The most common food additives and ingredients.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5257",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Joining Technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Joining and welding are two of the most important processes in manufacturing. These technologies have vastly improved and are now extensively used in numerous industries. This book covers a wide range of topics, from arc welding (GMAW and GTAW), FSW, laser and hybrid welding, and magnetic pulse welding on metal joining to the application of joining technologies for textile products. The analysis of temperature and phase transformation is also incorporated. This book also discusses the issue of dissimilar joint between metal and ceramic, as well as the technology of diffusion bonding.",isbn:"978-953-51-2597-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2596-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6677-1",doi:"10.5772/61698",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"joining-technologies",numberOfPages:284,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"aa9de032631d6887271e067f23fdb91f",bookSignature:"Mahadzir Ishak",publishedDate:"September 21st 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5257.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20016,numberOfWosCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitations:56,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:115,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 28th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 18th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 22nd 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 22nd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"104098",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahadzir",middleName:null,surname:"Ishak",slug:"mahadzir-ishak",fullName:"Mahadzir Ishak",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104098/images/4809_n.jpg",biography:"Mahadzir Ishak is a senior lecturer at Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and fellow researcher of Automotive Excellent Centre, University Malaysia Pahang. His research interests are in laser application on manufacturing processes, joining & welding, heat treatment, casting and light alloys material.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Pahang",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"799",title:"Industrial Engineering",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-industrial-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"51862",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Brief Introduction to Joining and Welding",doi:"10.5772/64726",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-brief-introduction-to-joining-and-welding",totalDownloads:1704,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mahadzir Ishak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51862",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51862",authors:[{id:"104098",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahadzir",surname:"Ishak",slug:"mahadzir-ishak",fullName:"Mahadzir Ishak"}],corrections:null},{id:"51668",title:"New Approaches to the Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys",doi:"10.5772/64523",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-friction-stir-welding-of-aluminum-alloys",totalDownloads:1572,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,signatures:"Marcello Cabibbo, Archimede Forcellese and Michela Simoncini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51668",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51668",authors:[{id:"180609",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",surname:"Cabibbo",slug:"marcello-cabibbo",fullName:"Marcello Cabibbo"},{id:"185540",title:"Prof.",name:"Archimede",surname:"Forcellese",slug:"archimede-forcellese",fullName:"Archimede Forcellese"},{id:"185542",title:"Prof.",name:"Michela",surname:"Simoncini",slug:"michela-simoncini",fullName:"Michela Simoncini"}],corrections:null},{id:"51396",title:"A Mesh-Free Solid-Mechanics Approach for Simulating the Friction Stir-Welding Process",doi:"10.5772/64159",slug:"a-mesh-free-solid-mechanics-approach-for-simulating-the-friction-stir-welding-process",totalDownloads:1225,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,signatures:"Kirk Fraser, Lyne St-Georges and Laszlo I. Kiss",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51396",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51396",authors:[{id:"181027",title:"Mr.",name:"Kirk",surname:"Fraser",slug:"kirk-fraser",fullName:"Kirk Fraser"},{id:"186075",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",surname:"Kiss",slug:"laszlo-kiss",fullName:"Laszlo Kiss"},{id:"186076",title:"Prof.",name:"Lyne",surname:"St-Georges",slug:"lyne-st-georges",fullName:"Lyne St-Georges"}],corrections:null},{id:"51554",title:"Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Synchronized Magnetic Oscillation",doi:"10.5772/64158",slug:"gas-tungsten-arc-welding-with-synchronized-magnetic-oscillation",totalDownloads:1380,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Thiago Resende Larquer and Ruham Pablo Reis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51554",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51554",authors:[{id:"76198",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruham",surname:"Reis",slug:"ruham-reis",fullName:"Ruham Reis"},{id:"182463",title:"MSc.",name:"Thiago",surname:"Larquer",slug:"thiago-larquer",fullName:"Thiago Larquer"}],corrections:null},{id:"51459",title:"A Comprehensive Model of the Transport Phenomena in Gas Metal Arc Welding",doi:"10.5772/64160",slug:"a-comprehensive-model-of-the-transport-phenomena-in-gas-metal-arc-welding",totalDownloads:1105,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Junling Hu, Zhenghua Rao and Hai-Lung Tsai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51459",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51459",authors:[{id:"142865",title:"Prof.",name:"Hai-Lung",surname:"Tsai",slug:"hai-lung-tsai",fullName:"Hai-Lung Tsai"},{id:"181838",title:"Dr.",name:"Junling",surname:"Hu",slug:"junling-hu",fullName:"Junling Hu"},{id:"185948",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhenghua",surname:"Rao",slug:"zhenghua-rao",fullName:"Zhenghua Rao"}],corrections:null},{id:"51282",title:"The Analysis of Temporary Temperature Field and Phase Transformations in One-Side Butt-Welded Steel Flats",doi:"10.5772/63994",slug:"the-analysis-of-temporary-temperature-field-and-phase-transformations-in-one-side-butt-welded-steel-",totalDownloads:978,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Jerzy Winczek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51282",authors:[{id:"181382",title:"Prof.",name:"Jerzy",surname:"Winczek",slug:"jerzy-winczek",fullName:"Jerzy Winczek"}],corrections:null},{id:"51851",title:"Laser and Hybrid Laser-Arc Welding",doi:"10.5772/64522",slug:"laser-and-hybrid-laser-arc-welding",totalDownloads:1418,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"G. A. Turichin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51851",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51851",authors:[{id:"181965",title:"Prof.",name:"Gleb",surname:"Turichin",slug:"gleb-turichin",fullName:"Gleb Turichin"}],corrections:null},{id:"51805",title:"Current Issues and Problems in the Joining of Ceramic to Metal",doi:"10.5772/64524",slug:"current-issues-and-problems-in-the-joining-of-ceramic-to-metal",totalDownloads:4080,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,signatures:"Uday M.B., Ahmad-Fauzi M.N., Alias Mohd Noor and Srithar Rajoo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51805",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51805",authors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",surname:"Basheer Al-Naib",slug:"uday-basheer-al-naib",fullName:"Uday Basheer Al-Naib"},{id:"182065",title:"Prof.",name:"Alias",surname:"Mohd Noor",slug:"alias-mohd-noor",fullName:"Alias Mohd Noor"},{id:"182066",title:"Dr.",name:"Srithar",surname:"Rajoo",slug:"srithar-rajoo",fullName:"Srithar Rajoo"},{id:"190437",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad-Fauzi",surname:"M. N.",slug:"ahmad-fauzi-m.-n.",fullName:"Ahmad-Fauzi M. N."}],corrections:null},{id:"51537",title:"Diffusion Bonding: Influence of Process Parameters and Material Microstructure",doi:"10.5772/64312",slug:"diffusion-bonding-influence-of-process-parameters-and-material-microstructure",totalDownloads:2273,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Thomas Gietzelt, Volker Toth and Andreas Huell",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51537",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51537",authors:[{id:"100737",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Gietzelt",slug:"thomas-gietzelt",fullName:"Thomas Gietzelt"},{id:"180682",title:"Mr.",name:"Volker",surname:"Toth",slug:"volker-toth",fullName:"Volker Toth"},{id:"180683",title:"Mr.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Huell",slug:"andreas-huell",fullName:"Andreas Huell"}],corrections:null},{id:"51572",title:"Applying Heat for Joining Textile Materials",doi:"10.5772/64309",slug:"applying-heat-for-joining-textile-materials",totalDownloads:1771,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Simona Jevšnik, Savvas Vasiliadis, Senem Kurson Bahadir, Dragana\nGrujić and Zoran Stjepanovič",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51572",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51572",authors:[{id:"11871",title:"Dr.",name:"Savvas G.",surname:"Vassiliadis",slug:"savvas-g.-vassiliadis",fullName:"Savvas G. Vassiliadis"},{id:"48882",title:"Dr.",name:"Senem",surname:"Kurşun Bahadır",slug:"senem-kursun-bahadir",fullName:"Senem Kurşun Bahadır"},{id:"180695",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",surname:"Jevšnik",slug:"simona-jevsnik",fullName:"Simona Jevšnik"},{id:"181507",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",surname:"Grujić",slug:"dragana-grujic",fullName:"Dragana Grujić"},{id:"181508",title:"Prof.",name:"Zoran",surname:"Stjepanovič",slug:"zoran-stjepanovic",fullName:"Zoran Stjepanovič"}],corrections:null},{id:"51413",title:"Magnetic Pulse Welding: An Innovative Joining Technology for Similar and Dissimilar Metal Pairs",doi:"10.5772/63525",slug:"magnetic-pulse-welding-an-innovative-joining-technology-for-similar-and-dissimilar-metal-pairs",totalDownloads:2511,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,signatures:"T. Sapanathan, R. N. Raoelison, N. Buiron and M. Rachik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51413",authors:[{id:"181191",title:"Dr.",name:"Raoelison",surname:"Rija",slug:"raoelison-rija",fullName:"Raoelison Rija"},{id:"182250",title:"Dr.",name:"Thaneshan",surname:"Sapanathan",slug:"thaneshan-sapanathan",fullName:"Thaneshan Sapanathan"},{id:"186383",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",surname:"Buiron",slug:"nicolas-buiron",fullName:"Nicolas Buiron"},{id:"186384",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Rachik",slug:"mohamed-rachik",fullName:"Mohamed Rachik"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7454",title:"Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7008bbdc804192f8969a34deda417b05",slug:"industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Ainul Akmar Mokhtar and Masdi Muhammad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7454.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219461",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ainul Akmar",surname:"Mokhtar",slug:"ainul-akmar-mokhtar",fullName:"Ainul Akmar Mokhtar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"68579",slug:"corrigendum-to-industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",title:"Corrigendum to: Industrial Heat Exchanger: Operation and Maintenance to Minimize Fouling and Corrosion",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68579.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68579",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68579",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68579",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68579",chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8640",leadTitle:null,title:"Cancer Chemoresistance",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tNeoplasia is considered to be the result of aberrations in the homeostatic mechanisms regulating cell turnover. This may be due to a combination of genetic, epigenetic and stochastic factors. Drug resistance is one of the major reasons for treatment failure and tumor relapse. Hence, an improved understanding of the mechanisms of neoplastic growth is possible based on systematic cataloging of the druggable targets for each of the major hallmarks of cancer. This approach can also aid in the refinement and validation of the in vitro and in vivo models, as well as provide pointers for the development of novel systems. Genomic instability and mutation, as well as tumor-promoting inflammation should be included as underlying factors influencing the process of neoplasia along with factors dysregulating energetics. The focus of this book is to update the reader on an integrated perspective including epigenetics data and corroborative mechanistic evidence from multiple model systems including humans. This will enable the reader to better comprehend the current scenario in terms of the pharmacological aspects pertaining to cancer chemoresistance. Also, the challenges for the molecular oncology will be discussed as well as probable strategies and a road-map for cancer chemotherapeutic drug development.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a80fe34c552bb6ca76ef9cd8f21e377",bookSignature:"Dr. Suresh P.K.",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8640.jpg",keywords:"Molecular Mechanisms of Aberrations, Proliferation Mechanisms, Types of Cell Death, Signal Transduction Pathways, Angiogenesis in Cancer, Angiogenesis in Wound Healing, Molecular Mechanisms of Invasion, Molecular Mechanisms of Metastasis, Telomeres, Stem Cells, Delivery Challenges, Evasion Mechanisms",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 5th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"190244",title:"Dr.",name:"Suresh",middleName:null,surname:"P.K.",slug:"suresh-p.k.",fullName:"Suresh P.K.",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190244/images/system/190244.jpeg",biography:"P.K. Suresh is a Professor at the School of Biosciences & Technology, VIT, Vellore (2009 to date). He has approximately 18.5 years of teaching, research and administrative experience in Biotechnology & Industrial Biotechnology and allied disciplines. He had also headed Biotechnology & Industrial Biotechnology departments and has handled a wide variety of theory papers. He has 45 research publications in SCOPUS-indexed journals and has completed 3 funded projects as the Principal Investigator. He has made several presentations at International conferences. He has guided 5 doctoral students (2 as co-guide) and is currently guiding 5 students in the doctoral program. He has organized and participated actively in several Faculty Development Programs in areas as diverse as Stem Cells, Bio-inspired Design and Pharmacokinetics and was also a resource person in these events.",institutionString:"School of Biosciences & Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Vellore Institute of Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57912",title:"Dynamic Properties of Skeletal Muscle Contraction in Rats with Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70600",slug:"dynamic-properties-of-skeletal-muscle-contraction-in-rats-with-diabetes",body:'\nThe damages of the peripheral nervous system in patients with diabetes mellitus are recorded in 40–60% of cases and manifests itself in the form of diabetic polyneuropathy. The incidence of diabetic polyneuropathy increases with age and duration of diabetes mellitus [1]. According to recent data, in the last 10 years, in young patients with type 1 diabetes, an increase in the incidence of diabetic polyneuropathy from 24.2% to 62.9% has been observed [2]. Diabetic neuropathy correlates with a high risk of cardiovascular complications [3, 4]. Patients with diabetic polyneuropathy are also at risk for the formation of trophic ulcers that do not heal for a long time and often lead to amputating a limb [5, 6, 7]. In the USA, 15% of all patients with diabetes will develop foot ulcers [8].
\nMortality due to diabetes mellitus, complicated by diabetic polyneuropathy, remains high in all countries of the world, regardless of their socioeconomic status [3]. Patients with diabetic polyneuropathy often require outside help, which, of course, is reflected on the quality of their life [9, 10].
\nMetabolic, vascular and immune theories were proposed to explain the pathogenesis of diabetic polyneuropathy [11]. Independent causes of the risk of this serious complication of diabetes mellitus are age, male gender, unsatisfactory control of the level of glycaemia, elevated lipid levels in the blood, height, overweight and obesity, and insulin treatment [12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Thus, the pathogenesis of diabetic polyneuropathy is multifactorial. It includes the increase of mitochondrial production of free radicals due to hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress [1]. A number of other factors affect the activity of neurons, mitochondrial function, permeability of membranes and endothelial function. These include the activation of polyol aldose reductase pathway [17], activation of poly(ADP ribose) polymerase [18], and modified Na+/K+-ATPase pump function [19].
\nIn diabetic polyneuropathy, autonomic, motor, large fiber and small fiber nerve functions are attacked [20]. The most frequent variant of defeat of peripheral nervous system at a diabetes is distal symmetric sensorimotor neuropathy [21]. As a rule, this complication occurs in a few years from the onset of the underlying disease [22]. This form of diabetic polyneuropathy develops slowly (chronically), the first symptoms (numbness and paresthesia) occur in the lower extremities, sometimes unilateral [23]. Distal symmetric sensorimotor neuropathy is the cause of the development of chronic neuropathic pain syndrome. Pain is the reason for 40% of patient visits in a primary care setting, and about 20% of these have had pain for more than 6 months [24]. In this form of neuropathy, poorly myelinated and thin nonmyelinated fibers are affected in various combinations. In most cases, at the onset of the disease, the neurological deficit is caused by the damages to fine fibers. Symptoms of their damages are manifested by burning or shooting pain, hyperalgesia, paresthesia, disturbances of pain and temperature sensitivity, ulceration of the feet and a decrease in pain sensitivity from the internal organs. With the defeat of myelinated (thick) fibers, there is a violation of deep and vibrational sensitivity, and a decrease or loss of tendon reflexes.
\nDiabetic polyneuropathy affects both type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients, although specific differences exist in the underlying pathobiology, pathology and clinical expression of the disease [25]. In type 1 diabetes patients, diabetic polyneuropathy is more rapid and severe.
\nThe nerve conduction study is a reliable and objective diagnostic method to evaluate the diabetic polyneuropathy treatment response [26]. Although a nerve conduction study is regarded as the gold standard in clinical research, it is not useful in clinical practice because it is time-consuming, requires special devices and trained examiners, and has no general consensus regarding its criteria, even after multiple investigations [27]. That is why the experiments on the rats give us possibility to investigate the mechanisms of diabetic polyneuropathy development, to evaluate the quality of treatment, and to propose the new approaches to diagnostic and treatment of diabetic polyneuropathy.
\nIn isometric conditions, analysis of registered effort developed by the muscle due to frequency-modulated stimulation of its nerve is the qualitative indicator of the level of neuro and myopathy pathological processes.
\nPhenomenological approach in the analysis of pathological processes that influence the mechanical properties of the muscle makes it possible to establish important relationships between the real macroscopic parameters of the muscle state, such as the strength, length and level of efferent activity. Frequently, the analysis of pathological changes in muscle dynamics is sufficient for the analysis of central regulatory processes, both motor activity and pathological state of the organism as a whole.
\nThe dynamics of contractile component is determined by the delicate interaction of motor neuron pools that appeared in the muscle through the activated motor neuron and the activation of actin and myosin myofilaments interactions. Dependence of muscle force response on value, duration of applied stimulation (force-velocity for the initial site) and on time of achievement and retention of the stationary state of the contractile process makes possible to track the level of pathological processes development that affect the mechanisms of positioning in muscle dynamics. These processes play a huge role in the accurate positional movements of hands and fingers, even minor violations in the control system of these movements lead to serious domestic and physiological problems.
\nThe rapid excitement of contractile apparatus, in the process of prolonged activation of muscle fibers, usually undergoes a slow and stable modification, which can partly be due to the phosphorylation of the so-called light chains of myosin located in the neck of the bridge. A slower dephosphorylation process under conditions of prolonged uninterrupted activation of the muscle fiber causes stable phosphorylation of myosin, which, apparently, increases the mobility of the bridges or changes their orientation. Analysis of amplitude-velocity changes of activated muscle’s force response makes it possible to assess the influence of developing pathology on these processes. One of the most effective and widely used methods to identify the dynamic systems’ levels pathologies is to determine the reaction in responses to the harmonic input effects of different velocity ranges of increase stimulating irritations.
\nThe study was conducted on 20 white nonlinear laboratory male rats, which were divided into two groups of 10 animals each. The rats in the first group were used as control. Rats in the second group were induced type I diabetes by administration of streptozotocin (STZ) (65 mg/kg, i/р). Diabetes in rats was confirmed by the presence of hyperglycemia. On the 28th day of experiment, glucose loading test was conducted for the confirmation of diabetes presence. For the establishment of pain sensation, mechanical nociceptive test was conducted in rats (Randall-Selitto analgesiometer test) [28]. Also heat-induced rat tail-flick latency was determined as a measure for nociceptive pain [29].
\nAnimals were anesthetized (Ketamine (100 mg/kg “Pfizer”, USA), and tracheotomy and connection to lung ventilator were performed. In the area of the popliteal fossa, musculus gastrocnemius was isolated and cut down to be attached to the force sensors. Further, the animal was fixed in a stereotaxic machine with the head, pelvis and extremities rigid fixation system. Nerve that innervate musculus gastrocnemius was fixed on a bipolar platinum wire electrode for further electrical stimulation. The parameters of stimulation signals were programmed. The skin edges (hind legs) around the incision were sutured to the machine tool and formed trays with the muscle and nerve and were filled with liquid paraffin. Heart rate and ECG amplitudes were monitored during surgery and experiments [30].
\nBefore stimulation of the spinal cord, the ventral root muscle was connected to a load that did not stretch it because of unilateral mechanical limiter, and only shortening of the muscle was possible. After activation, the isometric growth of the force began until the muscular effort reached the external load, after that the isotonic shortening of the muscle started.
\nIn the initial stage of the shortening, it was possible to distinguish a near-linear part of motion due to velocity measurement at which it was possible to establish the empirical dependence of the contraction rate on the level of isotonic loads. The pathological processes that occurred during the development of diabetic polyneuropathy modulated the muscular response registered by us. The level of this modulation was a qualitative characteristic of residual physiological disorders both at the neuropathic and at the myopathy level of pathology development. The statistical analysis of the data was conducted in the program Statistica 8.0. To approximate this empirical dependence, several analytic approaches were selected.
\nAs a modulating component, a stimulating signal of different amplitudes and times characteristics was used and regarded as an input effect, and the output signal was the first harmonic of the muscle-developed effort and the subsequent realization of the modulated stimulation pool.
\nTime between first and second mitotic response that was caused by successive stimulation with fixed meaning between them (2000 ms). This indicator makes it possible to assess the presence or absence of pathologies (neuropathy or myopathy) during the initial stages of the study, and to correct the algorithm of further investigation whether pathological changes are present.
\nWhen the intensity of stimulation changes, the temporal parameters of the stimulation pools conduction in axon do not remain constant. The investigation of changes of time delays of impulses conduction with an increase number of stimuli makes it possible to assess the level of pathological changes in the neuromuscular preparation with prolonged, static reactions of the muscular system. High-frequency stimulation of peripheral afferents that form monosynaptic contacts with motor neuron causes an effective summation of successive action potentials and stable depolarization of the cell membrane. In this case, the pulse frequency is determined by the average level of membrane depolarization and increases with rise of frequency stimulation. During the development of pathological processes associated with diabetic polyneuropathy, the use of stimulation without relaxation of the corresponding long transsynaptic activation of motor neurons causes adaptive time decrease of stimuli conduction. Change in this parameter is the marker of pathological processes presence in the neuromuscular preparation while applying stimulation signals close to physiological parameters.
\nWe analyzed several basic biomechanical parameters during studying the myotonic response of the muscle. These parameters are universal markers that show the presence of biomechanical disturbances caused by factors of different nature.
\nChanges in each of described biomechanical parameters is an indicative marker of the dysfunction presence in the excitation-response chain of both the neuromuscular preparation and the state of the organism as a whole.
\nWe have designated the investigated segments of biomechanical responses for more favorable description of the changes in the obtained curves (Figure 1).
\nSchematic representation of analyzed biomechanical parameters of muscles gastrocnemius contraction using a modulated stimulation signal.
The maximum force generation on which the active muscle is capable is an important indicator for fast, ballistic, nontargeted movements (Figure 1—Δt1) The changes of this indicator show the level of physiological dysfunction of neuromuscular preparation when it implements the maximum power tasks.
\nThe stationary state of the active muscle is a temporal area of the contractile activity of the muscle tissue without the presence of a significant trend in one or the other direction, during the activation of the muscle (Figure 1—Δt2). Physiologically, the stationary state of the active muscle is the level of muscle force production that corresponds to the physiological state of the neuromuscular preparation at this moment. The time of its establishment is a time of adaptation processes passage in the muscle during its activation by stimulating pools, to select the optimal amplitude-strength characteristics of the contracting muscle in order to realize the incoming stimulations with the least deviations from the CNS tasks.
\nThe retention of stationary state is an indicator of adaptability of the muscular system to a new state of the neuromuscular system, altered by a pathological action (Figure 1—Δt3). In some cases, we could record relatively stable periodic changes in the level of stationary state at the applied pulse activity frequency, but without significant dependencies of these fluctuations to the level of pathology development or methods of drug administration. We consider the presence of oscillations at the phases of stationary state retention is a consequence of individual differences in the muscular system of experimental laboratory animals.
\nThis marker is an indicator of the general dysfunction of the muscular system, index of decrease (with pathologies development) of the maximum possible force response (Figure 1—Fmax). The change in this parameter can be related either to a violation in the neuronal component or to the miotic components of the studied pathology. The dysfunction of this parameter can also be associated with a violation of the integrity of the signals that generate motor neurons in the synaptic current, and as a result, the violation of the summation of the transmembrane currents occurred in accordance with the internal membrane properties. That influences the pathological transformation of the sequence of action potentials that trigger a muscle contraction that causes the maximum force response.
\nThis data show the maximum pathological changes caused by the pathological process during analyzing changes in contraction of each successive contractile act (Figure 1—Fmin). This marker is the main indicator of muscle dysfunction while performing simple one-joint movements. The phenomenological analysis of it makes possible to establish the presence of cause-effect relationships between the level of decrease in biomechanical activity of muscles, the basic mechanical parameters of movements and the level of development of the pathological process. The accuracy of such conclusions is enhanced due to multiple repetitions of these stimuli and stimulation time increase.
\nThe integrated power is subtracted from the total area of force curves (Figure 1—S) and is an indicator of the overall capacity of the muscle with the use of applied stimulation pools. Analysis of this value makes it possible to evaluate the mechanisms of the formation of muscular activity in the equilibrium system, in the force-external load system, that is, a physiological analogue of the working capacity of the muscular system as a whole.
\nIn condition of 1 and 2 Hz, unrelaxed stimulation of the analysis of fatigue processes development was made, which makes it possible to evaluate the development of fatigue in different time ranges. Fatigue evaluation was calculated by time intervals with achievements of 50 and 30% force responses, with stimulation irritations. It should be noted that in control, the change of this data had a long time frame, which complicated the description of fatigue processes development during pathology. Therefore, for more precise description of results, the change in control values was considered 100%, and while analyzing the data, the percentage difference was described.
\nTo analyze the dynamics of real movements, we considered the peculiarities of the transformation of segmental and descending activity during the development of polyneuropathy. An important role in the realization of the motor function belongs dedicated to asymmetric nature of the muscle reactions as a result of increase in the level of incoming efferent activity. In our work, almost all movements are relatively simple and are provided with straight pattern of motor neuron populations. Since motor neurons directly control muscle contraction, the nature of the transformation of activity coming to them from multiple sources is largely predetermined by the peculiarities of muscle dynamics. The significant inertia of muscle contraction during the development of the pathological process requires motor neurons to have such dynamic properties that could compensate for the insufficiently high-speed parameters of muscle contraction. Thus, the slowdown of smooth tetanus appearance can be used as another parameter to describe the dynamics of pathologies development. We investigated the transition of active muscle force response from the state of the unfused tetanus to the fused one. We had also analyzed the time variation between the peaks of the force response and their maximum force. Two above-described parameters are important for the transition of the active muscle from the state of unfused tetanus to the fused one. The analysis of their changes shows us the peculiarities of dysfunction generation by individual motor units, and the consistent nature of their activation provides the possibility of smooth regulation of the force developed by the whole muscle.
\nSTZ was injected in rats on 28th day of experiment; as a result, blood glucose level was increased by 4.4 times (p ≤ 0.001). On the 14th and 28th day of development of diabetes, the threshold of pain sensitivity increased by 26.4% (p < 0.05) and 95.86% (p < 0.01), accordingly, by comparison to an initial level (before STZ injection). Therefore, pain sensitivity in diabetic rats was suppressed, indicating the development of peripheral neuropathy.
\nForce response of musculus gastrocnemius in rats with diabetic polyneuropathy caused by single stimulation pool with frequency of 50 Hz showed that time of the force response beginning increased by 119.34% with stimulation through the nerve (Figures 2 and 3). It should be noted that time of force response in the condition of direct stimulation though the muscle did not change.
\nThe change in time of muscle force response in rats with diabetic neuropathy caused by 10 consecutive irritation pools by modulated electrostimulation with 50 Hz frequency. The relaxation time is 10 s. Cont—control; Δt1—time between two consecutive stimulation pools; Δt2—time of muscle force response beginning; a—direct stimulation of the muscle, rat with diabetic neuropathy; b—stimulation through the nerve, rat with diabetic neuropathy.
The change in time of muscle force response in rats with diabetic neuropathy caused by 10 consecutive irritation pools by modulated electrostimulation with 50 Hz frequency. The relaxation time is 10 s. The meanings are represented as percentages from control values considered as 100%. 1—control values; 2–11—consecutive irritation pools; a—direct stimulation of the muscle; b—stimulation through the nerve.
The time of force response beginning increased from 121.25% at the first run till 142.27% at the tenth run in case of 10 consecutive stimulation pools usage (Figures 1 and 3). It was concluded the presence of neuropathic changes associated with the impossibility of generation of 10 consecutive stimulation pulses without significant physiological disturbances of myopathy origin.
\nIt was shown that the diabetic polyneuropathy leads to significant dysfunctions during stimulation signal transfer to effector. When the parameters of stimulation signal approach to the physiological level, the dysfunction of neuromuscular activity increases till the level that is capable to disturb the overall dynamics of the contractile process.
\nThus, the use of streptozotocin increases time of force response, which is an adequate criterion for the presence of neuropathy in rats with diabetic neuropathy.
\nAs a result, amplitude-force changes in the muscle response were revealed (Figure 4), both compared to control or to direct muscle stimulation. It should be noted that the presence of clearly expressed fluctuation changes in the phase of stationary state retention in rats with diabetic polyneuropathy with stimulation through the nerve.
\nThe changes in the dynamic parameters of musculus gastrocnemius contraction in rats with diabetic polyneuropathy, stimulated by modulated electrostimulation with 50 Hz frequency and duration of 2, 4 and 6 s. The relaxation time is 10 s. a—direct stimulation of the muscle; b—stimulation through the nerve; 1, 2, 3—stimulation time 2, 4 and 6 s, respectively; Cont—control, Δt1—phase of the maximum force response, Δt2—phase of stationary state of contraction.
The change in time of maximum force reach (Figure 5) caused by 10 consecutive stimulation pools modulated by electrostimulation with 50 Hz frequency and duration of 2 s was 183.41% at the first and 213.27% at the tenth run, respectively. When stimulation time was increased till 4 and 6 s, the data were 188.49% (1), 243.47% (10), 188.49% (1) and 243.47% (10), respectively.
\nThe change in time of maximum force reach by musculus gastrocnemius in rats with diabetic polyneuropathy caused by 10 consecutive stimulation pools with electrostimulation with 50 Hz frequency and duration 2, 3 and 4 s. The relaxation time is 10 s. The meanings are represented as percentages from control values considered as 100%. 1—control values; 2–11—consecutive irritation pools; a—direct stimulation of the muscle; b—stimulation through the nerve.
The time of stationary state reach by musculus gastrocnemius in rats with diabetic neuropathy by stimuli for 2 s showed that the time increased from 211.34% at the first till 249.14% at the tenth run corresponding (Figure 6). When stimulation time was increased till 4 and 6 s—215.64% (1), 253.78% (10) and 234.12% (1) 297.66% (10), respectively. At the same time, the time of stationary state retention also decreased linearly as with the increase in the number of stimulating pools and with an increase in the stimulation longevity (Figure 7).
\nThe change in time of stationary state reach by musculus gastrocnemius in rats with diabetic polyneuropathy caused by 10 consecutive stimulation pools with electrostimulation with 50 Hz frequency and duration 2, 4 and 6 s. The relaxation time is 10 s. The meanings are represented as percentages from control values considered as 100%. 1—control values; 2–11—consecutive irritation pools; a—direct stimulation of the muscle; b—stimulation through the nerve.
The change of integrated power of musculus gastrocnemius in rats with diabetic polyneuropathy caused by 10 consecutive stimulation pools with electrostimulation with 50 Hz frequency and duration 2, 3 and 4 s. The relaxation time is 10 s. The meanings are represented as percentages from control values considered as 100%. 1—control values; 2–11—consecutive irritation pools; a—direct stimulation of the muscle; b—stimulation through the nerve.
The changes in the maximum and minimum force of muscle contraction in rats with diabetic neuropathy caused by 10 consecutive stimulation pools with modulated electrostimulation with 50 Hz frequency and duration 2, 4 and 6 s were analyzed. The decrease in the maximum force was found from 99.34% at first run till 91% at tenth run, as well as decrease in the minimum force response was found from 99% (1) till 90.78% (10). The changes in these indicators with increasing stimulation duration up to 4 s were as follows: 98.71% (1) to 78.58% (10) and 97% (1) to 51.8% (10) for the maximum and minimum force, respectively. Increase in stimulation up to 6 s: 97% (1) to 51.8% (10) and 91.18% (1) to 65.34% (1) for the maximum and minimum force, respectively.
\nIntegrated power in rats with diabetic polyneuropathy showed a slight decrease from 100% at the first run to 92.37% at the tenth run with stimulation duration of 2 s. More significant changes were recorded at 4 and 6 s stimulation from 98.7% (1) to 71.16% (10) and from 94.71% (1) to 49.6% (10), respectively.
\nBased on the obtained data, it could be concluded that with the development of diabetic neuropathy for all 10 consecutive stimulation pools, the formation of a stable muscle response in the phases of the maximum force retention (and stationary state) does not occur. The dynamics of amplitude-force formation had a clear tendency to reduce the stabilization time of the constant power characteristics.
\nBiomechanical curves showed that prolonged stimulation with 1 and 2 Hz frequency (Figure 8) decreased the maximum force response of the muscle throughout the period of stimulation. Stimulation of 2 Hz caused the development of rapid fatigue processes, and the maximum change in muscle power productivity occurs on 1 min of force parameters registration (Figures 8 and 9). If we continue stimulation in the same way, after 150 s, the muscle passes into a state of complete nonexcitability (Figure 10).
\nCurves of musculus gastrocnemius force generation caused by unrelaxed stimulation by electrostimulation with 1 Hz (a) and 2 Hz (b) frequency. Δt1—time of force reduction by 50% compared to the initial level; Δt2—time of force reduction by 30% compared to the initial level.
Time of musculus gastrocnemius force reduction in rats with diabetic neuropathy by 50% (1) and 30% (2) compare to initial level caused by unrelaxed stimulation by electrostimulation with frequency 1 Hz and 2 Hz. a—control; b—direct stimulation of the muscle; c—stimulation of the muscle through the nerve; 1—time of force reduction by 50% compared to the initial level; 2—time of force reduction by 30% compared to the initial level.
Musculus gastrocnemius maximum force reduction in rats with diabetic neuropathy compared to the initial level caused by unrelaxed stimulation by electrostimulation with 1 Hz and 2 Hz frequency and duration of 200 s. The meanings are represented as percentages from control values considered as 100%. a—control; b—rat with diabetic neuropathy; 1–21—consecutive irritation pools.
The time of muscle contraction force reduction during diabetic polyneuropathy by 50% was 55 and 39 s, respectively. The time of muscle contraction force reduction by 30% was 165 s at 1 Hz and 82 s at 2 Hz (Figure 9).
\nThus, it can be assumed that the conversion of the depolarization current to the impulse frequency of the outgoing motor neuron during the development of these pathological processes is a linear process of the development of fatigue with the absence of rapid adaptation by a constant frequency stimulus. The registered parameters during fatigue process development were similar to the processes of motor neuron impulse frequency changing caused by severe pathological disorders of the neuromuscular preparation. The transformation of depolarization current into the pulse frequency in this case is a nonlinear process, most likely connected with numerous pathological processes in organism. The absence of both initial and subsequent adaptation of the induced fatigue process can be associated with processes of inactivation of Ca channels located in the initial axon segments.
\nMaximum force contraction during diabetic neuropathy decreased from 97% till 30% with stimulation of 1 Hz and duration of 200 s (Figure 11).
\nWith stimulation of 2 Hz and duration of 200 s, the maximum force contraction of musculus gastrocnemius in rats with diabetic neuropathy decreased significantly from 95 to 5%, respectively (Figure 10).
\nTime between the development of the maximum force response decreased by 65 min during first unfused tetanus till 53 min during the fifth contraction (Figures 10). The change in peaks force is 311 mN at the first contraction and 331 mN at the fifth contraction of the unfused tetanus. The time for establishing of fused tetanus caused with stimulation of 20 Hz and 6 s duration was 4789 ms. In control this time was 3456 ms (Figure 12).
\nThe changes in musculus gastrocnemius maximum force response development at five first peaks of the unfused tetanus caused by stimulation with 20 Hz frequency in rats with diabetic neuropathy. a—it is the general view of the muscle force response caused by stimulation with 20 Hz frequency, for 6 s control (1), rats with diabetic neuropathy (2); b—five consecutive peaks of the tetanus; *—indicated parameters of the investigated rats; Δt1–Δt5—time of force response development 1–5 consecutive reductions; Δf1–Δf5—the force of consecutive peaks of the first contractions of musculus gastrocnemius.
The changes in time between the development of the maximum force response (a), force (b), during the first five contractions of unfused tetanus and the time of its establishment (c), stimulation with 20 Hz frequency of the control (cont) and diabetic (diabete) rats. 1–5—consecutive irritation pools.
To form macroindicators of neuromuscular activity during the development of diabetic polyneuropathy numerous complex, nonlinear nonstationary processes occur. The influence of pathological factors on these processes leads to either complete dysfunction of these parameters or their desynchronization. As a result, the whole muscle as a dynamic system is not able to adequately implement the pool of neural activity getting from the central nervous system. The nature and level of these dysfunctions is linearly related to the level of pathological processes development, the analysis of which at present can be carried out exclusively at the phenomenological level. Despite new experimental approaches in studying microlevel of neuromuscular regulation, traditional electro-physiological models with usage of neuromuscular preparation in vivo are still important. Such studies should be conducted not only to obtain accurate quantitative analysis of the pathologies of muscle dynamics but also to study the totality of the central processes involved in the regulation of muscle contraction.
\nIn condition of diabetic polyneuropathy development, differences in the response of the muscle to frequency changes indicate that to determine the contractile properties of the muscle, it is important to know not only the current values of the force response and activation intensity but also the history of changes in these parameters. The consequence of above-described dysfunction of the neuromuscular complex is the need of motor neurons to generate powerful dynamic discharge components to resume the error-free operation of the muscular system. Thus, at the same levels of the stationary state of the efferent command, an increase in the duration of the preceding dynamic component not only slows down the transition to a new equilibrium force but also leads to decrease in the maximum force response. The mechanokinetic curves showed the changes in the implementation of complex stimulation programs during the development of polyneuropathy. The analysis of dynamic properties of various parts of the motor system gives an idea of the presence of changes in the dynamics of complex movements associated with the precision positioning of joints and the ability of the system to correct the descending motor commands by adaptation processes in the central neurons.
\nUsage of static characteristics “stimulation signal-reduction force” to analyze the pathological processes during diabetic polyneuropathy development will lead to incomplete picture of pathology development. For an adequate understanding and analysis of these changes, a multifaceted experimental approach is needed with the possibility of simultaneous monitoring of various biomechanical parameters with different amplitude-time intervals and a labile system of external stimulation. Only in this case it becomes possible to trace the changes in the reaction of neuromuscular preparation to stimulation that are responsible for the development of ballistic precision positional movements, the analysis of which will be a critical factor in concluding the level of development of pathologies in diabetic polyneuropathy.
\nThe history of food additives goes back to ancient times. As great civilisations developed, populations grew and so did the demand for food. In ancient Egypt, where the climate was not conducive to food storage, especially due to the heat, people started looking for ways to extend the usability life of products. Common practices included the addition of salt, drying in the sun, curing/corning, meat and fish smoking, pickling, and burning sulphur during vegetable preservation. The earliest preservatives included sulphur dioxide (E220), acetic acid (E260), and sodium nitrite (E250), while turmeric (E100) and carmine (E120) were among the first colours. Food preservation was also of immense importance during numerous armed conflicts. Both during the Napoleonic wars in Europe and during the American Civil War, seafarers and soldiers needed food. Limited access to fresh food at the front motivated the armed forces to transport their food with them. This is when cans were introduced for food preservation purposes. In the subsequent centuries, ammonium bicarbonate (E503ii), also known as salt of hartshorn, used as a rising agent for baked goods, and sodium hydroxide solution (E524), used in the production of salty sticks, rose to prominence [1, 2].
\nThe nineteenth century saw considerable advancements in the fields of chemistry, biology, and medicine. A name that needs to be mentioned here is Louis Pasteur, a French scientist, who studied microbiology, among other things. He was the first to prove that microorganisms were responsible for food spoilage. At the same time, new chemical compounds were discovered that were able to inhibit the growth of microbes. Some substances, such as picric acid, hydrofluoric acid, and their salts, often had disastrous consequences when added to food. Insufficient knowledge of toxicology resulted in consumer poisonings and even deaths [1, 3]. At that time, food preservation was the number one priority, which was achieved, for instance, by using salicylic acid, formic acid (E236), benzoic acid (E210), boric acid (E284), propionic acid (E280), sorbic acid (E200) and its potassium salt (E202), and esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Later, food concerns also focused on improving the organoleptic properties of their products and started to enhance food with colours, flavours, and sweeteners, without first researching their effects on human health. For example, such practices involved the use of synthetic colours used in fabric dyeing. This desire to make money on beautiful-looking products led to adulterating food with copper and iron salts, which have a negative impact on the human body. It was as late as in 1907 that the United States studied 90 of the synthetic colours used at that time for food dyeing and found only 7 to be acceptable for further use. Detailed studies and strict regulations on the use of food additives were created almost a century later [1, 4].
\nGlobally, food safety is ensured by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). In 1962, these organisations established a special agenda—the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The Commission has prepared and updated the Codex Alimentarius, which is not a legal Act per se, but provides a reference for standards on raw materials and food products, acceptable contamination levels, hygienic processing, research methods, and food additives for almost all countries worldwide [5]. In the European Union, the body responsible for improving human health protection and food safety risk mitigation, as well as for taking care of purchaser interests, is the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). It is a scientific agency established in 2002 pursuant to the Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002. European legislation is based on the Codex Alimentarius but conducts its own complementary research. Therefore, the list of food additives permitted by the European Union is different from the American one [5].
\nThe primary legal Act governing food in Poland is the Food and Nutrition Safety Act of 25 August 2006 (as amended). It specifies the requirements applicable to food and nutrition, concerning product labelling, hygienic conditions throughout the production process, and product replacement rules, as well as requirements concerning the use of food additives. The key document that pertains specifically to food additives is the Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives. The EU-approved list of food additives is presented in the Commission Regulation (EU) of 11 November 2011 [4, 5].
\nA food additive (additional substance) is any substance that is not a food in itself or an ingredient in food, but when added to a product for processing purposes, it becomes part of the food [5]. The following are not considered to be food additives: ingredients in food or chemicals to be used in other products, i.e. in particular sweeteners, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and oligosaccharides; substances with flavouring, dyeing, and sapid properties (such as dried fruit); glazing and coating substances, which are not intended to be consumed; and chewing gum bases, dextrin, modified starch, ammonium chloride, edible gelatine, milk protein and gluten, blood plasma, casein, and inulin. The law forbids the use of food additives in unprocessed food, honey, non-emulsified oils and fats of an animal or vegetable origin, butter, milk, fermented milk products (unflavoured, with living bacteria cultures), natural mineral and spring water, unflavoured leaf tea, coffee, sugar, dry pasta, and unflavoured buttermilk [5]. Any marketed additive must comply with the requirements of the European Food Safety Authority, i.e. it has to be technologically justified. It must not put consumers’ life or health at risk; its use should not mislead the purchaser; its acceptable daily intake (ADI), or quantum satis, the smallest amount which is needed to achieve a specific processing objective for the substance, must be calculable; and, last but not least, such an additive must not adulterate the product it is to be added to. Producers are also required to include information on any food additives on product labelling [6, 7].
\nEU legislation has approved approximately 330 food additives for use. The primary objectives behind the use of additives are to extend the shelf life and freshness of products, prevent product quality impairment, make the product more attractive to customers, achieve the desired texture, ensure specific product functionality, facilitate production processes, reduce production costs, and enrich the nutritional value of products. In order to harmonise, effectively identify any additives, and ensure smooth exchange of goods, each food additive has its own, standardised, code. This code is consistent with the International Numbering System (INS) and comprises the letter “E” and three or four digits. There are several food additive classifications. One is based on the regulation and differentiates between colours (approx. 40), sweeteners (approx. 16), and other additives (approx. 277) [8, 9].
\nAdditional substances can also be categorised on the basis of code numbers:
Colours—E100–E199
Preservatives and acidity regulators—E200–E299
Antioxidants and synergists—E300–E399
Stabilising, thickening, emulsifying, coating, and bulking substances—E400–E499
Other substances—E500 and above
Food additives can also be divided into four major groups, based on their processing purpose. These are substances that prevent food spoilage, those which improve sensory features, firming additives and excipients. The most numerous group among additives that slow down food spoilage are preservatives. These are either natural or synthetic chemical compounds added to food to restrict as much as possible the biological processes that take place in the product, e.g. the development of microflora and pathogenic microbes, and the effects of enzymes that affect food freshness and quality. In food products, preservatives change the permeability of cytoplasmic membranes or cell walls, damage the genetic system, and deactivate some enzymes. Food is preserved using antiseptics or antibiotics. The former are synthetically produced simple compounds that often have natural correlates, and they make up no more than 0.2% of the product. Antibiotics, or substances produced by microorganisms, are used in very small, yet effective, doses. The effectiveness of preservatives depends primarily on their effect on a specific type of microorganism, which is why it is vital to select the appropriate preservative based on the microbes found in the product (bacteria, mould, or yeast). Other factors that determine the effectiveness of preservatives include the pH value (a low pH is desirable), temperature, the addition of other substances, and the chemical composition of the product. Preservatives constitute an alternative to physical and biological product freshness stabilisation methods, such as drying, pickling, sterilising, freezing, cooling, and thickening. Consumer objections concerning the widespread use of chemical preservatives and their effects on human health have motivated producers to develop new food preservation procedures. These include radiation, packaging, and storing products in a modified atmosphere, using aseptic technology. Products that are most commonly preserved include ready-made dishes and sauces, meat and fish products, fizzy drinks, and ready-made deserts [9, 10].
\nOther substances used as preservatives are acids and acidity regulators. These substances lower the pH level and slow down the growth of enzymes, which hampers the development of microbes. They are used mainly in the production of marinades. For a specific acid or acidity regulator to fulfil its role as a preservative, it needs to be added in highly concentrated form, but acetic acid, for instance, can irritate mucous membranes when its concentration exceeds 3%. Acids and acidity regulators are also used to enhance flavour (usually in fruit or vegetable products, or beverages, to bring out their sour taste) or to facilitate gelatinisation and frothing during food processing [11, 12].
\nNot only microorganisms but also oxygen is responsible for food spoilage. Products such as oils, fats, and dry goods (flour, semolina) oxidise when they come into contact with atmospheric oxygen. Fat oxidisation (rancidification) occurs in oils, lard, flour, and milk powder. The browning of fruit, vegetables, and meat, on the other hand, is the result of non-fat substance oxidisation. These oxidisation processes can be slowed down or eliminated completely using antioxidants. There are natural and synthetic antioxidants and synergists. Synthetic antioxidants are primarily esters (BHA, BHT, propyl gallate). These are used to stabilise fats used to fry, e.g. crisps and chips. The most common natural antioxidants are tocopherols, i.e. vitamin E. Other antioxidants include phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids and phenolic acids. Synthetic antioxidants are more potent and resistant to processing. Synergists are substances that support and extend the functioning of antioxidants. They can form complexes with heavy metal ions, which retard the oxidisation process. The most frequently used synergists are EDTA, citric acid, and ascorbic acid. Antioxidants do not pose a risk to human health. In fact, they can be beneficial. Antioxidants prevent unfavourable interactions between free radicals and tissue and slow down ageing processes and the development of some diseases [12, 13].
\nIn order to extend the freshness of consumer goods, products are also packaged in a modified atmosphere. As part of this process, the oxygen content inside the packaging is reduced and replaced with other gases, such as nitrogen, argon, helium, and hydrogen. Furthermore, products in the form of aerosol sprays, such as whipped cream, have nitrous oxide, butane, or propane added to them. All these gases are also food additives with their own E codes [5, 11].
\nThe organoleptic properties of consumer goods are very important to consumers. Visual appeal is considered to be as important as taste or smell. This is where food colours come into play. These are used to add colour to transparent products (e.g. some beverages), intensify or bring out product colour (beverages, sweets), preserve or reproduce colours that have faded as a result of processing, ensure that all product batches have a specific colour, and provide the products that are diluted after purchase with strong colour. In order to add colour to a product, manufacturers use natural, nature-identical, synthetic, and inorganic colours. Natural colours are produced from edible plant parts (fruits, flowers, roots, leaves) and from animal raw materials, such as blood, chitinous exoskeletons of insects, and muscle tissue. New technologies have also made it possible to obtain colours from algae, fungi, and mould. Natural colouring substances include carotenoids that provide a spectrum of yellow and orange colours (carrot, citrus fruit skin), flavonoids that give products blue and navy-blue colours (grapes, currants, chokeberry, elder), betalains that give products a red colour (beetroot, capsicum), and chlorophyll that lends green colours (salad, parsley), as well as riboflavin (vitamin B2), curcumin, and caramel. Natural colours are desirable for consumers, as they do not show any negative effects on health. However, a significant drawback to using natural colours is that they are very sensitive to environmental factors, such as pH, ambient temperature, oxygen content, or sun exposure, which is why they are not durable when it comes to processing and storage. Moreover, the cost of obtaining such colouring substances is rather high. The list of additives contains 17 natural colours, and their market share in 2012 was approx. 31% and was subject to an upward trend [6, 8].
\nSynthetic food colours are very competitive compared to natural ones. They offer a wide spectrum of colours, including those that are not available in nature, provide strong colouring, and are resistant to environmental factors, so they do not fade during processing. Furthermore, they are not expensive to produce, which contributes to low end-product prices. Synthetic colours can be divided into organic and inorganic, with organic constituting the considerable majority in terms of food colouring. In the past, chemical colours were made of coal, while now crude oil is used for this purpose. EU law approves 15 synthetic colours, including the so-called Southampton colours. A study conducted in 2007 in the United Kingdom (in Southampton, hence the name) showed the particularly negative effects of six colours on children’s health [10]. Specifically, tartrazine (E102), quinoline yellow (E104), sunset yellow (E110), azorubine (E122), cochineal red (E124), and Allura red AC (E129) were found to cause hyperactivity. As a result, since 2010, manufacturers which add at least one of their products have been required to provide label information about their negative effects on concentration and brain functioning in children. Acceptable daily doses of these colours have also been reassessed and updated. Moreover, research conducted on lab animals has shown that the long-term use of synthetic colours, and especially the three that account for 90% of the use of all synthetic colours (Allura red, tartrazine, and sunset yellow), can cause cancer, allergies, and chromosome mutations. Products that are most often synthetically coloured include candy, wine gums, ready-made desserts, and refreshing beverages [8, 10].
\nDuring consumption, one can experience product taste, smell, and consistency. These three sensations are referred to as palatability and are caused by flavours. Taste is experienced by taste buds located in the tongue. Adult individuals have approximately 10,000 such receptors. There are four primary tastes, namely, salty, sweet, bitter, and sour. There is also an additional type, referred to as umami, which is Japanese for “savoury, meaty”. This taste experience is provided by monosodium glutamate. Smell is experienced through volatile compounds that go directly through the nasal or oral cavity and throat to smell receptors. Taste and smell provide a ready source of information on whether the product is fresh, whether it has specific characteristics, and whether it has been adulterated. Flavours are mixtures of many compounds, in which the specific characteristic smell is produced by a single compound or several indispensable compounds. These are added to enhance the taste or smell of the product or to give something the flavour or aroma that has been lost during product processing [6, 7, 11]. There are natural, nature-identical, and synthetic flavours. Natural flavours are obtained from parts of fruits and vegetables, spices, and their flavouring compounds, such as lactones (found in fruits and nuts), terpenes (in essential oils, found in almost every plant), and carbonyl compounds (fermented dairy products). Nature-identical flavours are compounds originally found in a given raw material that can be recreated in the lab. Synthetic flavours are compounds that have been chemically created and produced and do not have their equivalent in nature. Similarly to natural colours, natural flavours are easily degraded during processing, and their extraction is costly, which is why the food industry generally uses synthetic substances to provide products with specific taste and odour. Moreover, synthetic compounds are capable of giving products much stronger flavours than natural ones [6, 7, 13].
\nA separate group that enhances the sensory properties of food are sweeteners. Formerly, in order to make products sweet, manufacturers used sucrose, commonly known just as sugar, obtained from sugar beet or sugarcane. Now large-scale methods are commonly used, such as chemical production and the extraction of intensively sweetening substances, known as sweeteners, from specific plants. What is characteristic about such substances is that they are much more potent as sweeteners compared to sucrose, and, at the same time, their calorific value is close to zero. Natural sweeteners include glucose-fructose syrup (or syrup based on one of those sugars), thaumatin, neohesperidin DC, stevia, and xylitol. Synthetic sweeteners include acesulfame K, aspartame (and the salts of these two compounds), sucralose, cyclamates, saccharin, and neotame. Sweeteners are used in the production of beverages, juices, dairy products, spirits, sweets, marmalade, and chewing gum [14, 15]. In contrast to sucrose, the majority of synthetic sweeteners do not increase blood sugar level and do not cause tooth decay. These substances are attractive for producers because the cost of their production is low, and even small amounts of such compounds are able to ensure the desired sweetness of the product, so these are economical to use. In addition, most sweetener additives remain functional during processing, although some compounds are not resistant to high temperatures. A study conducted in 2010 on lab animals raises some concerns when it comes to sweetener safety in relation to human health [20]. Its findings showed that regular consumption of sweeteners in large quantities caused obesity and neoplasms in animals. Sweetener additives in consumer goods have been considered safe for humans [10]. Each such additive has a specific ADI value and amount (in milligrammes) that can be added to 1 kg (or 1 dm3) of product [13, 14, 15].
\nThe additives that are vital in terms of processing are firming additives. They create or stabilise the desirable product structure and consistency. Firming agents include gelling, thickening, emulsifying, bulking, binding, and rising agents, humectants, and modified starches. The highest status among these substances is enjoyed by hydrocolloids. Hydrocolloids, known as gums, are polysaccharides of plant, animal, or microbiological origin. There are natural (guar gum, agar, curdlan), chemically and physically modified (modified starches), and synthetic gums. With their macromolecular structure, they are able to bind water, improve solution viscosity, and create gels and spongiform masses. Hydrocolloids are used as gelling (e.g. in the production of jelly, desserts, pudding, and fruit-flavoured starch jelly), thickening (ready-made sauces, vegetable products), water-binding (powdered products to be consumed with water, frozen food), and emulsifying agents (to create oil-in-water-type emulsions). They also act as emulsion stabilisers. Hydrocolloids are considered safe for human health, although some of them can cause allergies. Consumed in large quantities, they can have laxative effects [12].
\nWhat is also important in creating product structure are emulsifiers and the emulsification method. Emulsifiers are compounds which facilitate emulsification. There are water-in-oil (margarine) and oil-in-water (mayonnaise) type of emulsions. Emulsifiers position themselves at the interface between two different phases to stabilise the emulsion. There are natural emulgents, with lecithin as the most common, and synthetic emulgents (glycerol and its esters) [1]. Product consistency and texture are also adjusted using modified starches. Such starches are usually obtained from potatoes or corn (also genetically modified one) with chemically altered composition. Similarly to hydrocolloids, such substances can bind water and produce gels and are also resistant to high temperatures [11, 12]. Modified starches are added to ready-made sauces and dishes (such as frozen pizza), frozen goods, bread, and desserts (also powdered) to thicken and maintain product consistency after thermal processing. In order to enhance starch properties, phosphates are often added during starch modification. The human body needs phosphorus, but its excess can negatively affect the bones, kidneys, and the circulatory system [7, 11, 12].
\nNowadays, consumer goods are widely available, and consumers are provided with a broad range of products to choose from. The continuously growing number of world population (approximately 7 billion in 2011) has made supply on the food market exceed demand. This situation is characteristic of countries with a high GDP. Food producers examine consumer behaviour patterns to see what encourages them to make a purchase, and also the purchase itself and its consequences, and then analyse these processes to launch a new product or a substitute for an already existing one. To sum up, the market has provided more food products than consumers are able to purchase, which results in unimaginable food wastage. Each year, approximately 100 million tonnes of food goes to waste in Europe. This quantity does not include agricultural and food waste or fish discards [13].
\nThe methodology of this study was based on the information contained on the labels. The chemical composition of the investigated food products was presented. Interview with the store’s seller concerned the popularity and frequency of sales listed in the product tables. It should be noted that the examined store is representative when it comes to this type of stores in the majority of small towns in south-eastern Poland.
\nThis study was based on data on the most frequently chosen consumer goods in a store in a small town in Poland. The town is located in a commune that has 5300 residents. Data were obtained by monitoring the sales over the course of 12 months. These products are presented in Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and classified into the following categories: (i) meat and fish; (ii) beverages; (iii) condiments; (iv) ready-made sauces, soups, and dishes; and (v) sweets and desserts. The main classification criterion was segregation into primary food groups. The chemical composition of each product, as listed on the packaging, was included in a table and then assessed against the presence of any food additives. Sixteen most common additives were selected in all the investigated products; only chemical compounds that were found in at least four food products were taken into consideration. The most common food additives were highlighted in Holt in the “product composition” column and presented in Table 1, together with their E codes. Then, based on the literature, the study described the most common additional substances.
\nName | \nSymbol | \nNumber of products | \n
---|---|---|
Citric acid | \nE330 | \n15 | \n
Monosodium glutamate | \nE621 | \n10 | \n
Guar gum | \nE412 | \n8 | \n
Sodium nitrite | \nE250 | \n7 | \n
Disodium 5′-ribonucleotides | \nE635 | \n6 | \n
Sodium erythorbate | \nE316 | \n5 | \n
Glucose-fructose syrup | \nNot considered an additive | \n5 | \n
Soy lecithin | \nNot considered an additive | \n5 | \n
Maltodextrin | \nNot considered an additive | \n5 | \n
Triphosphates | \nE451 | \n4 | \n
Xanthan gum | \nE415 | \n4 | \n
Carrageenan | \nE407 | \n4 | \n
Tocopherols | \nE306 | \n4 | \n
Glucose syrup | \nNot considered an additive | \n4 | \n
Sodium benzoate | \nE211 | \n4 | \n
Ammonia caramel | \nE150c | \n4 | \n
The most common food additives and ingredients.
Table 1 shows 16 of the most popular substances found in food. The majority of these substances are food additives; four other substances are not considered in the European Union as food additives. The additives that are the most frequently found in the food products examined in this study are citric acid (E330), monosodium glutamate (E621), and guar gum (E412). In Ref. [16] it is reported that the most popular preservatives found in food are the mixture of sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate, or potassium sorbate (E202) and sodium benzoate (E211) used separately, and also ulphur dioxide (E220). Data presented in Table 1 shows that, compared to citric acid, another preservative, sodium benzoate, is used rarer. No potassium sorbate was found in any of the products examined in this study. In Ref. [13] it can be concluded that the most commonly used preservatives and antioxidants are sorbic acid and its salts (E200-203), benzoic acid and its salts (E210-213), sulfur dioxide (E220), sodium nitrite (E250), lactic acid (E270), citric acid (E330) and tocopherols (E306). The majority of the additives listed in Ref. [13] can be found in Table 1.
\nTable 2 shows 10 meat and fish products and their composition, as specified on the label. Each of the investigated items contained at least 1 of the 16 most common food additives (Table 1). As much as 50% of meat and fish products contained four or more of such additives. The highest number of additives (seven) was found in “Z doliny Karol” mortadella. “Masarnia u Józefa” crispy ham and “Lipsko” Śląska sausage contained six different food additives. Seventy percent of the examined products had had sodium nitrite (E250) added. This means that this preservative is frequently added to meat products, as confirmed in Ref. [9]. Other widespread preservatives mentioned in Ref. [9] include lactic acid (E270), sodium benzoate (E211), sorbic acid (E200), and sulphur dioxide (E220). In Ref. [9] it also mentions other additives frequently added to meat and fish products; these include carrageenan, gum arabic, and xanthan gum. In this study, 50% of the examined items contain one or two gums, and carrageenan is present in only three in ten products. A study in Ref. [17] demonstrates that fish products are the second leading food (after edible fats) in terms of preservative content.
\nProduct | \nIngredients | \nProduct | \nIngredients | \n
---|---|---|---|
Szynka krucha (ham) Masarnia u Józefa | \nPork ham, salt, pork protein, carrageenan, potassium acetate, potassium lactate, smoke flavouring, monosodium glutamate, diphosphates, triphosphates, flavourings, sodium erythorbate, tocopherols, sodium nitrite | \nPasztet podlaski (pâté) 155 g Drosed | \nWater, mechanically separated chicken meat, rapeseed oil, chicken liver and skin, cream of wheat, salt, soy protein, potato starch, dried vegetables, spices, powdered milk, (milk) whey, sugar, maltodextrin, plant protein hydrolysate, yeast extract | \n
Kiełbasa śląska (sausage) Lipsko | \nPork 60%, pig fat 17%, water, mechanically deboned chicken meat, fibre, pork skin emulsion, potato starch, milk proteins, triphosphates, tara gum, xanthan gum, sodium erythorbate, aluminium ammonium sulphate, salt, glucose, flavourings, carmine, spice extracts, maltodextrin, monosodium glutamate, soy protein, sodium nitrite | \nŁuków przysmak kanapkowy (tinned meat) 300 g | \nPork meat 30%, water, beef meat 18%, pig fat, soy protein, salt, beef fat, triphosphates, spices, pork gelatine, flavouring, sodium nitrite, tinned high-yield luncheon meat | \n
Mortadela doliny (mortadella) Karol | \nWater, pork 20%, mechanically separated chicken meat 15%, pig fat, pork connective tissue, cream of wheat, acetylated starch, polyphosphates, triphosphates, diphosphates, sodium citrate, calcium lactate, sodium lactate, salt, soy protein concentrate, pork protein, wheat fibre, spices (including mustard seeds, corn, and legumes), spice extracts, yeast extract, flavourings, glucose syrup, glucose, vinegar, sodium erythorbate, ascorbic acid, guar gum, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, monosodium glutamate, sodium nitrite | \nAgrovit duże porcje konserwa tyrolska (tinned meat) 400 g | \nWater, mechanically separated chicken meat 23%, pork raw materials 23%, modified (corn) starch, wheat fibre, pea fibre, salt, carrageenan, processed Eucheuma seaweed, spices, spice extracts, monosodium glutamate, sodium erythorbate, sodium nitrite | \n
Mięso mielone wieprzowe (ground pork) Adrian | \nPork meat 65%, pig fat 34%, salt, xanthan gum, carrageenan, konjac, starch, sodium nitrite | \nEuro Fish szprot w sosie pomidorowym (sprat in tomato sauce) 170 g | \nFish—sprat without heads—tomato sauce, water, tomato concentrate, sugar, rapeseed oil, salt, modified starch, dried onion, guar gum, xanthan gum, spice extracts, acetic acid | \n
Parówki (frankfurters) Indykpol | \nChicken meat 25.9%, mechanically separated turkey meat 17%, mechanically separated chicken meat 17.3%, water, poultry fat, pork, corn flour, chicken skins, pig fat, pork skins, potato starch, soy protein, salt, spices, spice extracts, flavourings, monosodium glutamate, acetylated distarch adipate, guar gum, potassium acetate, potassium lactate, diphosphates, ascorbic acid, sodium erythorbate, sodium nitrite | \nGraal Flet z makreli w sosie pomidorowym (mackerel fillet in tomato sauce) 170 g | \nMackerel fillets 60%, tomato sauce, water, tomato concentrate, sugar, rapeseed oil, modified starch, spirit vinegar, salt, powdered tomatoes, dried onion, spice extract, spices, guar gum, xanthan gum, pepper extract, maltodextrin | \n
Food additives and ingredients in the studied meat and fish products.
Table 3 shows ten non-alcoholic beverages, six of which contain at least one common food additive (Table 1). Foreign substances that are most frequently found in this food group are citric acid (E330), sodium benzoate (E211), and glucose-fructose syrup. A study in Refs. [18, 19] shows that the most popular sweeteners in non-alcoholic beverages are glucose, fructose, and glucose-fructose syrups. As shown on product label, 100% juice by brands such as “Hortex” and “Tymbark”, as well as “Cisowianka” and “Kubuś” mineral waters, is additive free. Pursuant to the Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council (EC) of 16 December 2008, no food additives may be used in mineral and spring bottled water. The beverage to contain the largest number of additive substances was white orangeade by “Hellena”.
\nProduct | \nIngredients | \nProduct | \nIngredients | \n
---|---|---|---|
Woda mineralna gazowana (carbonated mineral water) Cisownianka 1.5 L | \nNatural mineral water, unsaturated with carbon dioxide, moderately mineralised | \nWoda mineralna niegazowana (non-carbonated mineral water) Kubuś water 0.5 L | \nWater, cane sugar, apple juice from concentrated apple juice, lemon juice from concentrated lemon juice, flavouring | \n
Sok jabłko (apple juice) 100% 1 L Hortex | \n100% apple juice from concentrated apple juice | \nCoca cola 1.5 L | \nWater, sugar, carbon dioxide, sulphite ammonia caramel, phosphoric acid, natural flavourings, including caffeine | \n
Sok multiwitamina (multivitamin juice) 100% 1 L Tymbark | \nJuices from concentrated apple juice 60% and orange juice 22%, carrot juice from concentrated juice 12%, purées from banana 3%, peach, guava, papaya, juices from concentrated pineapple juice 2%, mango juice 0.5%, passion fruit juice 0.1%, lychee juice 0.05%, cactus fig juice, kiwi fruit juice and lime juice, vitamins A, C, E, B6, and B12, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, biotin, folic acid, pantothenic acid | \nTymbark 2 L jabłko-pomarańcza (apple-orange) | \nWater, orange juice from concentrated juice 19%, glucose-fructose syrup, sugar, peach juice from concentrated juice 1%, lemon concentrate, flavourings, ascorbic acid, carotenes | \n
Volcano 2 L cola | \nSpring water, carbon dioxide, sulphite ammonia caramel, phosphoric acid, citric acid, sodium citrates, flavourings (including caffeine), gum arabic, aspartame, saccharin, sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate | \nVolcano 2 L pomarańcza (orange) | \nSpring water, carbon dioxide, orange juice 0.3% from concentrated orange juice, citric acid, gum arabic, glycerol and plant resin esters, flavouring, cyclamates, saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame K, sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, ascorbic acid, carotenes, beta-apo-8′-carotenal | \n
Hellena 1.25 L oranżada biała (white orangeade) | \nSugar, water, glucose-fructose syrup, carbon dioxide, citric acid, flavouring, sodium benzoate | \nKubuś marchew, jabłko, pomarańcza, sok (carrot, apple, and orange juice) 330 mL | \nPurées and juices (59%), water, glucose-fructose syrup, citric acid, vitamin C, flavouring | \n
Food ingredients in the studied non-alcoholic beverages.
Table 4 shows 12 food items, such as ketchup, mustard, herbs and spices, and tomato concentrates, together with their composition. Only four products in this group contain a food additive, of which three are preserved using citric acid (E330). In this group of products, the products to contain the most common additive substances were the ketchup and the Kucharek seasoning by “Prymat”. Pursuant to the Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council (EC) of 16 December 2008, tomato products (such as concentrates) must not contain food colours. They may, however, contain other additives. The ketchup has no colours, but contains other food additives. Studies in Ref. [17] demonstrate that mayonnaises and mustards are the fourth most often preserved product group, with ready-made concentrates ranking seventh. One of the two mustards examined in this paper contained a preservative, and two of the presented tomato concentrates had not had any food additives added to them.
\nProduct | \nIngredients | \nProduct | \nIngredients | \n
---|---|---|---|
Koncentrat pomidorowy (tomato concentrate) Aro 190 g | \n30% tomato concentrate | \nKoncentrat pomidorowy (tomato concentrate) Pudliszki | \n30% tomato concentrate | \n
Ketchup łagodny (mild ketchup) 470 g | \n37% tomato concentrate, water, sugar, vinegar, modified starch, salt, citric acid, sodium benzoate, thyme, oregano, savoury, sage, coriander, flavouring | \nKetchup Pudliszki łgodny (mild ketchup) 480 g | \nTomatoes, sugar, vinegar, salt, modified starch, natural flavouring | \n
Musztarda Parczew kremska (Krems mustard) 180 g | \nWater, mustard seeds, vinegar, sugar, salt, spices | \nMusztarda Roleski stołowa (table mustard) | \nWater, mustard seeds, sugar, spirit vinegar, salt, spices, turmeric extract, citric acid, natural flavouring | \n
Zioła prowansalskie (Herbes de Provence) Prymat | \nBasil, marjoram, rosemary, savoury, sage, thyme, oregano, mint | \nPrzyprawa do kurczaka (chicken seasoning) Goleo | \nSalt, garlic, white mustard seeds, sweet pepper, carrot, coriander, fenugreek, caraway, chilli, turmeric, cinnamon | \n
Przyprawa Tzatziki (tzatziki seasoning) Prymat | \nGarlic, salt, sugar, onion, citric acid, onion extract, dill extract, dill leaves, pepper extract, black pepper | \nKucharek Prymat 250 g | \nSalt, died vegetables, monosodium glutamate, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, sugar, starch, black pepper, riboflavin | \n
Food ingredients in the studied condiments.
Table 5 shows 12 products categorised into ready-made dishes, soups and sauces, and their chemical composition. Each of these products contains at least one common additive. Citric acid (E330) was added to nearly 67% of the products in this category. Only five in twelve items (including four instant soups and stock cubes) contain the three most popular food additive substances (Table 1). A study in Ref. [13] shows that the most common additives in ready-made dishes are citric acid (E330), sunset yellow (E110), guar gum (E412), disodium guanylate (E627), disodium inosinate (E631), and monosodium glutamate (E621).
\nProduct | \nIngredients | \nProduct | \nIngredients | \n
---|---|---|---|
Rosół drobiowy kucharek (chicken soup) 60 g | \nSalt, palm fat, partially hydrogenated, starch, monosodium glutamate, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, rapeseed oil, dried vegetables, sugar, flavourings, chicken fat, turmeric, citric acid, dried chicken meat | \nRosół drobiowy Winiary (chicken soup) 60 g | \nSalt, monosodium glutamate, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, starch, fully hydrogenated palm fat, flavourings, sugar, chicken fat, spices, dried vegetables, citric acid, dried chicken meat | \n
Vifon kurczak Carry (curry chicken) | \nNoodles (92.1%), wheat flour, plant fat, tapioca, modified starch, acetylated starch, sugar, stabilisers (pentasodium triphosphate, guar gum, rising substances: sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, turmeric), flavouring additives (7.9%) (refined palm oil, salt, sugar), flavour enhancers (monosodium glutamate, disodium guanylate, disodium inosinate, dried vegetables (carrot, green onion, coriander), powdered curry (flavour additive content 6%), turmeric, aniseed, clove, coriander seed, cinnamon, pepper, garlic, chilli, lemongrass, flavouring), colour (beta-carotene, antioxidant tocopherols) | \nAmino zupa błyskawiczna gulaszowa (instant goulash soup) | \nNoodles (85%), wheat flour, palm fat, modified starch, salt, rapeseed oil, tocopherols, fatty acid and ascorbic acid esters; flavouring mix: salt, starch, paprika, monosodium glutamate, disodium guanylate and disodium inosinate, tomato concentrate, onion, flavourings, palm fat, Cayenne pepper, garlic, caraway, hydrolysed plant protein, dried pork, parsley, ammonia caramel | \n
Sos Winiary Italia boloński (Bolognese sauce) | \nDried vegetables, modified starch, sugar, salt, spices, flavourings, sunflower oil, citric acid, spices, beetroot juice concentrate, olive oil | \nSos Winiary pieczeniowy ciemny (dark roasting sauce) | \nPotato starch, modified starch, salt, dried vegetables, flavourings, sugar, yeast extracts, fully hydrogenated palm fat, palm oil, rice flour, ammonia caramel, wheat protein hydrolysate, spices, citric acid | \n
Sos Winiary borowikowy (bolete sauce) | \nCorn starch, wheat flour, powdered cream, palm oil, sunflower oil, maltodextrin, dried mushroom, salt, flavourings, lactose, yeast extract, sugar, dried fried onion, dried onion, milk proteins, spices, wheat protein hydrolysate, ammonia caramel, bolete extract | \nZupa Winiary barszcz biały (white borscht) | \nWheat flour, skimmed powdered milk, salt, potato starch, sugar, smoked pig fat, citric acid, dried vegetables, yeast extract, herbs, spices, smoke flavour | \n
Zupa Winiary jak u mamy pieczarkowa (champignon soup) | \nCorn starch, skimmed powdered milk, wheat flour, powdered cream, dried champignons, yeast extracts, salt, potato starch, dried vegetables, flavourings, sunflower oil, wheat protein hydrolysate, parsley, black pepper, citric acid | \nŁowicz sos boloński (Bolognese sauce) 350 g | \nTomatoes, water, vegetables, glucose-fructose syrup, apple purée, modified corn starch, salt, sugar, guar gum, citric acid, rapeseed oil, spices, herbs, flavourings, ground dried parsley, garlic and paprika, leek and carrot extracts | \n
Danie gotowe Flaczki (ready-made tripe) Pamapol | \nWater, beef rumen 305, wheat flour, carrot, parsley, celeriac, tomato concentrate, onion, salt, pork gelatine, sugar, soy protein hydrolysate, dried vegetables, yeast extract, spices, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, ammonia caramel, flavourings, partially hydrogenated palm and rapeseed fats | \nPomysł na soczystą karkówkę z ziemniakami (pork shoulder with potatoes seasoning) Winiary | \nWheat flour, vegetables, salt, modified starch, yeast extract, herbs, maltodextrin, plant oil, spices, flavourings, wheat protein hydrolysate, citric acid | \n
Food ingredients and additives in the studied ready-made dishes, soups, and sauces.
Table 6 shows 10 food items classified as sweets and desserts. As many as nine products in this group contained at least one of the most common food additives (Table 1). Glucose-fructose or glucose syrups were found in six of the examined items. A study in Ref. [19] shows that sweets often include the so-called Southampton colours, such as quinoline yellow and tartrazine. However, the study reports that the amounts of these substances added to sweets are much lower than the maximum values allowed by the applicable law.
\nProduct | \nIngredients | \nProduct | \nIngredients | \n
---|---|---|---|
Lód Top milker (ice cream) Koral | \nSkimmed reconstituted milk, sugar, cocoa oil, glucose syrup, skimmed powdered milk, mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids, locust bean flour, guar gum, powdered cream, natural vanilla, flavourings | \nBaton 3bit (candy bar) | \nSugar, biscuit 14% [wheat flour, sugar, plant fat, powdered whey, glucose-fructose syrup, whole powdered milk, salt, rising agents (sodium bicarbonate, ammonium bicarbonate), acidity regulator (citric acid), skimmed powdered milk (13. 5% in filling), plant fat, cocoa fat, cocoa paste, powdered whey, plant oil, milk fat, emulsifiers (soy lecithin, polyglycerol polyricinoleate), flavourings, salt. Cocoa mass in chocolate—minimum 30% | \n
7 days | \nWheat flour, cocoa filling 25% [(sugar, partially hydrogenated plant fats, water, low-fat powdered cocoa 7%, skimmed powdered milk, ethyl alcohol, emulsifier (lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids), vanilla flavouring, gelling agent (sodium alginate), preservative (potassium sorbate 0.1%)], margarine [partially hydrogenated plant fats, water, salt, emulsifier (mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids), acidity regulator, flavouring, preservative (potassium sorbate 0.1%)], sugar, stabiliser (mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids), glucose-fructose syrup, yeast, skimmed powdered milk, salt, vanilla flavouring, preservative (calcium propionate 0.1%), soy flour, emulsifier (soy lecithin) | \nLód rożek truskawkowy (ice cream cone) Koral | \nSkimmed reconstituted milk, cornet 14% [wheat flour, sugar, palm fat, potato starch, emulsifier (soy lecithin, wheat fibre, salt), colour (sulphite ammonia caramel], sugar, coconut oil, strawberry sauce 7% [strawberries 42%, sugar, glucose syrup, water, thickening agent (hydroxypropyl distarch glycerol), acidity regulator (citric acid, flavouring], coating for cornet waterproofing [sugar, coconut and palm fats, reduced-fat powdered cocoa (10–12%), emulsifier (soy lecithin)], water, glucose syrup, strawberry purée 1%, emulsifier (mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids), stabilisers (Guar gum, cellulose gum, carrageenan, locust bean flour), acidity regulator (citric acid), colours (betanin, annatto, flavourings) | \n
Baton Milky way (candy bar) | \nSugar, glucose syrup, skimmed powdered milk, cocoa fat, palm fat, cocoa mass, milk fat, lactose, powdered (milk) whey, barley malt extract, salt, emulsifier (soy lecithin), powdered egg white, hydrolysed milk protein, natural vanilla extract | \nMlekołaki Lubella muszelki (cereal) 250 g | \nWholemeal wheat, wheat, and corn flours, sugar, glucose, reduced-fat cocoa, cocoa, barley malt extract, milk chocolate, palm fat, salt, soy lecithin, flavourings, vitamin C, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B, riboflavin, thiamine, folic acid, vitamin B12, calcium, iron | \n
Nestlé Corn Flakes 600 g | \nCorn grits, sugar, salt, glucose, brown sugar, invert sugar syrup, cane sugar molasses, sodium phosphates, niacin, pantothenic acid, riboflavin, vitamin B6, folic acid | \nNestlé Frutina 250 g | \nWheat flakes (wholemeal wheat, sugar, wheat bran, barley malt extract, invert sugar syrup, salt, cane sugar molasses, glucose syrup, sodium phosphates, tocopherols), raisins, cut dried apples, sodium metabisulphite, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, riboflavin, folic acid, calcium, iron | \n
Lays zielona cebulka (crisps) 150 g | \nPotatoes, palm oil, sunflower oil, flavouring, powdered onion, powdered milk whey, powdered milk lactose, sugar, powdered milk, monosodium glutamate, disodium 5′-ribonucleotides, flavourings, powdered milk cheese, citric acid, malic acid, annatto, pepper extract, powdered garlic, maltodextrin, salt | \nStar chips paprika (crisps) 170 g | \nPotatoes, palm fat, flavourings, wheat breadcrumbs, glucose, sugar, monosodium glutamate, pepper extract, citric acid, salt | \n
Food additives and ingredients in the studied sweets.
Citric acid (E330) is a natural compound found in citrus fruits. It is also the by-product of digestive processes in the human body. However, on the industrial scale, the substance is produced using the Aspergillus niger mould. Citric acid is used in food as an acidity regulator, preservative, and flavour enhancer. Outside the food industry, the acid is added to cleaning agents and acts as a decalcifying agent. Citric acid in food is a safe additive and is added to food on the quantum satis basis; nevertheless its widespread use constitutes a risk. This substance is found in many food products, such as beverages, juices, lemonades, sweets, ice creams, canned goods, and even bread, so customers consume it in large quantities everyday [20]. When consumed frequently in excess, citric acid can lead to enamel degradation and teeth deterioration. This additive also supports the absorption of heavy metals, which, in turn, might lead to brain impairment. It can also affect the kidneys and liver [13, 15].
\nMonosodium glutamate (E621) is the most widespread flavour enhancer. It is even considered to be one of the five basic tastes (umami). Glutamic acid and its (magnesium, potassium, and calcium) salts lend a meaty flavour to products. The substance was first extracted from algae by a Japanese scientist, but now it is generally produced by biotechnological means using microorganisms that can be genetically modified [6]. Another commonly used flavour enhancer is chemically produced disodium 5′-ribonucleotides (E635). These additives can be found in ready-made dishes, sauces, meat and fish products, instant soups, crisps, and cakes. These flavour enhancers are the not inert in relation to the neurological system [16]. This can affect brain cells and lead to headaches, heart palpitations, excessive sweating, listlessness, nausea, and skin lesions. Such anomalies, which could have been caused by the excessive consumption of products rich in glutamates, are referred to as the Chinese restaurant syndrome [20]. Flavour enhancers can also serve a positive function by increasing appetite in the sick or the elderly [20]. Other additional substances commonly found in foodstuffs are polysaccharides:
\nGuar gum (E412) and xanthan gum (E415). These are referred to as hydrocolloids, i.e. substances that bind water, are easily soluble in both cold and warm water, and improve mixture viscosity. Guar gum is a polysaccharide obtained from guar, a leguminous plant grown in India and Pakistan [14]. Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide of microbiological origin. On the industrial scale, it is obtained as a result of Xanthomonas campestris bacteria fermenting the sugar contained in corn (often genetically modified). Both these additives are approved for use in all food products as thickening, firming, and stabilising agents, on the quantum satis basis. Guar gum and xanthan gum can be found mainly in bread, cakes, ready-made sauces and dishes, and powdered food, where they ensure the appropriate consistency. Moreover, they prevent the crystallisation of water in ice cream and frozen food and the separation of fluids in dairy products and juices. The human body is not capable of digesting, breaking down, or absorbing these gums. These substances swell in the intestines, which can cause flatulence and stomach ache. In addition, guar gum can cause allergies [13, 14, 15].
\nA commonly found preservative is sodium nitrite (E250). It is a salty and white or yellowish crystalline powder, obtained by the chemical processing of nitric acid or some lyes and gases [9]. This additive is generally used in the meat industry to inhibit botulinum toxin and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, slow down fat rancidification, maintain the pink red colour of meat, and provide meat with a specific flavour. It does not, however, prevent the growth of yeast or mould. Sodium nitrite is toxic, oxidising, and dangerous to the environment, so it must not be added to food in its pure form. This additive is used in very small doses (0.5–0.6%) in the form of a mixture with domestic salt [9] in amounts up to 150 mL per L or mg kg−1. When consumed in large quantities, nitrites can cause cyanosis, whose symptoms include blue coloration of the skin, lips, and mucous membranes. During digestion, nitrites are transformed into carcinogenic nitrosamines. Moreover, they are particularly dangerous for children, since they stop erythrocytes from binding oxygen, which can lead to death by suffocation [11].
\nA common ingredient in food is maltodextrin, which in the European Union is not considered as a food additive, but as an ingredient. Therefore, within the community, maltodextrin has no E code, while in Sweden it is considered an additive and identified as E1400 [18]. Maltodextrin is a disaccharide obtained from corn starch, but it is not sweet in taste. Nevertheless, it provides greater sweetness than normal sugar or grape sugar (the glycaemic index of maltodextrin is 120, that of normal sugar is 70, and that of grape sugar is 100). It is used as a thickening agent, stabiliser, bulking agent, and even as a fat substitute in low-calorie products. It is added to products for athletes and children, to instant soups, sweets, and meat products [10]. Maltodextrin does not affect the natural product taste or flavour, while it provides human body with carbohydrates and energy. Due to the fact that glucose particles in maltodextrin are broken down only in the intestines, it can also support metabolism. A negative aspect of its use is tooth decay [10, 18].
\nWhat frequently occurs in consumer goods is glucose-fructose syrup. Similarly to maltodextrin, it is not considered to be a food additive, but, due to its widespread application, it is important to mention it here. Glucose-fructose syrup, also known as high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), replaces traditional sugar in many products, such as beverages, sweets, jams, fruit products, and liqueurs, and in the United States and Canada is the dominant sweetener [19]. Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose, which are joined with alpha-1,4-glycosidic bond, and HFCS contains free fructose and free glucose in specific proportions. The name of this substance depends on the proportion of its ingredients. When the syrup contains more fructose, it is referred to as fructose-glucose syrup [12]. It is obtained mainly from corn starch as a result of acid or enzymatic hydrolysis. Glucose-fructose syrup is much sweeter and cheaper than traditional sugar, it does not crystallise, and it has a liquid form, which makes it functional during processing. Nevertheless, there are some disturbing aspects of using this substance. During the consumption of products with glucose-fructose syrup, the body receives unnatural amounts of fructose, which is broken down in the liver in a manner similar to alcohol. Therefore, its excessive amounts can cause fatty liver and overburden this organ. This has even been named “non-alcoholic fatty liver disease”. In addition, heavy consumption of monosaccharides has been found to contribute to obesity, which, in turn, can cause high blood pressure and diabetes. Fructose affects the lipid metabolism and disrupts the perception of hunger and satiety. Labels do not provide the exact HFCS content, but it is estimated that the consumption of a single product with this substance satisfies the acceptable daily monosaccharide intake [5, 6, 11, 13].
\nAnother frequently added substance is sodium erythorbate (E316). This synthetic compound is used as an antioxidant and stabiliser in meat and fish products and is useful for ham and sausage pickling [13]. It has similar properties to ascorbic acid, but it is not effective as vitamin C. Sodium erythorbate is considered to be noninvasive in the human body [12, 13].
\nThe most widespread natural emulsifier is soy lecithin. Etymologically, the word “lecithin” can be traced back to lekythos, Greek for egg yolk, but this compound is actually found in any plant or animal cell. Lecithin is produced from eggs, sunflower and rapeseed oils, and soybeans [11, 12, 13]. This additive is identified as E322 and is used for the production of mayonnaise, ice creams, margarine, ready-made desserts, sauces, and instant soups. Products with added lecithin dissolve in water more easily. EU law does not impose any limits on the use of E322. Only in products for children, lecithin content must not exceed 1 g per L.
\nTriphosphates (E451), as well as diphosphates and polyphosphates, are used as preservatives, flavour enhancers, stabilisers, and rising and water-binding agents. Triphosphates are produced chemically and have a broad application. They are added to sauces, meats and meat products, desserts, bread, pâtés, fish products, ice creams, and non-alcoholic beverages [21]. The human body needs phosphorus in specific amounts, but the widespread use of phosphoric acids and phosphates in food makes people likely to consume this element in excess. When consumed regularly, increased doses of phosphates can lead to osteoporosis or contribute to kidney dysfunction and affect the circulatory system [13, 21]. A popular hydrocolloid found in food is carrageenan (E407). This substance is extracted from Eucheuma, a tribe of red algae. Carrageenan is highly soluble in water and is used as a bulking agent in dietary products, and it is also added to beverages, ice creams, sauces, marmalades, and powdered milk [6, 7]. Carrageenan can be used on the quantum satis basis. Usually, it is combined with other hydrocolloids. This additive is not digestible by the human body. There are certain objections concerning the consumption of carrageenan, e.g. it can cause intestinal cancer and stomach ulcers [11, 12, 13].
\nTocopherols (E306) are commonly known as vitamin E, insoluble in water and soluble in fats. It is used as a preservative, stabiliser, and potent antioxidant in such products as oils, margarines, desserts, meat products, and alcoholic beverages. Tocopherols are produced synthetically or obtained from plant oils, but natural vitamin E is twice as easily absorbed by the human body [21].
\nCommon preservatives include benzoic acid and its salts, of which the most frequently used is sodium benzoate (E211). Negligible amounts of these substances are naturally found in berries, mushrooms, and fermented milk-based drinks. On an industrial scale, it is produced synthetically from toluene obtained from crude oil [3, 12]. What is characteristic of sodium benzoate is that it slows down the growth of mould and yeast, but does not prevent the growth of bacteria, which is why it is often used with other preservatives, such as sulphur dioxide (E220). It is commonly used in products with acidic pH, such as marinades, fruit juices, and products with mayonnaise, such as vegetable salads. Sodium benzoate can cause allergies [6, 13]. Our own study (see “Results and discussion”) showed that ammonia caramel (E150c) and sulphite ammonia caramel (E150d) are fairly common colours. It adds brown to black colours to products. Under natural conditions, this substance is created when sugar is heated. As a food additive, it is produced chemically using ammonia, as well as phosphates, sulphates, and sulphites (sulphite ammonia caramel is produced) [19]. This substance is approved for use under EU law [5]; however, there are studies that have confirmed that it negatively affects human health. It has been proven that this colour can cause hyperactivity and liver, thyroid, and lung neoplasms and also impair immunity. Ammonia caramel is used to dye non-alcoholic beverages, such as cola and marmalades [10, 11].
\nThe external aspect that is most crucial for buyers when it comes to food selection is its freshness. Buyers assess the best before date against the possibility of consuming the food quickly or storing it for future use. Another determinant is the value of the item. Any consumer will pay attention to the price of the product they buy. Another factor is the product ingredients specified on the packaging. Buyers have been observed to have developed a habit of reading labels before buying anything. Some customers also pay attention to the country of origin or brand [22]. Men and women who are determined to stay fit will also consider nutritional value. The factors that are not considered that are relevant include net product weight, information about any genetically modified raw material content, and notices about any implemented quality management systems. Moreover, consumers are likely to be affected by marketing devices, such as advertisements or special offers, used by producers. A temporary reduction in price, or the opportunity to buy two items for the price of one, encourages customers to make a purchase [3, 4]. What is also vital is whether the food is functional. Many people live at a fast pace, work a lot, or get stuck in traffic jams, and the lack of free time pushes them to buy ready-made dishes to be heated up at home or food that can be prepared in an instant [4, 13, 22].
\nNowadays, food additives are very widespread in the everyday human diet, but not all of them are synthetic and invasive to human health. Products which must not contain foreign substances do not contain food additives. The explorations undertaken by this and other studies confirm the widespread use of the investigated additives, except for citric acid, which is less popular an additive than sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate. This study shows that when adopting a healthy lifestyle, consumers can choose from a range of food and pharmaceutical products that either contain a limited amount of unconventional substances or do not contain such substances at all.
\nOpen Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\nWe are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n