Search structure.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5691",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry - Advances and Perspectives",title:"Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry",subtitle:"Advances and Perspectives",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In 2016, it was 60 years since the eminent Soviet researcher, a disciple and a successor of Ivan Pavlov, Leon Orbeli had proclaimed the birth of a new branch of physiology, evolutionary physiology. In the same year, his ideas were embodied in the foundation in Leningrad, now Saint Petersburg, of the present Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences. This anniversary book includes the selected works carried out recently by his followers at the same institute. While addressing some hot aspects of evolutionary physiology and biochemistry, they demonstrate that this branch of physiology really represents a discipline in its own right.",isbn:"978-953-51-3858-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3857-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-3967-6",doi:"10.5772/64635",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"evolutionary-physiology-and-biochemistry-advances-and-perspectives",numberOfPages:242,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1d46e40056fbbdb46c70dc255c945cf8",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:"February 19th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5691.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16728,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:10,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:19,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 17th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 17th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 1st 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 1st 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Authored by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:null,equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"408",title:"Applied Microbiology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-microbiology-applied-microbiology"}],chapters:[{id:"58997",title:"Introduction: The 60th Anniversary of the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73669",slug:"introduction-the-60th-anniversary-of-the-institute-of-evolutionary-physiology-and-biochemistry-russi",totalDownloads:895,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Alexander N. Knyazev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58997",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58997",authors:[{id:"241495",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Knyazev",slug:"alexander-knyazev",fullName:"Alexander Knyazev"}],corrections:null},{id:"58915",title:"Brain Gangliosides and Their Function as Natural Adaptogenes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73648",slug:"brain-gangliosides-and-their-function-as-natural-adaptogenes",totalDownloads:1086,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In brain gangliosides and phospholipids of stenothermal cold-water teleost fishes, higher content of polyenoic and monoenoic fatty acids was revealed than in brain gangliosides and phospholipids of warm-water stenothermal teleosts. The changes in fatty acid composition of lipids during adaptation of fishes to living in cold water (or at great water depth) are directed to the maintenance of liquid-crystalline state of cell membranes and their optimal fluidity, physical state, and microheterogeneity. The results of cluster analysis of the data on composition of carbohydrate component of brain gangliosides of various ectothermic vertebrates were used to create the dendrogram. This dendrogram was found to correspond appreciably to the tree of classical taxonomy of vertebrates. The changes in molecular organization of brain gangliosides in the course of evolution of vertebrates are suggested to contribute to differentiation of brain and complication of its functions in phylogenesis. The main brain gangliosides (GM1, GD1a, GD1b, GT1b) may be considered to be typical adaptogens. They protect neurons against the action of excitatory amino acids, hydrogen peroxide, amyloid β-peptide, and other toxins. Protective effect of gangliosides against these toxins depends on activation of Trk receptor tyrosine kinase and downstream protein kinases.",signatures:"Natalia F. Avrova and Yulia A. Vlasova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58915",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58915",authors:[{id:"241003",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia F.",surname:"Avrova",slug:"natalia-f.-avrova",fullName:"Natalia F. Avrova"},{id:"241004",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia A.",surname:"Vlasova",slug:"yulia-a.-vlasova",fullName:"Yulia A. Vlasova"}],corrections:null},{id:"59070",title:"Adaptations and Disturbances of Physiological Functions in Extreme Hyperbaric Environments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73649",slug:"adaptations-and-disturbances-of-physiological-functions-in-extreme-hyperbaric-environments",totalDownloads:1051,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Academician E.M. Kreps founded the Laboratory of Hyperbaric Physiology in 1960. Heads of the Laboratory were G.L. Zaltsman (1960–1972), A.I. Selivra (1972–1975), I.A. Aleksandrov (1975–1982) and I.T. Demchenko (1983–2009). In 2009, the Laboratory was merged with the Laboratory of Respiratory Physiology (A.I. Krivchenko). For more than five decades, Hyperbaric Laboratory has conducted basic and applied researches dealt with CNS oxygen toxicity, the high pressure nervous syndrome and nitrogen narcosis. Main achievements of basic researches are as follows: identified key mechanisms of adaptive responses of CNS and cardiorespiratory systems to breathing gas mixtures at high pressure, neurophysiological mechanisms of CNS oxygen toxicity and high pressure nervous syndrome, and pathogenesis of nitrogen narcosis. Main achievements of the translation of hyperbaric researches are as follows: new technology for 1000 m dive of animals (monkeys) using the gas mixture (He-N2-O2), new compression and decompression profiles for free escape of monkey from a depth of 700 m, use preconditional hypoxia and hyperthermia for the protection of nitrogen narcosis. Currently, main researches are focusing on the evaluation of molecular and cellular mechanisms of biological responses to extreme hyperbaric environments.",signatures:"Olga Sergeevna Alekseeva, Alexander Ivanovich Krivchenko and\n\nIvan Timofeyevich Demchenko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59070",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59070",authors:[{id:"241006",title:"Dr.",name:"I.T.",surname:"Demchenko",slug:"i.t.-demchenko",fullName:"I.T. Demchenko"}],corrections:null},{id:"59053",title:"Evolution of Thalamic Sensory Centers in Amniotes: Phylogeny and Functional Adaptation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73650",slug:"evolution-of-thalamic-sensory-centers-in-amniotes-phylogeny-and-functional-adaptation",totalDownloads:990,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is a continuation of our previous study of the forebrain evolution in vertebrates using some new tests allowing evolutionary transformations to be revealed. As such tests, we chose the expression of calcium-binding proteins as neuronal functional markers and the metabolic activity of cytochrome oxidase, characterizing the level of neuronal activity. Here, we report the results of our study of the thalamic visual and auditory centers in reptiles (turtles, Emys orbicularis and Testudo horsfieldii) and birds (pigeon, Columba livia) with a special focus on differences in their parallel visual thalamofugal and tectofugal channels and auditory lemniscal and extralemniscal channels. A comparison with data obtained in other Sauropsida amniotes was drawn to elucidate the role of phylogenetic and functionally adaptive factors determining variable distribution of calcium-binding proteins and metabolic activity, as well as to identify evolutionary conservative and plastic traits in the organization of these thalamic sensory centers.",signatures:"Margarita G. Belekhova and Natalia B. Kenigfest",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59053",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59053",authors:[{id:"241007",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita G.",surname:"Belekhovа",slug:"margarita-g.-belekhova",fullName:"Margarita G. Belekhovа"},{id:"241008",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia B.",surname:"Kenigfest",slug:"natalia-b.-kenigfest",fullName:"Natalia B. Kenigfest"}],corrections:null},{id:"59065",title:"Discovery of the Phenomenon of Intracellular Development of Cardiac Stem Cell: A New Step in Understanding of Biology and Behavior of Tissue-Specific Stem Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73652",slug:"discovery-of-the-phenomenon-of-intracellular-development-of-cardiac-stem-cell-a-new-step-in-understa",totalDownloads:931,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In our experiments with an in vitro culture of rat cardiac cells, we identified and described for the first time the phenomenon of intracellular development of CSCs in mature CMs with formation of the “cell-in-cell structures” (CICSs). Recently, we have confirmed the reproducibility of our results and existence of this phenomenon in rats of different age groups, 1-year-old bull, adult mice and humans. Moreover, we demonstrated the 5–10 times increase in the amount of CICSs after exposure of in vitro cultures to hypoxia and acidosis, that is, these conditions stimulate intracellular development of CSCs. Our data strongly suggest that transitory amplifying cells (TACs), which release from CICSs, are present as a very rare cell population in adult and old rats. Therefore, we assume that TACs are important for renewal of myocardium during ontogenesis. TACs should be considered as the major source of cells that can reduce myocardial damage in adult mammals with various pathologies of the cardiovascular system. In conclusion, precise and exhaustive analysis of the phenomenon of intracellular development of CSCs, CICSs and TACs will pave the way for cell technologies of new generation in regenerative medicine.",signatures:"Galina B. Belostotskaya, Tatyana A. Golovanova, Irina V.\n\nNerubatskaya and Michael M. Galagudza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59065",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59065",authors:[{id:"241009",title:"Dr.",name:"G.B.",surname:"Belostotskaya",slug:"g.b.-belostotskaya",fullName:"G.B. Belostotskaya"}],corrections:null},{id:"58933",title:"The New Pharmacological Approaches for the Regulation of Functional Activity of G Protein-Coupled Receptors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73322",slug:"the-new-pharmacological-approaches-for-the-regulation-of-functional-activity-of-g-protein-coupled-re",totalDownloads:878,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), a large family of the receptors that specifically interact with a number of signal molecules, play a key role in the regulation of fundamental cell processes, and the pharmacological action of over 40% of drugs is carried out through GPCRs. In the last years, a significant progress was made in the creation of selective regulators of GPCRs interacting with their allosteric sites, such as the synthetic peptides corresponding to intracellular regions of receptors (GPCR-peptides) and the low-molecular weight agonists and antagonists of GPCRs. This review describes the recent results obtained by us and other authors in the development of GPCR-peptides and low-molecular weight agonists and the prospects of their use in clinics.",signatures:"Alexander O. Shpakov and Kira Viktorovna Derkach",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58933",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58933",authors:[{id:"81685",title:"Dr.",name:"Kira",surname:"Derkach",slug:"kira-derkach",fullName:"Kira Derkach"}],corrections:null},{id:"59043",title:"Ontogenetic Development of Neurophysiological Mechanisms Underlying Language Processing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73654",slug:"ontogenetic-development-of-neurophysiological-mechanisms-underlying-language-processing",totalDownloads:1026,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the last 20 years, new data on the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying different types of cognitive activity, especially speech and its ontogenetic formation, were obtained in the Laboratory of Children’s Neurophysiology headed by Prof. M.N. Tsitseroshin. Using the analysis of the spatial-temporal structure of regional interactions of cortical bioelectric potentials (so-called functional connectivity), we investigated how specific language levels, such as phonology, grammar, and semantics, are represented in the brain. The data obtained in children vs. adults indicate that the speech perception and production require joint and extremely coordinated activities of both hemispheres, along with the obligatory and differentiated involvement of “classic” speech centers in the left hemisphere, especially Wernicke’s area. Another line of our research is to explore the differences, which arise during verbal processing in adults and children with impaired vs. non-impaired speech, particularly with alalia, dysarthria and stuttering, using behavioral and EEG data. Our data obtained in children vs. adults allow assessing the degree of maturity in the organization of the central processes of maintaining the studied types of verbal activity in children of different ages. These data allow expanding modern concepts about the brain mechanisms of verbal activity in children in the norm and pathology.",signatures:"Diana M. Guillemard (Tsaparina), Michail N. Tsitseroshin, Alexandr N. Shepovalnikov, Elizaveta I. Galperina, Ekaterina A. Panasevich, Ekaterina E. Kats, Larisa G. Zaytseva and Olga V. Kruchinina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59043",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59043",authors:[{id:"241011",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana M.",surname:"Guillemard",slug:"diana-m.-guillemard",fullName:"Diana M. Guillemard"}],corrections:null},{id:"58865",title:"Ontogenetic Development of Neural and Muscular Rhythmic Activity and Its Regulation in Mammals during Perinatal Period",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73656",slug:"ontogenetic-development-of-neural-and-muscular-rhythmic-activity-and-its-regulation-in-mammals-durin",totalDownloads:1033,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This review covers our recent advantages in studying the ontogenetic aspects of physiological mechanisms underlying regulation of rhythmic behavior. We have revealed that excitation patterns that emerged at early stages of phylogenetic development of life forms contribute greatly to the rhythmic activity of living vertebrates and invertebrates. These patterns govern spontaneous excitation, which is easily observed during the early stage of ontogenesis. The intensity and patterns of rhythmic activity are determined by nature and kinetics of certain metabolic reactions. During perinatal and sometimes postnatal periods (as in prematurely born animals), endogenic rhythmicity of developing physiological structures is strongly pronounced due to relatively stable living conditions. This rhythmic behavior is coordinated within an entire organism. Its integration in multiple systems is driven by amplitude and frequency modulation yielding rhythms of various frequency ranges. Indeed, it is the complex and conjoint functioning of physiological systems that maintains homeostasis in developing organisms. We present the results of our authentic research concerning the evolution and ontogeny of regulatory mechanisms of motor, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems. The aspects of intact and disrupted development are considered, involving the changes in dopaminergic, norepinephrinergic, and cholinergic system activation.",signatures:"Sergey Vladimirovich Kuznetsov, Natalia D. Vdovichenko, Ludmila E. Dmitrieva, Natalia N. Kuznetsova, Vladimir A. Sizonov, Maksim A. Terpilowski and Olga P. Timofeeva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58865",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58865",authors:[{id:"241013",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey V.",surname:"Kuznetsov",slug:"sergey-v.-kuznetsov",fullName:"Sergey V. Kuznetsov"}],corrections:null},{id:"59044",title:"Development of the Biosphere in the Context of Some Fundamental Inventions of Biological Evolution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73297",slug:"development-of-the-biosphere-in-the-context-of-some-fundamental-inventions-of-biological-evolution",totalDownloads:1120,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Traditionally, the evolution of flora and fauna on the Earth as well as the evolution of their physical and chemical environment are considered separately. At the same time, when considering the global evolutionary changes, it becomes clear that the evolution of all these components occurs in close relationship and that they together constitute a unified evolutionary process. Thus, we should talk about their co-evolution and that the whole biosphere is a united functional system. In this chapter, we briefly discuss some of the major “inventions” of ancient life that are responsible for global biosphere transformations and which “worked” in the biosphere until now (photosynthesis, eukaryotic cell, multicellular organism, and the other findings). The evolution of the Precambrian life as well as the Phanerozoic stage of the biosphere evolution are considered in this context.",signatures:"Vladimir F. Levchenko, Alexander B. Kazansky and Marat A. Sabirov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59044",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59044",authors:[{id:"193812",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Fedorovich Levchenko",slug:"vladimir-fedorovich-levchenko",fullName:"Vladimir Fedorovich Levchenko"}],corrections:null},{id:"58990",title:"Development of Multicellularity: Social/Economic Aspects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73658",slug:"development-of-multicellularity-social-economic-aspects",totalDownloads:1122,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This article describes a philosophy of an arising multicellularity on the basis of division of functions between cells. Laws of the division are discussed in elementary multicellularity units, called histions. There is a variety of the histions that have different social structures. Several parameters have been proposed to describe them quantitatively and to systematize them by means of a periodic table. Consideration is given to the rules that govern polymerization of histions as well as the formation of regular cellular networks using them. It is shown that these types of networks could serve as biological tissue models that enable one to predict the tissue development. It has been found that arising multicellularity can result in a drastically decreased metabolites production per cell and thus creates the need in their economically justified unequal distribution.",signatures:"Gennady A. Savostyanov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58990",authors:[{id:"241014",title:"Dr.",name:"Gennady A.",surname:"Savostyanov",slug:"gennady-a.-savostyanov",fullName:"Gennady A. Savostyanov"}],corrections:null},{id:"58919",title:"Protein Reabsorption in the Amphibian Kidney: Comparative and Evolutionary Aspects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73659",slug:"protein-reabsorption-in-the-amphibian-kidney-comparative-and-evolutionary-aspects",totalDownloads:1220,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Protein reabsorption in the renal proximal tubule (PT) is a vitally important process which prevents the loss of filtered proteins and provides their participation in subsequent metabolism. Despite considerable changes in renal structure and function in the process of evolution, very little is known about the functional similarities or specifics of tubular protein reabsorption in the kidney of lower vertebrates compared with the mammalian and human kidney. This article presents an overview of our recent studies on protein reabsorption in the kidney of amphibians, which are used as one of the main animal models for current biological and biomedical research. In frogs, newts, and rats, the absorption capacity of epithelial PT cells was studied after the introduction of green fluorescent protein (GFP), yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), and lysozyme. Molecular mechanisms of receptor-mediated protein endocytosis were also investigated by immunohisto- and immunocytochemistry, electron, fluorescent, and laser scanning confocal microscopy.",signatures:"Elena V. Seliverstova and Natalya P. Prutskova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58919",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58919",authors:[{id:"241016",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena V.",surname:"Seliverstova",slug:"elena-v.-seliverstova",fullName:"Elena V. Seliverstova"},{id:"241017",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalya P.",surname:"Prutskova",slug:"natalya-p.-prutskova",fullName:"Natalya P. Prutskova"}],corrections:null},{id:"59004",title:"The Contribution of Changes in Adenylyl Cyclase Signaling System of the Brain and Myocardium to Etiology and Pathogenesis of Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73661",slug:"the-contribution-of-changes-in-adenylyl-cyclase-signaling-system-of-the-brain-and-myocardium-to-etio",totalDownloads:952,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The functional changes in hormone-sensitive adenylyl cyclase (AC) signaling system of the central nervous system (CNS) and periphery play a crucial role in etiology and pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus (DM). The identification of these changes in AC signaling system and the abnormalities in AC signaling network are necessary for creation of the new strategies to treat and prevent diabetic pathology. In this chapter, our data and the results of other authors on the changes in hormone-sensitive adenylyl cyclase signaling system (ACSS) in the diabetic brain and heart and on their contribution to etiology and pathogenesis of DM and its complications, diabetic cardiomyopathy in particular, are presented and analyzed, and the promising approaches to treat DM and its complications, which are based on the restoration of AC signaling cascades and their functional interaction, are discussed.",signatures:"Alexander Olegovich Shpakov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59004",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59004",authors:[{id:"75888",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Shpakov",slug:"alexander-shpakov",fullName:"Alexander Shpakov"}],corrections:null},{id:"59018",title:"Systems Evolutionary Biology of Waddington’s Canalization and Genetic Assimilation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73662",slug:"systems-evolutionary-biology-of-waddington-s-canalization-and-genetic-assimilation",totalDownloads:1225,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, there has been growing interest in computer modeling of the evolution of gene and cell regulatory networks, in general, and in computational studies of the classic ideas of Baldwin, Schmalhausen, Waddington, and followers, in particular. Two related aspects of Waddington’s evolutionary theories are the concepts of canalization and of genetic assimilation. Canalization is associated with the robust development of an individual to diverse perturbations and noise, though, when fluctuations in developmental factors exceed a particular limit, the normal developmental trajectory can be “thrown out” of the robust canal, resulting in an altered phenotype. If selective pressure favors the new phenotype, an initial individual loss of canalization can lead to phenotypic changes in the population (with canalization then becoming established for the new phenotype). Genetic assimilation is the subsequent genetic fixing of the new trait in the population. Recent experimental and theoretical works have established a quantitative basis for these classic concepts of Waddington; this chapter will review these new developments in systems evolutionary biology.",signatures:"Alexander V. Spirov, Marat A. Sabirov and David M. Holloway",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59018",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59018",authors:[{id:"103830",title:"MSc.",name:"Marat",surname:"Sabirov",slug:"marat-sabirov",fullName:"Marat Sabirov"},{id:"111296",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Holloway",slug:"david-holloway",fullName:"David Holloway"},{id:"241019",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander V.",surname:"Spirov",slug:"alexander-v.-spirov",fullName:"Alexander V. Spirov"}],corrections:null},{id:"59010",title:"3D Structures and Molecular Evolution of Ion Channels",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73665",slug:"3d-structures-and-molecular-evolution-of-ion-channels",totalDownloads:1123,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ion channels mediate selective passive transport of ions across biomembranes. They participate in diverse physiological processes and belong to distinct protein families. Understanding specific roles of different channels in physiology, pathology, and pharmacology requires knowledge of their origin and evolution. Traditional approaches include experimental physiological studies and analysis of sequences and genomes. In the last two decades, availability of 3D structures of many ion channel proteins revolutionized ion channel studies, including their evolution. In this chapter, we consider examples of how 3D structures provided clues for understanding evolutionary aspects of multi-domain organization, domain folding, and roles of highly conserved and variable residues. Such achievements are important for addressing practical problems including drug design, channelopathies, and acquired resistance to insecticides.",signatures:"Denis B. Tikhonov and Boris S. Zhorov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59010",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59010",authors:[{id:"241023",title:"Dr.",name:"Denis B.",surname:"Tikhonov",slug:"denis-b.-tikhonov",fullName:"Denis B. Tikhonov"}],corrections:null},{id:"59050",title:"Ontogenetic and Phylogenetic Approaches for Studying the Mechanisms of Cognitive Dysfunctions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73666",slug:"ontogenetic-and-phylogenetic-approaches-for-studying-the-mechanisms-of-cognitive-dysfunctions",totalDownloads:1279,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter summarizes the phylogenetic and ontogenetic approaches for studying cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. It gives an extended example of evaluation of animal behavior and brain properties using an original model of prenatal hypoxia in rats by various physiological, behavioral, immunohistochemical, molecular biological, and biochemical techniques at different stages of postnatal development, which provide a better understanding of the pathological processes in the human brain during the development of neurodegeneration.",signatures:"Igor А. Zhuravin, Nadezhda M. Dubrovskaya, Natalia L. Tumanova,\n\nDmitrii S. Vasilev and Natalia N. Nalivaeva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59050",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59050",authors:[{id:"241024",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor А.",surname:"Zhuravin",slug:"igor-a.-zhuravin",fullName:"Igor А. Zhuravin"},{id:"241026",title:"Dr.",name:"Nadezhda М.",surname:"Dubrovskaya",slug:"nadezhda-m.-dubrovskaya",fullName:"Nadezhda М. Dubrovskaya"},{id:"241027",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia L.",surname:"Tumanova",slug:"natalia-l.-tumanova",fullName:"Natalia L. 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These include the following:\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Urticaria (“hives”) is a common disorder mediated by localized mast cell degranulation, which leads to dermal microvascular hyperpermeability. The resulting erythematous, edematous, and pruritic plaques are termed “wheals”. In most cases, urticaria stems from an immediate (type 1) hypersensitivity reaction in which antigens trigger mast cell degranulation by binding to immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies displayed on the mast cell surface. The responsible antigens include pollens, foods, drugs, and insect venom (Figure 1) [1].
\nUrticaria.
“Eczema” is a clinical term that embraces a number of conditions with varied underlying etiologies. New lesions take the form of red papules, often with overlying vesicles, that ooze and become crusted. With persistence, these lesions develop into raised, scaling plaques. The nature and degree of these changes vary among the clinical subtypes, which include the following:\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
In most cases, these skin lesions resolve completely when the offending stimulus is removed or exposure is limited, stressing the importance of investigating the underlying cause. Only contact dermatitis, the most common form, is considered here.
\nContact dermatitis is triggered by exposure to an environmental contact sensitizing agent, such as poison ivy, that chemically reacts with self-proteins (Figure 2) [2].
\nAcute eczematous dermatitis.
Erythema multiforme is a self-limited, sometimes episodic, disease of the skin that may also involve the mucous membranes. It is characterized by a pleomorphic eruption consisting of erythematous macules, papules, urticarial plaques, vesicles, and bullae. Individual lesions may evolve through a papular, vesicular, and target (iris) stage in which bullae surmount an erythematous maculopapule. Lesions tend to be distributed symmetrically with a predilection for the extremities, particularly the hands.
\nIn the past, erythema multiforme was classified into erythema multiforme minor and erythema multiforme major, the latter being characterized by a severe and sometimes fatal illness in which fever, systemic symptoms, and severe oral lesions were usually present. Stevens-Johnson syndrome was also diagnosed in these severe cases with oral involvement. Recently, an attempt has been made to distinguish Stevens-Johnson syndrome from erythema multiforme major with mucosal lesions on the basis of their different cutaneous lesions and their etiology; their mucosal lesions are similar. Stevens-Johnson syndrome is said to be characterized by flat atypical target lesions or purpuric macules that are widespread or limited to the trunk. Erythema multiforme major with mucosal lesions has typical or raised atypical target lesions, located on the extremities and/or the face. With these definitions, Stevens-Johnson syndrome is usually related to drugs and erythema multiforme to herpes or other infections.
\nErythema multiforme major occurs in younger males, has frequent recurrences, and is marked by mild fever, milder mucosal lesions, and a lack of association with collagen vascular diseases, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, or cancer. Recent or recurrent herpes simplex infection is the principal risk factor. The criteria used to distinguish the component diseases that form this spectrum have been criticized on fundamental clinical differences between the two related conditions. Stevens-Johnson syndrome is associated with systemic symptoms and the involvement of internal organs, whereas erythema multiforme is not.
\n\n
Erythema multiforme.
Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory dermatosis that appears to have an autoimmune basis. It is a common disorder, affecting as many as 1% to 2% of people in the United States. Persons of all ages may develop the disease. Approximately 15% of patients with psoriasis have associated arthritis. Psoriatic arthritis may be mild or may produce severe deformities resembling the joint changes seen in rheumatoid arthritis. It can affect any joint in the body and may be symmetrical or unilateral only. In addition, psoriasis may also be associated with myopathy, enteropathy, and AIDS. Psoriasis results from interactions of genetic and environmental factors. As in the case of many autoimmune diseases, it is linked to genes within the HLA locus, most frequently affecting the skin of the elbows, knees, scalp, lumbosacral areas, intergluteal cleft, and glans penis.
\nThe typical lesion is a well-demarcated, pink to salmon-colored plaque covered by loosely adherent silver-white scales (Figure 4) [6–8].
\nPsoriasis (before and after treatment).
Lichen planus, a relatively common eruption of unknown etiology, displays violaceous, flat-topped papules that are usually pruritic. A network of fine white lines (Wickham striae) may be seen on the surface of the papules. There is a predilection for the flexor surface of the wrists, the trunk, the thighs, and the genitalia. Oral lesions are common; rarely, the esophagus is also involved. Lesions localized to the vulva and eyelids have been reported. Lichen planus localized to a radiation field may represent an isomorphic response. It has also developed in a healed herpes zoster scar. Nail changes occur, and, as with oral lesions, these may be the only manifestations of the disease. Clinical variants include atrophic, annular, hypertrophic, linear, zosteriform erosive, oral, actinic, follicular, erythematous, and bullous forms. An eruptive variant also occurs. Spontaneous resolution of lichen planus may occur and is usual within 12 months, although postinflammatory pigmentation may persist for some time afterwards. Familial cases are uncommon, and rarely these are associated with HLA-D7. An association with HLA-DR1 has been found in nonfamilial cases (Figure 5) [9–14].
\nLichen planus.
\n
Impetigo.
Cat-scratch disease.
Cutaneous leishmaniasis is a chronic self-limited granulomatous disease of the skin usually caused by
Cutaneous leishmaniasis.
Mucormycosis is an opportunistic, frequently fulminant fungal infection that is caused by normally saprobic organisms of the subphylum Mucoromycotina, including such genera as
Mucormycosis.
The two herpes simplex viruses (type 1 and type 2) are similar in structure and disease mechanisms but differ in antigenicity, anatomical site predilection, and epidemiology. Differences in envelope glycoproteins account for their distinct antigenicity. Nevertheless, there is potential for antibody cross-reactivity and antibodies directed against one type may decrease the likelihood or severity of infection with the other type. HSV-1 is spread predominantly through infected saliva or active perioral lesions of the oral, facial, and ocular areas. The pharynx, intraoral mucosa, lips, eyes, and skin above the waist are involved most frequently. Genital HSV-1 infection is uncommon, although recent studies have shown an increase in the proportion of genital herpes caused by HSV-1 in developed nations. This trend has been attributed to an increase in oral-genital sexual behavior and lower rates of nonsexual HSV-1 acquisition in childhood.
Herpes simplex virus.
After primary infection with varicella virus (chickenpox), the virus is transported up the sensory nerves and establishes latency in the dorsal root ganglia. Clinically evident herpes zoster develops after reactivation of the virus, with involvement of the distribution of the affected sensory nerve.
\nImmunosuppression, HIV infection, treatment with cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs, radiation, malignancy, old age, alcohol abuse, stress (emotional or physical), and dental manipulation are additional predisposing factors for reactivation. The long-term impact of varicella virus vaccination on herpes zoster prevalence is controversial and presently under evaluation. Interestingly, it is possible to develop herpes zoster by reactivation of either the wild type or the vaccine strain virus, although the risk for vaccine strain zoster seems to be much lower than that for wild-type zoster. The clinical features of herpes zoster can be grouped into three phases: prodromal, acute, and chronic. During initial viral replication, ganglionitis develops with resultant neuronal necrosis and severe neuralgia. This inflammatory reaction is responsible for the prodromal pain present in more than 90% of cases. The virus travels down the nerve (dermatome) and may be accompanied by fever, malaise, and headache. Typically, one dermatome is affected, but involvement of two or more can occur. The thoracic dermatomes are affected in about two thirds of the cases. This prodromal pain normally precedes the acute phase rash by 1 to 4 days and, depending on which dermatome is affected, may masquerade as sensitive teeth, otitis media, migraine headache, myocardial infarction, or appendicitis.
\nThe acute phase begins as the involved skin develops clusters of vesicles set on an erythematous base. The lesions tend to follow the path of the affected nerve and terminate at the midline. Within 3 to 4 days, the vesicles become pustular and ulcerate, with crusts developing after 7 to 10 days. The lesions are contagious until they crust, although the rate of varicella zoster virus (VZV) transmission from herpes zoster lesions is lower than that from varicella lesions. The exanthema typically resolves within 2 to 3 weeks in otherwise healthy individuals. On healing, scarring with hypopigmentation or hyperpigmentation is not unusual. Infrequently, there is dermatomal pain without development of a rash; this pattern is called
Chickenpox.
Herpes zoster.
Systemic lupus erythematosus.
SLE is an autoimmune disease involving multiple organs that is characterized by a vast array of autoantibodies, particularly antinuclear antibodies (ANAs), in which injury is caused mainly by deposition of immune complexes and binding of antibodies to various cells and tissues. The disease may be acute or insidious in its onset and is typically a chronic, remitting, relapsing, and often febrile illness. Injury to the skin, joints, kidney, and serosal membranes is prominent. SLE predominantly affects women, with the female-to-male ratio being 9:1 (Figure 13) [28–30].
\n\nPatients with CCLE usually have few or no systemic signs or symptoms, with lesions being limited to skin or mucosal surfaces. The skin lesions of CCLE most commonly present as
Chronic cutaneous lupus erythematosus.
Systemic sclerosis is autoimmunity of chronic inflammation with damage to small blood vessels and perivascular fibrosis in the skin and multiple organs. The skin is most commonly affected, but the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, heart, muscles, and lungs also are frequently involved. In some patients, the disease seems to remain confined to the skin for many years, but in the majority, it progresses to visceral involvement with death from renal failure, cardiac failure, pulmonary insufficiency, or intestinal malabsorption, in which the skin involvement is often confined to the fingers, forearms, and face. Visceral involvement occurs late; hence, the clinical course is relatively benign. Some patients with the limited disease also develop a combination of calcinosis, Raynaud’s phenomenon, esophageal dysmotility, sclerodactyly, and telangiectasia, collectively called the CREST syndrome (Figure 15) [33].
\nSystemic sclerosis (scleroderma).
Angioedema is a diffuse edematous swelling of the soft tissues that most commonly involves the subcutaneous and submucosal connective tissues but may affect the gastrointestinal or respiratory tract, occasionally with fatal results. The disorder has been referred to as
Angioedema.
Pemphigus is a rare autoimmune blistering disorder resulting from loss of normal intercellular attachments within the epidermis and the squamous mucosal epithelium. There are three major variants: pemphigus vulgaris (the most common type), pemphigus foliaceus, and paraneoplastic pemphigus.
\nPemphigus vulgaris is a rare disorder that occurs most commonly in the elderly and more often in women than men. Lesions are painful, particularly when ruptured, and secondary infections are common. Most cases are associated with oropharyngeal involvement at some point in their course. Most patients require immunosuppressive therapy, sometimes for the remainder of their lives. Medications can cause pemphigus, and when they do, patients most often present with pemphigus foliaceus rather than pemphigus vulgaris. There is also an unusual endemic form of pemphigus foliaceus in South America (fogo selvagem) that is putatively associated with the bite of a black fly.
\n\n
\n
Pemphigus vulgaris.
Bullous pemphigoid is another distinctive acquired blistering disorder with an autoimmune basis. Blistering in bullous pemphigoid is triggered by the linear deposition of IgG antibodies and complement in the epidermal basement membrane. The bullae do not rupture as readily as in pemphigus and, if uncomplicated by infection, heal without scarring. The disease tends to follow a remitting and relapsing course and responds to topical or systemic immunosuppressive agents. Gestational pemphigoid (also known as herpes gestationis, a misnomer) is a clinically distinct subtype that appears suddenly during the second or third trimester of pregnancy. It is also caused by autoantibodies against BPAG. It typically resolves after childbirth but may recur with future pregnancies (Figure 18) [40].
\nBullous pemphigoid.
Dermatitis herpetiformis is another type of autoimmune blistering disorder characterized by extremely pruritic urticaria and grouped vesicles. The disease affects predominantly males, often in the third and fourth decades of life. In up to 80% of cases, it occurs in association with celiac disease; conversely, only a small minority of patients with celiac disease develop dermatitis herpetiformis. Similar to celiac disease, dermatitis herpetiformis responds to a gluten-free diet. The lesions of dermatitis herpetiformis are bilateral, symmetrical, and grouped and preferentially involve the extensor surfaces, elbows, knees, upper back, and buttocks. Initially, neutrophils accumulate selectively at the tips of dermal papillae, forming small microabscesses. The basal cells overlying these microabscesses show vacuolization and focal dermoepidermal separation that ultimately coalesce to form a true subepidermal blister (Figure 19) [41].
\nDermatitis herpetiformis.
Strictly speaking, the term “nevus” denotes any congenital lesion of the skin. Melanocytic nevus, however, refers to any benign congenital or acquired neoplasm of melanocytes. There are numerous types of melanocytic nevi, with varied appearances. Although these lesions usually are of only cosmetic concern, they can become irritating or mimic melanoma, requiring their surgical removal (Figure 20).
\nMelanocytic nevus.
Dysplastic nevi may be sporadic or familial. The latter ones are important clinically because they are considered potential precursors of melanoma. As with conventional melanocytic nevi, activating NRAS or BRAF mutations are commonly found in dysplastic nevi and are believed to have a pathogenic role. Unlike ordinary nevi, dysplastic nevi have a tendency to occur on body surfaces not exposed to the sun as well as on sun-exposed sites. Familial dysplastic nevus syndrome is strongly associated with melanoma, as the lifetime risk for the development of melanoma in affected persons is close to 100%. In sporadic cases, only individuals with 10 or more dysplastic nevi appear to be at an increased risk for melanoma (Figure 21) [42].
\nDysplastic nevus.
Actinic keratosis is sun-damaged skin with hyperkeratosis that exposure to ionizing radiation, industrial hydrocarbons, and arsenicals may induce similar lesions. Actinic keratoses are usually less than 1 cm in diameter (Figure 22). The lips may also develop similar lesions (termed “actinic cheilitis”) [43–47].
\nActinic keratosis.
Seborrheic keratoses are characterized by round, flat, coin-like, and waxy plaques that vary in diameter from millimeters to several centimeters and occur most frequently in middle-aged individuals. They arise spontaneously and are particularly numerous on the trunk, although the extremities, head, and neck may also be involved (Figure 23) [47, 48].
\nSeborrheic keratosis.
Keratoacanthoma is a self-limited epithelial proliferation with a strong clinical and histopathological similarity to well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma. Indeed, many dermatopathologists consider it to represent an extremely well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma. Cutaneous lesions presumably arise from the infundibulum of hair follicles. An association with sun damage is suggested by the fact that most solitary lesions are found on sun-exposed skin in older adults. Additional potential contributing factors include tar exposure, HPV, immunosuppression, certain drugs (e.g., BRAF inhibitors and tyrosine kinase inhibitors), tattooing, and burns or other trauma. Keratoacanthoma-like lesions have been produced in animals by the cutaneous application of carcinogens. Keratoacanthoma shows a male predilection and rarely occurs before 45 years of age. Almost 95% of solitary lesions involve sun-exposed skin, and 8% of all cases involve the outer edge of the vermilion border of the lips, with equal frequency on the upper and lower lips (Figure 24) [49, 50].
\nKeratoacanthoma.
Basal cell carcinoma is the most common invasive cancer in humans, reaching nearly 1 million cases per year in the United States. It is a slow-growing tumor that rarely metastasizes. The vast majority of cases are recognized at an early stage and cured by local excision. However, a small number of tumors (<0.5%) are locally aggressive and potentially disfiguring or exceedingly rarely that they may metastasize to distant sites. They occur at sun-exposed sites in lightly pigmented elderly adults. As with squamous cell carcinoma, the incidence of basal cell carcinoma is increased in the setting of immunosuppression and in disorders of DNA repair, such as xeroderma pigmentosum. Basal cell carcinomas usually present as pearly papules containing prominent dilated subepidermal blood vessels (telangiectasias) (Figure 25) [51, 52].
\nBasal cell carcinoma.
Squamous cell carcinoma is the second most common tumor arising on sun-exposed sites in older people. The most important cause of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma is DNA damage induced by exposure to UV light. Other risk factors for squamous cell carcinoma include industrial carcinogens (tars and oils), chronic ulcers and draining osteomyelitis, old burn scars, ingestion of arsenicals, ionizing radiation, and (in the oral cavity) tobacco and betel nut chewing (Figure 26) [53].
\nSquamous cell carcinoma.
Melanoma is the most deadly of all skin cancers and is strongly linked to acquired mutations caused by exposure to UV radiation in sunlight. It is a relatively common neoplasm that can be cured if it is detected and treated when it is in its earliest stages. The great preponderance of melanoma arises in the skin; other sites of origin include the oral and anogenital mucosal surfaces (i.e., oropharynx as well as gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts), esophagus, meninges, and the uvea of the eye. Today, as a result of increased public awareness of the signs of cutaneous melanoma, most are cured surgically. Melanoma has two growth phases: radial and vertical. Radial growth describes the horizontal spread of melanoma within the epidermis and superficial dermis. During this initial stage, the tumor cells seem to lack the capacity to metastasize. Tumors in radial growth phase fall into several clinicopathological classes, including lentigo maligna, usually presenting as an indolent lesion on the face of older men that may remain in the radial growth phase for several decades; superficial spreading, the most common type of melanoma, usually involving sun-exposed skin; and acral/mucosal lentiginous melanoma, which is unrelated to sun exposure. In vertical growth phase, the tumor cells invade downward into the deeper dermal layers as an expansile mass (Figures 27 and 28) [54–57].
\nMelanoma.
Lentigo maligna melanoma.
Sturge-Weber syndrome is a rare, nonhereditary developmental condition that is characterized by a hamartomatous vascular proliferation involving the tissues of the brain and face. Patients with this disease are born with a dermal capillary vascular malformation of the face known as a port-wine stain or nevus flammeus because of its deep purple color. This port-wine stain usually has a unilateral distribution along one or more segments of the trigeminal nerve. Occasionally, patients have bilateral involvement or additional port-wine lesions elsewhere on the body. Only 8% to 10% of patients with facial port-wine nevi will have Sturge-Weber syndrome. Risk for the condition occurs primarily in patients with involvement along the distribution of the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (V1). If the port-wine stain involves the entire distribution of V1, the risk for neurological and ocular involvement is 78% (Figure 29) [58–62].
\nSturge-Weber syndrome.
\n
\n
\n
\n
Melasma.
The year 2020 will remain in our memory forever. A pandemic which had never been seen in this day and age, took the whole world by surprise. It all started at the end of 2019, in Wuhan, China, where the first cases appeared. Thereafter, the virus spread around the globe, initially affecting Europe and then reaching Brazil in mid-March that very year. Within the peaks and valleys in the well-known contagion curve, and the emergence of variants which unleashed new waves of the virus, improvements can be seen in the national epidemiological scenario, thanks to the advance of vaccination. However, if we observe European countries, it is clear that there has been a significant increase in the number of people infected with the COVID-19 virus.
This whole scenario has triggered abrupt changes in our way of living, whether in people’s relationships, in the way we work, attend classes, or do our shopping.
Everything has become digital and it is unimaginable to think that from now on, things will change or go back to the way they used to be.
Considering the general aspect of purchasing a product, the entire chain of events, from the beginning of the production process, up until delivery to the final consumer, many changes have taken place. Either, due to variations in terms of product demand, the increase of prices, or the lack of raw materials, all of which was inevitable, mostly because of the several factors involved in a production chain.
The purpose of this article is to analyze the impact of the pandemic on the Supply Chain, a term coined in the Unites States, which literally means “a network between a company and its suppliers to produce and distribute a specific product or service.” Supply Chain refers to the set of production processes of a material, from the extraction of raw material to delivery of the final consumer.
The article will also analyze how certain aspects have been directly affected, more specifically, e-commerce, which is not only an important electronic sales channel, but also an opportunity to develop (Business to Consumer) B2C and (Business to Business) B2B companies. We also intend to look into how e-commerce was used as a reactive strategy to minimize the breakage risks during the supply chain cycles.
Furthermore, we intend to point out some changes in consumer behavior and how companies may adapt to the abrupt changes, in order to become resilient, in other words, to be able to reuptake their initial conditions, prior to the pandemic, and face these great transformations.
Subsequently, Section 2 will present the research methodology, while Section 3 will focus on literature review, followed by the analysis and discussions in Section 4. The final remarks and conclusions can be found in Section 5.
This article aims to present how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected and continues to affect national and global supply chains, especially in the last link of the chain, the consumer. This section aims to show how this work was compiled.
An exploratory research was carried out to list, in amongst the countless existing supply chains, those which were directly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, such as a sudden increase in product demand, or several changes in consumer behavior during the most diverse stages of the pandemic. The research was conducted using a systematic search engine on targeted websites and applications, in which, by means of delimited keywords, it was possible to identify articles and reports published from January 2020 to October 2021, as specified in Table 1.
Sites and applications | Journals and academic magazines | Keywords |
---|---|---|
Scielo | International Journal of Production Research | Supply chain + COVID |
Eric | International Journal of RF Technologies Research and Applications | Supply chain + e-commerce |
Google Scholar | Emerald Insight: Discover Journals, Books & Case Studies | Supply chain + pandemic |
Capes Brazil | International Journal of Supply and Operations Management | e-commerce + pandemic |
BDTD | International Journal of Supply and Operations Resilience | Supply chain management + COVID |
Research Gate | Brazilian Journal of Production Engineering | Supply chain management + COVID + impact |
Brazilian Journal of Operations & Production Management | Supply chain food + COVID |
Search structure.
Source: The author.
Among all articles found in the systematically structured research, it is possible to identify the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the supply chain in two specific sectors: e-commerce and food supply. In addition, as the aim was to globally assess these impacts, it is possible to collect data in the specified period from January 2020 to October 2021, simply by inserting specific keywords with names of countries, such as Brazil, United States, Mexico, England, Spain, France, Italy, for instance.
A bibliometric and exploratory research is of significant help in the decision-making process, because researchers can explore, organize and evaluate large masses of data which, if not evaluated with a more structured method, will not accurately generate such valuable results for decision-making [1]. By organizing this data, it is possible to reach a conclusion.
This work presents a combination of qualitative and quantitative research, as stated by [2], “qualitative research provides a better vision and understanding of the context regarding the issue, while quantitative research seeks to quantify the data by means of statistical analysis”. Firstly, the whole pandemic scenario was contextualized, and afterwards, a data analysis was carried out on consumer behavior.
This study also intends to show, among a variety of risk mitigation strategies which happen during chain interruptions, those which successfully enabled companies to deal with disruptions and measures which could have been taken to avoid further losses and maximize profits.
Table 1 demonstrates the structure and research methodology applied, as well as sites, applications and keywords used.
This section will outline the literature review done, so as to present the main concepts present in the course of the work. The themes covered are as follows: supply chain, pandemic impacts in North America, pandemic impacts in Europe, e-commerce, pandemic impacts in e-commerce in Brazil and supply chain resilience (SCRes).
In [3] a supply chain is defined as “a network of organizations which are connected and interdependent of each other, working cooperatively to control, manage and improve the flow of materials and exchange of information from suppliers to end users”.
A supply chain, in addition to all activities which it involves, such as input purchasing, storage, transport, packaging, sales and distribution, incudes all physical infrastructure and processes that support the operations. In other words, the supply chain is made up of physical elements, as well as planning and operational processes [4].
It is important to emphasize that a well-developed supply chain, which functions appropriately, is a major competitive differentiator. [5] claims that one of the most important paradigm shifts occur when companies, nowadays, do not compete with one another, nor does a product compete with another product, instead, the competition would be of one supply chain against another. That, in turn will reinforce the need to establish a strengthened chain management able to stand in good stead, should any adversities appear, as shown in Figure 1.
Supply chain flow. Resource base: (Capacity, Information, “Core” competencies, Banking). Source: [
The several organizations involved, in addition to the large amount of information and materials that circulate both ways, only emphasize how dependent each member is of the other, and events which disrupt the balance of the chain can cause great harm to the parts involved.
According to [7], the COVID-19 pandemic has been one of the most significant events to disrupt the supply chain in recent history, and it is also likely to weaken many organizations globally. In an attempt to prevent the spreading of the virus, most governments around the world have responded with the implementation of human restriction measures. As there were no pharmacological treatments at the beginning of the pandemic, such as vaccines, border closures and quarantines, all of which proved to be extremely challenging to combat, as symptoms appeared at different levels of intensity in patients [7]. Global response has severely impacted international supply chain operations [7]. The National Association of Manufacturers (NAM) conducted a survey of its 558 members in the United States on the impact of COVID-19, and found that more than 78% of its members expected a serious financial impact on their businesses due to the uncertainty caused by the pandemic [8].
Another study by (PricewaterhouseCoopers) (PwC) reports that 87% of multi-sector companies in Mexico and the United States were very concerned about the disastrous impact of the pandemic [9].
As explained by Baldwin and Tomiura in a publication of 2020 [10], it can be predicted that the financial impact caused by COVID-19 on the manufacturing sector alone, will almost triple.
They state that, initially, the concentration of the disease was mainly in the world\'s manufacturing center (East Asia), and its spread to other industrial powers in the US and European Union (EU) would therefore create direct and massive disruptions in supply, which in fact did occur. Such sudden supply disruptions would then cascade to other industries in less affected countries due to the contagion effect on the supply chain. Eventually, macroeconomic declines in aggregate demand, along with delays in investment by companies, will undoubtedly generate countless disruptions.
Thus, both the vulnerability and the complexity of supply chains spread and triggered the effect of the pandemic, even in countries that initially did not suffer from the disease itself. China\'s large share of global trade and its expressive significance in the supply chain amplified the economic repercussions for other less affected markets. Even if the peak of the outbreak were short-lived (something that notably did not happen), with gradual recovery in production and demand in the coming months (which also did not occur), it still posed a substantial threat to global growth in 2020 [11].
No business sector was immune to the effect of the pandemic. Given the economic importance, considerable supply and demand shocks were not leveled in firms and industries. The impact of COVID-19 on different business sectors may vary due to differences in supply and demand patterns [12]. While some sectors saw a drop in demand, others saw a sudden increase. As people began to follow government calls to stay at home, some industries such as car manufacturing, crude oil production and transportation saw a decline in demand. In contrast, most tech companies experienced an increase in demand. Companies operating in the healthcare sector experienced a sudden surge in demand which has proved to be a tall order to meet in such a short period. Service companies that rely heavily on tourism and travel were also one of the first to suffer from a very strong and unexpected decrease in demand.
As this work unfolds, it aims to show specific cases where impacts of the pandemic are more evident, such as in e-commerce in Brazil, as well as certain effects of the pandemic in Europe because these were sectors where significant changes in consumer behavior were noticed, besides a substantial amount of other collected comparative data used to carry out the study. The response strategies used to mitigate the supply chain risks caused by the ongoing pandemic will also be respectively shown, compared and analyzed.
A shortage in food is inevitable, considering the initial approach to combat the pandemic. The food supply chain is a complex web which includes producers, agricultural inputs, transportation, factories, distributors and retailers.
According to experts, restrictions on transport and other blocking measures, such as the implementation of greater control over sea cargo, the production process has suffered significant impacts. As a consequence, labor shortages started to unfold and prices peaked, which has led to food loss and waste. These obstructions normally prevent farmers from accessing markets, restricting their productive capacity and preventing them from selling their products [13].
As commuting and movement of people was restricted, restaurants that depended exclusively on face-to-face service were severely affected and had to be shut down. In Spain, for example, around 40,000 hotels, bars, cafés and restaurants had closed their doors by July 2020 (Le Parisien). To minimize this effect in England, the government gave a one-time cash donation of up to £25,000 to eligible restaurants, cafés, bars and pubs; a £1,000 bonus per employee to employers who retained employment contracts until 31st January 2021; besides paying 80% of salaries to employees placed on leave when establishments shut down because of the quarantine and other restrictive measures [14].
As a form of recovery, the UK instituted the "eat out to help out" project, in which the government paid up to 10 pounds for meals made from Monday to Wednesday in restaurants across the country [15].
Lockdowns reduced the movement of people and prevented some workers from reaching their workplaces. Many sectors, including the fuel industry saw a decrease in demand, as more people stay indoors, which consequently increased the price of fuels used by trucks to transport all sorts of materials.
On the other hand, the crisis also generated the need for innovations, creating opportunities for new business models in Europe and around the world. [16] Analyzed the implications of COVID-19 on food supply chains and reported that demand and supply shocks created during a pandemic mainly occur as a result of a change in consumer behavior. For example, the sudden urge to buy ready-to-eat foods caused several demand shocks, which led to labor shortages and disruptions to the transportation network. In addition, restrictions on transportation and delivery of goods across borders led to collateral shocks in food supply chains.
The change in consumer behavior can be seen in a survey carried out by the Reply platform, which collects data and performs analysis in the attempt to understand the progress of the pandemic and how it has affected society as a whole. Using the Quentin data research tool developed by TD Reply, which gathers data from Google Trends and Google Ads, it is possible to notice the effects. Figure 2 shows how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the Food and Beverage sector in Europe in 2021.
Food delivery in Europe. Source: [
One of the first major changes that appeared at the beginning of the pandemic was how the population purchased food. As bakeries, markets and restaurants were closed, many people turned to the online format to buy their food. There was a 140% increase in Europeans\' interest in buying food online in 2020 (data obtained through Quentin, a TD Reply\'s data research tool, Europe. 2019 x 2020).
The orange line represents the delivery rate of groceries, while the red line shows the delivery rate of ready-made meals. While the delivery of market products indicates large peaks, especially at the beginning of the pandemic on the European continent, the delivery of meals did not suffer great variations throughout 2020. This indicated a possible tendency of the European people to experience food consumption in a different way, by ordering it from a specific restaurant and delivered to their homes.
Another aspect which underwent a major impact was how products were paid for. 87% of Europeans are willing to use less cash in the near future [18]. In addition, there has also been a greater concern with hygiene on behalf of establishments, in the attempt to reduce the circulation of banknotes, creating the perfect environment for the implementation and growth of new payment technologies, such as the QR code.
Figure 3 reveals how familiar the population was with the use of this technology in the same four European countries.
Knowledge of the QR code in Europe. Source: [
The orange line represents people who are not familiar with QR technology and the red line shows those who are, but do not know how to use it. Towards the end of 2020, those countries revealed a gradual drop in both lines, which indicates a possible increase in the population\'s knowledge on the subject.
The e-commerce segment is an important sales channel and development opportunity for B2C and B2B companies.
It is impossible to imagine our current globalized world without the internet and all the transactions that take place in it. Besides the fact that the internet is undeniably helpful and offers a wide variety of benefits, the ‘Internet of Things’ (IOT) and data clouds are on the rise. Together they can integrate and improve communication and data storage of organizations, working hand-in-hand with each other. As the IOT is able to capture and process information, cloud technology transfers information to other devices.
The progressive digitization of commerce ensures fast communication between customers and companies and especially between companies that make up the same supply chain.
Organizations today aim to have a competitive edge over their contenders, continually considering the expansion of their businesses to reach different customers in different locations. This is not possible with a normal distribution channel, such as a physical store, or a single point of sale. This is achievable thanks to the Internet, available to anyone, anywhere. Similarly, modern supply chain management assists companies to reach an entire niche of customers in a healthy competitive way.
With an expressive rise in popularity in online sales, intensified mainly by the pandemic, further supply chain challenges have surfaced. Such challenges need to be resolved promptly in order for companies to be able to take advantage of the opportunities that e-commerce creates for them.
As the pressure to adapt and improve increases, e-commerce strategies create both difficulties and opportunities for companies that use this type of technology to boost sales.
Here are a few of the many types of relationships established between e-commerce practitioners [19]:
C2C (customer to customer)—transactions between consumers on online sales platforms.
C2B (customer to business)—encompasses transactions between consumers and companies, usually initiated by consumers to compare prices.
C2G (client to government) –involves transactions between citizens and public administration, such as taxes.
B2B (business to business)—implementation of business procedures between two companies.
B2C (business-to-consumer or business-to-client)—classic business-to-consumer transactions.
B2G (business to government)—transactions between businesses and public administration, such as public contracts or bids.
E-commerce was one of the most positively affected sectors during the pandemic. A remarkable increase in sales took place and the production chain was put to the test in order to meet the high variation in demand.
According to the Brazilian Chamber of Electronic Commerce (ABComm), more than 135,000 Brazilian stores adhered to e-commerce sales in the first three months of the pandemic in 2020, with the aim of remaining active even after their physical stores had been shut down. Figure 4 represents the growth of e-commerce sales in Brazil since 2011. The comparison displayed only refers to the first semester. In other words, what we see is an immediate response to the beginning of the pandemic.
The growth of e-commerce sales in Brazil. Source: Ebit | Nielsen via Meio & Mensagem.
A report by
Pet products proved to be one of the markets with an expressive increase in e-commerce, with a leap of 60% in sales compared to 2019. The “food and beverage” and “home and furniture” sectors appear in second and third place, respectively.
After another year of COVID-19, with additional data collected from 2021 to be compared to, speculations that e-commerce would retract were utterly discarded. According to the report by
Christmas, which is an extremely commercial period, can also be taken into account. Figure 5 reveals how consumers preferred to do their Christmas shopping in 2020.
Sales channels consumers intend to use for their Christmas shopping. Source: Conversion (2020).
Among those who will shop online, 37% should purchase almost all presents on the internet; 31%, half their presents; and 21% are estimated to buy all their presents that way. On average, 67% of presents will be purchased online. With an expectation of moving BRL 64.8 billion in the economy, according to the National Confederation of Store Managers [20], with the vast majority of consumers still opting for online shopping, e-commerce is expected to maintain its strength this year. Even though vaccination rates have advanced and shopping in physical stores should be on the rise, the trend of increased online shopping, which started at the beginning of the pandemic, is far from being cast aside. On the contrary, it will continue to grow strong.
In reference to [21] resilience is defined as: “The ability of a system to return to its original state or move to a new, more desirable state after being disturbed”. SCRes refers to the ability of chains to prevent and withstand changes and recover the initial performance level after an unexpected disruption [22].
Much of the previous work on SCRes is related to quantifying the level of resilience before developing response and recovery [23–26]. In the wake of a disruptive event, significant participants in supply chains should be able to anticipate, be prepared and understand the extent of the impact caused by a disruption. They ought to generate strategies, so as to respond as quickly as possible to the impacts and redesign their resources to strengthen competencies and adapt to the resulting effects. Such modifications and the capacity for renewal to readapt allow for sound recovery from interruptions [25, 27]. The evaluation of SCRes in the literature has been dominated by theoretical and modeling approaches. The SCRes modeling and quantification approaches can be grouped under two different categories. The first category encompasses metric-based models that directly quantify (SCRes). In [23] five assessment metrics have been highlighted: economy, vulnerability, recovery time, uncertainty, and resilience-building considerations.
Other authors, such as [28–30] used performance loss to measure provider capacity and service performance. In reference to [31, 32] recovery time was used when assessing the impact of disruptions on a supply chain.
The second category of quantification models does not measure (SCRes) directly, but rather attempts to assess resilience strategies. [33] assessed supply chain vulnerability using a multiple inputs and outputs model for different mitigation strategies. [34] measured supplier support and inventory levels as a resilience strategy to maintain performance during an outage. [35] evaluated (SCRes) by measuring supplier segregation, including geographically grouped suppliers.
However, despite the wide variety of theoretical studies which can be found, most emphasize the need for further empirical research on (SCRes), especially during outbreaks and disruptive events. Furthermore, previous literature on (SCRes) has mainly focused on exploring the facilitators, antecedents, common practices, capabilities and competencies needed to build resilient supply chains, without any emphasis on strategies to manage disruptions [36].
According to [25], these factors somehow form strategies to build (SCRes), and incorporate concepts such as the improvement of the supply chain in terms of promptness and better visibility, with the enhancement of flexibility, eliminating redundancies and optimizing the overall collaboration between partners. By doing so, it was possible to identify several SCRes strategies proposed in previous studies, which are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. Those are classified into two categories, the proactive and the reactive strategies.
Proactive strategies | Description | References |
---|---|---|
Digital connection | The IOT and block chain Technology are proving to have great potential to boost SCRes through high connectivity, accuracy and transparency. | [37–40] |
Supply chain automation | Regards the systematization of physical workflow and information throughout the supply chain for process improvement. This implies the use of technologies to minimize the dependence between people from different companies. | [37, 38, 41] |
Supply chain regionalization/location | Both supply and processing are located within the same region to meet local demand and reduce supply chain integrations. Consequently, risk is maintained within a specific region. | [42, 43] |
Supply chain collaboration | Companies of all levels should work in synchronicity with each other in order to anticipate, predict and prevent potential threats to supply. | [36, 39, 43, 44] |
Human capabilities | Involves human analysis of vast amounts of information and data, in which critical points are monitored and controlled in an entire supply chain system. | [36, 45] |
Proactive supply chain risk mitigation strategies.
Source: The author of this work adapted from [46].
Reactive strategies | Description | References |
---|---|---|
Big data analytics (BDA) and real-time information systems | Supply chain information systems use BDA to collect, process and extract meaningful key insights from real-time data across a supply chain to support appropriate and timely decision-making strategies. | [46, 47] |
Virtual markets | Involves the development of digital markets for the delivery of products and services. | [39, 48] |
Test running | Test running has proved to be efficient in decision-making scenarios, as it deals with the uncertainty and complexity of problems related to supply chains. | [7, 38, 49] |
Business continuity planning | Business continuity planning is extremely important when it comes to creating processes for the prevention of and recovery from potential disruptions in supply chain systems. (This can also be considered a proactive strategy.) | [27, 50] |
Reactive supply chain risk mitigation strategies.
Source: The author of this work adapted from [46].
Proactive strategies are primarily technology-oriented and rely on developing technical infrastructures such as digital connectivity and supply chain automation to prevent future disruptions [37, 38, 41]. [42] pointed out the location and regionalization of supply, while [51] delved into integrated approaches to supply chain risk management.
Other authors have proposed strategies related to a more social aspect, focusing on a social supply chain [42] whereas, [45] took to the subject of human capabilities.
Reactive strategies, on the other hand, mainly rely on a real-time information system and are based on decision-making with the use of data [46, 47], the creation of virtual markets in [48] and by means of supply chain simulation resources [38].
Some strategies, such as digital resource development and supply chain collaboration, can be both proactive and reactive, depending on the timing and purpose.
In a time as complicated as a pandemic, with huge variations in price, demand and consumer behavior, as shown in previous sections, developing a resilient supply chain is essential for a business to thrive.
The previous sections of this article aimed at contextualizing the COVID-19 pandemic and its effects on supply chains. It also included data on consumer behavior, as well as certain strategies made to combat possible disruptions which took place in supply chains and how to counteract their effects in resilient way.
Among the supply chains shown, e-commerce stood out and happened to be an important escape valve at the beginning of the pandemic, which allowed some stores to remain in activity. More than 135,000 Brazilian stores adhered to e-commerce sales in the first three months of the pandemic in 2020, according to the ABComm.
Despite the advances of vaccinations and the reopening of businesses worldwide, online sales will continue to conquer space and become an excellent source of income for companies. For example, most customers are more likely to do their Christmas shopping online in 2021, as shown in Table 4. Yet, those figures indicate the sum of percentages combined and therefore exceeds 100% because products were purchased in different ways by the same customer. However, online shopping is always their first choice. This falls under the reactive strategy “developing digital marketplaces to deliver products and services” [39, 48].
The Internet | 45% |
Department stores | 43% |
Shopping malls | 40% |
The most popular purchasing methods for Christmas 2021.
Source: The author of this work.
Still on the topic of reactive strategies, in addition to those mentioned above, all strategies operate by means of technology, whether by test running, information systems or big data. It is crucial to elicit that the application of these strategies is of paramount importance, as they collect and process data in real time, and offer vital support to decision-making processes, preventing the mechanisms in a supply chain, from making wrong and hasty decisions that can affect the product flow, as well as the information exchange needed.
Undeniably, technology plays an important role in all stages of the supply chain. Consequently, the flow of information and goods is optimized, and disruptions may be prevented.
When it comes to food supply chains, all proactive strategies ought to be put to work under the best possible conditions. The use of technology is essential for a good flow within the chain, in terms of products or information. As there was an increase of 140% of food bought online in Europe in 2020, markets, which were able to successfully respond to that abrupt demand, gained significant competitive advantage over others.
On the other hand, as the movement of people was restricted, restaurants that depended exclusively on face-to-face services were severely affected and were forced to shut down. Under such conditions, bars and restaurants may target customers who enjoy eating out by investing in marketing strategies. As a result a large number of people could be attracted to their establishments. However, the reactive strategies of these companies must be very well defined, as new variants of the coronavirus can emerge at any time, generating new waves of infections and local services may need to be closed. The regionalization of supply chains could have been adopted, among other proactive strategies, not only to mitigate the risk of disruptions during the pandemic, but also avoid future problems [42, 43]. When sourcing and processing are located within the same region, the risk remains within the same domain. As the pandemic started in China, a country where several supply chains branch out at their initial stage to other parts of the world, many other countries which had not yet suffered from the virus itself, were already heavily impacted due to the lack of supplies. If there was less dependence on this global hub, perhaps countries like Brazil, would be able to have a better response to the disruptions caused by the pandemic.
Still on the subject of technology, it is essential that all companies, not just bars and restaurants, adapt to the new reality of banking transactions. As most of the European population has become more knowledgeable about QR code technology, better purchase conditions have been offered to customers and therefore, Europe is more likely to prevent a breakdown in the last link of the supply chain.
Furthermore, the pandemic caused a change in consumer behavior due to disruptions in global supply chains. As a result, consumers have become more dependent on their closest communities. As fresh food, fruits and vegetables are delivered to them faster, people have adopted healthier eating habits. Moreover, by reducing consumption, avoiding waste and recycling materials, economy has become more circular.
This work aimed to present how the pandemic has affected and will continue to affect supply chains. It looked into the impacts caused by the pandemic, such as unexpected demand variations, changes in consumer behavior and how to mitigate sudden risks by using reactive strategies like e-commerce. That led to companies adapting their activities to a completely new reality of constant change and inconsistency.
The objective of this work was successfully achieved by researching data from reliable sources, acquiring a substantial amount of information to be analyzed, which not only allowed for a clear demonstration of the impacts on consumer behavior in Europe, North America and Brazil, but also to list strategies that were used to minimize risks, enabling companies to adapt to this new reality.
However, as it is a recent and ongoing issue, it was challenging to encounter more factual data regarding the effects in other continents, such as Africa and Oceania, in order to perform a truly global analysis.
As this work was completed in the first fortnight of December 2021, it was not possible to analyze and compare how Christmas shopping figures actually differed from the previous year. No compilation of data on European consumer behavior in 2021 was available, making it impossible to compare figures to those in 2020. This data can be explored in future work, with the compilation of information in future years, so as to confirm whether consumer behavior has really changed and set new trends, or if it was only temporarily induced by the incidence of the pandemic.
There is also a future perspective of several possibilities for achievable improvements to be implemented throughout the production chain.
Using the test-run method, it would be possible to develop a model to predict whether the trend of online shopping in supermarkets would continue. In other words, fewer consumers would physically go to shops and stores, which would make such locations redundant, and which could then be adapted to any sort of existing need. That would consequently reduce costs, allowing for investments to improve customer experience, from user interface to delivery and consumption.
In December 2019, in Wuhan, China, the emergence of a new disease changed the lifestyle of the entire population. The COVID-19 pandemic has marked the world and continues to do so, causing several impacts in the most varied sectors. This chapter aims to show how the pandemic impacted the global logistics network by showcasing several supply chains that were affected, mainly focusing on e-commerce and food supply chains and their many aspects. This chapter also draws attention to how changes, caused by the virus, have transformed consumer behavior over the past 2 years. It will also present mitigation strategies that have been or could have been used by companies to minimize the risk of disruptions during the pandemic by creating a more resilient supply chain.
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Clonal complex 398 (CC398), a predominant clonal lineage of livestock-associated-MRSA in domestic animals and retail meat, is capable of infecting humans. In order to monitor and prevent MRSA contamination, it is critical to understand its source and transmission dynamics. 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This group is often detected in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, including ulcerative colitis. That is why new rapid methods for their isolation, purification, and identification are important and necessary. In this chapter, the methods of mesophilic SRB isolation from various environments are described. Particular attention is paid to the purification of mesophilic SRB since they can be in close interaction with other microorganisms (Clostridium, Bacteroides, Pseudomonas, etc.), which are their frequent satellites. Moreover, the main methods of mesophilic SRB identification based on their morphological, physiological, biochemical, and genetical characteristics are presented.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"Ivan Kushkevych",authors:[{id:"252191",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Kushkevych",slug:"ivan-kushkevych",fullName:"Ivan Kushkevych"}]},{id:"65773",title:"Life Cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Invertebrate and the Vertebrate Hosts",slug:"life-cycle-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-in-the-invertebrate-and-the-vertebrate-hosts",totalDownloads:1497,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted to humans by blood-sucking triatomine bugs. T. cruzi is a single-celled eukaryote with a complex life cycle alternating between reduviid bug invertebrate vectors and vertebrate hosts. This article will look at the developmental stages of T. cruzi in the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate hosts, the different surface membrane proteins involved in different life cycle stages of T. cruzi, roles of different amino acids in the life cycle, carbon and energy sources and gene expression in the life cycle of T. cruzi. The author will also look at extracellular vesicles (EV) and its role in the dissemination and survival of T. cruzi in mammalian host.",book:{id:"8806",slug:"biology-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-",title:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",fullTitle:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi"},signatures:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu",authors:[{id:"245368",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenechukwu C.",middleName:null,surname:"Onyekwelu",slug:"kenechukwu-c.-onyekwelu",fullName:"Kenechukwu C. 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The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. However, being notorious for developing antibiotic resistance, there is a continuous need for exploring novel anti-MRSA agents from various sources including plants and evaluation of non-antibiotic approaches.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"55437",title:"Biological Control of Parasites",slug:"biological-control-of-parasites-2017-07",totalDownloads:4334,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Parasites (ectoparasites or endoparasites) are a major cause of diseases in man, his livestock and crops, leading to poor yield and great economic loss. To overcome some of the major limitations of chemical control methods such as rising resistance, environmental and health risks, and the adverse effect on non‐target organisms, biological control (biocontrol) is now at the forefront of parasite (pests) control. Biocontrol is now a core component of the integrated pest management. Biocontrol is defined as “the study and uses of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host (pest) densities”. Considerable successes have been achieved in the implementation of biocontrol strategies in the past. This chapter presents a review of the history of biocontrol, its advantages and disadvantages; the different types of biological control agents (BCAs) including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes); the effect of biocontrol on native biodiversity; a few case studies of the successful implementation of biocontrol methods and the challenges encountered with the implementation of biocontrol and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti",authors:[{id:"191763",title:"Dr.",name:"Tebit Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kwenti",slug:"tebit-emmanuel-kwenti",fullName:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti"}]},{id:"70336",title:"Plastics Polymers Degradation by Fungi",slug:"plastics-polymers-degradation-by-fungi",totalDownloads:1459,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The studies on plastic degradation are very important for the development of biodegradable plastics, and for reduction of pollution, since plastic waste can remain in the environment for decades or centuries. We have showed the degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastic bags and green polyethylene by Pleurotus ostreatus. This fungus can also produce mushrooms using these plastics. The plastic degradation was possibly by three reasons: (a) presence of pro-oxidant ions or plant polymer, (b) low specificity of the lignocellulolytic enzymes, and (c) the presence of endomycotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. In this chapter, the plastic bags’ degradation by abiotic and microbial process using the exposure to sunlight and the use of a white-rot fungus will described. The physical, chemical, and biological alterations of plastic were analyzed after each process of degradation. The degradation of plastic bags was more effective when the abiotic and biotic degradations were combined.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"José Maria Rodrigues da Luz, Marliane de Cássia Soares da Silva, Leonardo Ferreira dos Santos and Maria Catarina Megumi Kasuya",authors:[{id:"217699",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Da Luz",slug:"jose-maria-da-luz",fullName:"Jose Maria Da Luz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"151",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. 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Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. 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