or another economic paradigm before planning its degree of globalization.
In a scenario where a country chooses green growth, a clear time-bound pathway to decoupling economic growth from environmental pressures needs to be formulated. Environmental pressure should not be measured only in terms of GHG emission but also in terms of air pollution, loss of biodiversity, plastic pollution, stress on freshwater resources, depletion of critical natural resources, land degradation, and other pertinent local pollution. In the context of globalization, a country also needs to decide if it will import products and fuels produced unsustainably from other countries to sustain its economic growth. Economic sustainability cannot be achieved if a country does not produce environmentally detrimental products and fuels on its own country but imports them from other countries, especially from low- or middle-income nations where the products and fuels were produced unsustainably.
For low-income nations with high poverty where rudimentary amenities such as food, water, shelter, and access to basic healthcare are lacking for significant number of people, economic growth propelled by globalization may be adopted even if it causes short-term environmental degradation. This is because if the preservation of present generation is being threatened by poverty and lack of basic survival needs, there cannot be any sustainability or perhaps even future generation. By the same reasoning, poor nations could also adopt infrastructural development enabled by globalization even if there is a short-term environmental damage although it may not be possible to compromise potential long-term and irreversible environmental degradation. It may be noted here that the author is not advocating for short-term reversible environmental degradation for poverty alleviation but only opining that this may be permitted as a last resort if poverty alleviation through economic growth cannot be achieved with zero environmental consequences.
On the other hand, high- and middle-income nations need to strongly embed environmental and natural resources protections in their green growth models. Circular economy may allow green growth to sustain indefinitely although this is debatable. Ideally, circular economy is a regenerative system with no waste and pollution. In a linear economy, a product finally becomes a waste, and manufacturing processes also produce wastes that need disposal. Contrastingly, circular economy uses wastes as resources by creating a cyclical regenerative system that can theoretically be sustained indefinitely. It is highly debatable whether circular economy can be sustained indefinitely with zero negative environmental consequence and yet allow growth because a stable system typically remains unchanged and does not grow indefinitely. However, many believe that circular economy can sustain economic growth indefinitely, and the European Union has a circular economy action plan [71]. Even if the circular economy may not sustain green growth indefinitely, it certainly reduces environmental pressures, and therefore, every economic globalization program should embed circular economy wherever applicable.
It could very well be possible that green growth cannot be sustained indefinitely in high-income nations without importing products and fuels that were produced unsustainably elsewhere. Consequently, high-income nations may need to rethink degrowth or other novel economic paradigms in the context of globalization. Social elements of globalization such as tourism, cultural and technological exchanges, and digital services may allow people in high-income nations to maintain existing quality of life without economic growth or even degrowth. For instance, high-income nations could reduce infrastructural development but rather focus on trading digital services with middle- and low-income nations to maintain its living standards. This is an underinvestigated topic, and further research on how globalization could allow the maintenance of quality of life without economic growth in high-income nation is needed.
6.4 Holistic approach
Holistic approach that takes into social, environmental, and economic dimensions of sustainability collectively is needed in order to devise a sustainable globalization approach. Basic human rights and equality are prerequisites for sustainability and globalization should either have positive or neutral impacts on these prerequisites for sustainability. Likewise, globalization should not enable irreversible long-term environmental impacts that reduce opportunities of future generations to prosper or maintain the quality of life that the present generation has.
Globalization cannot be sustainable if one country prospers at the expense of other countries. Therefore, sustainable globalization should enhance water, energy, and food security globally. Additionally, sustainable globalization should empower people and reduce inequality. Although, globalization requires agreements and laws that countries follow, sustainable globalization should not impinge on autonomy of any country. More specifically, sustainable globalization should not allow giant multinational companies and big tech corporations to be more powerful than any sovereign nation as this is a real risk (see Section 5).
It may not be possible for sustainable globalization to only have benefits with no negative implications at a practical level. Hence, trade-offs need to be evaluated by every country to decide on the degree of globalization it can sustainably adopt. To this end, it is necessary to realize that certain aspects of sustainability cannot be compromised. These include social aspects such as human rights, reduced inequality, livelihood, democracy, health, and safety. These also include environmental aspects such as irreversible environmental degradations that imminently threaten livelihood of present generation or reduce the ability of future generation to thrive and prosper. Once it is ascertained that globalization does not negatively impact the uncompromisable environmental and social aspects of sustainability, other trade-offs need to be evaluated. Since the priorities of every country can be different, these trade-offs evaluations cannot be generalized.
7. Conclusions
This chapter examines the impacts of globalization on sustainability by considering the environmental, economic, and social pillars of sustainability. Globalization can have positive as well as negative effects on different aspects of sustainability, underscoring the complex nature of interactions between globalization and sustainability. There are several knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to make globalization sustainable. These include questions regarding roles of big tech and multinational companies to enhance sustainability, globalization in the context of green growth versus degrowth debate, and better understanding of how disproportionate impacts (both positive and negative) of globalization can be minimized. Finally, an approach for sustainable globalization is proposed by identifying several environmental and social aspects of sustainability that cannot be compromised by globalization even if it offers huge economic and other benefits.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the reviewers and the editor for their valuable feedback in improving the chapter.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"sustainable globalization, green growth, degrowth, greenhouse gases emission, pollution",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81920.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81920.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81920",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81920",totalDownloads:29,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 28th 2022",dateReviewed:"May 3rd 2022",datePrePublished:"May 23rd 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 23rd 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter explores the complex interaction between globalization and sustainability and proposes an approach for sustainable globalization. Three dimensions of sustainability, namely environment, economy, and society, are taken into account. Firstly, interaction among globalization and environment is discussed. This interaction is characterized by analyzing the effects of globalization on energy and resources consumption, greenhouse gases emission, and local pollution. Then, the relationship between the existing green growth economic model and sustainability is examined in the context of globalization. Alternatives to the green growth model are also explored. Furthermore, implication of globalization on social sustainability is investigated by considering quality of life, urbanization, and equality. Existing knowledge gaps are discussed, and finally, an approach to sustainable globalization is presented based on holistic interactions among environment, economy, and society.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81920",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81920",signatures:"Parakram Pyakurel",book:{id:"11476",type:"book",title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Margherita Mori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-408-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-407-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-409-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"335401",title:"Prof.",name:"Margherita",middleName:null,surname:"Mori",slug:"margherita-mori",fullName:"Margherita Mori"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Globalization and the environment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Energy and resources consumption",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Greenhouse gases emission",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Pollution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Globalization and economy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Green growth paradigm",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Alternative economic models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Globalization and society",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Quality of life",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Urbanization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Equality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Knowledge gaps in sustainable globalization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1 How do big tech companies impact sustainability in the context of globalization?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.2 What is the role of globalization in the context of green growth versus degrowth debate?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.3 How can globalization maximize its benefits uniformly to environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Approach for sustainable globalization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"6.1 Social sustainability guidelines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"6.2 Environmental sustainability guidelines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"6.3 Economic sustainability guidelines",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.4 Holistic approach",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"7. 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DOI: 10.3390/su9010068'},{id:"B66",body:'Farooq S, Ozturk I, Majeed MT, Akram R. Globalization and CO2 emissions in the presence of EKC: A global panel data analysis. Gondwana Research. 2022;106:367-378'},{id:"B67",body:'Shahbaz M, Mahalik MK, Shahzad SJH, Hammoudeh S. Testing the globalization-driven carbon emissions hypothesis: International evidence. International Economics. 2019;158:25-38'},{id:"B68",body:'IEA. The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. International Energy Agency [Internet]. 2021. Available from: https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions/executive-summary. [Accessed: April 26, 2022]'},{id:"B69",body:'Murray J. How the Six Major Oil Companies Have Invested in Renewable Energy Projects. NS Energy; 2020. Available from: https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/features/oil-companies-renewable-energy/ [Accessed: April 26, 2022]'},{id:"B70",body:'Natural Resources Defense Council [Internet]. 2012. Available from: https://www.nrdc.org/experts/peter-lehner/big-oils-monopoly-money-ending-1-trillion-fossil-fuel-subsidies-requires. [Accessed: April 26, 2022]'},{id:"B71",body:'EC. Circular economy action plan. European Commission [Internet]. 2022. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/environment/strategy/circular-economy-action-plan_en. [Accessed: April 27, 2022]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Parakram Pyakurel",address:"parakram.pyakurel@solent.ac.uk",affiliation:'
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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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In the trans‐Golgi network, this mutant plasma gelsolin is cleaved by furin, giving rise to a 68 kDa C-terminal fragment. When secreted in the extracellular matrix, this fragment undergoes proteolysis by MT1‐MMP–like proteases, resulting in the production of 8 and 5 kDa amyloidogenic peptides. Nanobodies, the variable part of the heavy chain of heavy‐chain antibodies, have been used as molecular chaperones for mutant plasma gelsolin and the 68 kDa C‐terminal fragment in an attempt to inhibit their pathogenic proteolysis. 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Accordingly, we have gained a better understanding of the self-assembly mechanism and intrinsic properties of amyloid fibrils. Because the structure of amyloid fibrils consists of nanoscaled insoluble strands (a few nanometers in diameter and micrometers long), a special tool is needed to study amyloid fibrils at length. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is supposed to be a versatile toolkit to probe such a tiny biomolecule. The physical/chemical properties of amyloid fibrils have been explored by AFM. In particular, AFM enables the visualization of amyloid fibrillation with different incubation times as well as the concentrations of the formed amyloid fibrils as affected by fibril diameters and lengths. Very recently, the minute structural changes and/or electrical properties of amyloid fibrils have been made by using advanced AFM techniques including dynamic liquid AFM, PeakForce QNM (quantitative nanomechanical mapping), and Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM). Herein, we summarize the biophysical properties of amyloid fibrils that are newly discovered with the help of those advanced AFM techniques and suggest our perspectives and future directions for the study of amyloid fibrils.",book:{id:"5194",slug:"exploring-new-findings-on-amyloidosis",title:"Exploring New Findings on Amyloidosis",fullTitle:"Exploring New Findings on Amyloidosis"},signatures:"Wonseok Lee, Hyungbeen Lee, Gyudo Lee and Dae Sung Yoon",authors:[{id:"180553",title:"Prof.",name:"Dae Sung",middleName:null,surname:"Yoon",slug:"dae-sung-yoon",fullName:"Dae Sung Yoon"},{id:"185225",title:"Mr.",name:"Wonseok",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"wonseok-lee",fullName:"Wonseok Lee"},{id:"185226",title:"Mr.",name:"Hyungbeen",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"hyungbeen-lee",fullName:"Hyungbeen Lee"},{id:"185227",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyudo",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"gyudo-lee",fullName:"Gyudo Lee"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"412",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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