Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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His research areas include high-resolution, large-area and fast-speed sensing, machine vision, and pattern recognition technologies for the roll-to-roll flexible electronics printing process and personalized health monitoring devices. Dr. Xian Du earned his doctoral degree in\nthe Programming of Innovation of Manufacturing Systems and Technology from\nSingapore-MIT Alliance. Before joining UMass, Dr. Xian Du was a research scientist\nat MIT. He invented concentric circular trajectory scanning and image-matching\nmethods for roll-to-roll manufacturing and human health monitoring. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Since the beginning of sociology’s establishment as a scientific discipline, a plurality of approaches has existed. The increasing internationalization of the social sciences makes it difficult for a national sociological tradition to take the initiative to strengthen the intellectual cohesion of this scientific discipline. However, what intellectual development has not been able to achieve itself has been done almost unnoticed by social processes. The decisive factor for the new phenomenon of homogenization of sociological theory, research and teaching has undoubtedly been the multidimensional process of globalization [1].
\n
One of the most diverse and often unthinkingly used concepts of sociology in literature is that of society. The quasi self-evident equation of the state with the concept of society is found in many theoretical approaches and empirical studies of this scientific discipline. A sociological theory that accepts without reflection the assumptions of the surrounding social reality does not get beyond the description and interpretation of this environment. Another perspective becomes visible, if the reciprocal interdependence of the local and global is included in analyses. Referring to theories of world society, Klaus Seitz [2] notices that a profound world society theory should be able to reconstruct the emergence of global structures of local events and describe interactions between macro structures and occurrences in the social micro area.
\n
Sociological theories that incorporate the global conceptually have to question the proven concept of progressive system of relevance and causal references systematically. ‘State’ and ‘society’, ‘culture’ and ‘economy’ have so far been valid as the quasi self-evident analytical concepts by means of which sociological knowledge of inclusion and exclusion, status and power distribution, poverty and social inequalities, norms and values, etc. are produced, and so these concepts even remain a problem to this day. This is because to recognize the global as the supreme system of relevance means nothing more than to create as a consequence an epistemological challenge; to analyse from now on inevitably all social phenomena in their world reference [3].
\n
Sociology has gradually improved and deepened its theoretical basis in the course of history. At the same time, it has had to react to developments and thereby consider new theoretical statements. It makes a difference, if only national or even global perspectives have to be considered and are to be processed [4].
\n
An outdated sociology, as discussed by Ulrich Beck [5] with the polemical accusations of the zombie science of the national outlook which thinks and researches in categories of international trade, international dialogue, national sovereignty, national communities, etc., is becoming the unreality science of a ‘national sociology’. Just as national economy, national sociology is at the end of its tether. There is also a low level of self-reflection about to what extent the discipline is facing the challenges and opportunities of a continuously globalizing and already globalized social world. This is visible in particular in the use of the term society in sociological literature. Niklas Luhmann [6] states that despite the immense global relationships in modern society, sociology shows emphatic resistance when it comes to recognizing this global system as a society. Those authors that grant the modern state a central role in their social theory again do not recognize for this very reason the global system as a society. Such a focus is considered by Niklas Luhmann [7] as one of the current knowledge blockages of the theory of society.
\n
Rudolf Stichweh [8] points to an interesting science-systematic indicator that in his view suggests that a regionalization of the concept of society cannot be thought of as consistent. Thus, there is for the discipline of political science the subject ‘international politics’ as opposed to ‘political science’ and for the discipline of economics the subject ‘world economics’ as opposed to ‘national economy’; meanwhile, there has never been a comparable dichotomy in the history of sociology as a discipline. He [9] therefore argues that what is still missing in the sociological writings on science in the system of world society is an approach which enables an explanation of the dynamics of the process of globalization of science. The lack of bisection in the discipline of sociology may be a reason that there is still a long way to go for sociology in the direction of becoming a globally oriented scientific discipline, and the path towards a world sociology will take some time to complete.
\n
In this chapter, social responsibility is understood as a worldwide endeavour. Therefore social responsibility here means global social responsibility. Social responsibility stands for an ethical framework that proposes an entity—be it an individual or an organization—that as such has an obligation to act for the benefit of society as a whole. Here the term of society is not equated with a nation-state, but the article discloses society in a worldwide frame of reference: word society so to speak. World society approaches refer immediately to a global reference frame. Furthermore they point to social responsibility beyond a nation-state or a world region: a global social responsibility (of scientists) so to say.
\n
\n
\n
2. World society: elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles in sociology
\n
The formative idea of social science production in the nineteenth century was the discovery of ‘society’. The twenty-first century is faced with the task of saying farewell to traditional ways of thinking, to all ‘homeland theories of society’ [10] and instead to reconsider the ‘world reference’ of the social [11] against the fixed idea of ‘self-containedness’, ‘territorial enclosure’ and ‘boundedness’ (of societies, states, cultures, and identities). This farewell to traditional thinking styles of sociology and reconsidering of the ‘world reference’ of the social, establishes an ad hoc connection to the concept of globality. This plays a role in many theoretical conceptualizations of world society.
\n
The term of globality implicated three elementary fractions with the thinking styles of classical sociology as a new—and for all social relations relevant—sense and operational framework: firstly it caused the separation of class-structural systems and its classification systems through identity-political aspirations; secondly it caused — the globe and the global —an identification pattern that is contrary to national symbolism and rhetoric and is focussed on transnational structure formation taking the place of territorially defined value orientations and related ideas of enclosed spaces, historical resistance and social cohesion; and thirdly, it meant the rejection of deterministic globalization narratives by profound sociological analysis, which may reveal the specific embedding of culture and economy as well as technology in structures of social relations. World society as the sum of social relations is the result of historical development [12].
\n
The scientific issue of whether and on which structural formations a world or global society is recognizable, is one that has to be answered by sociologists in the twenty-first century. While it is for Martin Albrow [13] a ‘society beyond boundaries’, other approaches in their theoretical programme, for example, aim for the concept of movement and state a ‘sociology beyond societies’ Urry [14]. John Urry dares to suggest the most demanding attempt to design a new agenda for sociology, whose main concept — that of human society — has been lost. He inserts in that empty space, which the concept of sotciety leaves behind, conceptual terms such as networking, mobility or horizontal fluids. The concept of society as a region is here substituted by networks and fluids [15].
\n
At this point it is worth noting that the world had already been selected by some sociologists as the primary frame of reference for analysis decades earlier, that what now due to global processes is formulated as a contemporary requirement for the sociological discipline is, strictly speaking, a reformulation of approaches that already exist. In fact, 50 years ago a few sociologists chose the world as a benchmark for their analyses. Decades before 1989, explicitly in the 1970s, four theoretical approaches were already relatively independently formulated in sociology, which focused on the topic of world society. Among these approaches are the stratificatory approach to world society by Peter Heintz, the sociological systems theory by Niklas Luhmann, the world-polity approach by John Meyer, and the world system analyses by Immanuel Wallerstein.
\n
In the first approach of Peter Heintz [16], world society is designed as a global field of interaction. At the centre of his conceptualization is the issue of the internationalization of inequality. The formation of a global stratification system after the end of World War II is here the central assumption. This is systematized in accordance with the concept of development, so that all people and countries worldwide are included in this field of activity.
\n
The second theoretical approach that of sociological systems theory by Niklas Luhmann, comes to the adoption of the old European related concept of society on statehood, territoriality and normative integration. At this point, modern society is understood as an effect of an evolutionary new formation of systems, which have functional differentiation as a basis.
\n
Society forms here as a comprehensive and inclusive communication connection in the context of all parts and functional systems—which indeed fulfil social functions, but have no place in the conceptual framework of the term of society. Neither is there a functional primacy of a subsystem, nor do spatial boundaries exist. The limits of communication are also the limits of society, and world society is to be understood in terms of the functions, requirements and results of functional differentiation [17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
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The third approach to world society in this period was developed by John Meyer and his research group at Stanford University in California. The intended research target can be described in this context as exploring in the axiomatic horizon of world society the geographical diffusion of institutional patterns and structural similarities which are realized over compulsion, imitation and normative pressure [22, 23, 24, 25].
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The main focus at this point is the concept of world polity that is to be understood as a broad cultural regulatory framework of occidental origin which caused processes of global homogenization.
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The world-polity approach boils down to conceptualizing the world as a unified system that provides the context for the description of globally circulating knowledge and standard stocks that equip the elites of the world with recipes and blueprints on the basis of which the state and society as well as citizenship can be organized. The distinction of knowledge areas resulting from the power of functional differentiation creates global expert systems that in turn affirm global isomorphies [26].
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The fourth theoretical approach, developed in the 1970s, is that of the world-system by Immanuel Wallerstein. This is one of the most outspoken critiques of the categorical state-centrism, for which reason the concept of society no longer has any function [27, 28].
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Immanuel Wallerstein [29] rejects the concept of society and opposes equating the concept with that of the state by arguing that if we also alter the limits of society by changing state borders, how can we justify that the legitimacy of a government determined by a society is different from the rule of legitimacy as provided by a state? In his view the concept of society should give us something solid on which we can build. He then subsequently equates the singular concept of society with that of the capitalist world economy by stating that only our society, the capitalist world economy (and even that is only a partial contract-defined entity), created our diverse meaningful communities [30].
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The focus of the world-system approach is the perception of capitalism as a geographically extensive and historically distinctive system. In this sense, the global space is not conceptualized through a state-centrist list of words such as society or culture, but is seen as a modern world system. The emphasis here is not states but empires. Modern states are not the original framework in which historical development took place. It would make more sense if we imagine them as a particular set of social institutions within the world capitalist economy. Furthermore, the latter is the context in which and from which we can analyse structures, conjunctures and events [31].
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The specific logic of the capitalist world system is firstly the result of a spatial mismatch of economic structures and secondly due to political and cultural arrangements. The modern world-system is divided in terms of supranational zones of centre, semi-periphery and periphery; on the other hand, states are those geographic base units from which these zones are constructed. There are territorial states which undergo positional battles for their locus in the centre-periphery structure [32]. A major criticism of the world-system approach is that of economic reductionism; the approach stands for the carelessness towards other sub- or transnational phenomena [33].
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This analysis of the world-system was intended to be a critique of nineteenth century social science; it remained, however, according to Immanuel Wallerstein [34] an incomplete, unfinished critique. In this sense, he argues in his book ‘Unthinking Social Science: The Limits of Nineteenth Century Paradigms’ [35] for a reorganization of the social sciences by demonstrating the limitations of nineteenth century paradigms. He considers the overcoming of the misleading but lasting legacy of social science—the division of social analysis into three levels: the economic, the political and socio-cultural—as a key challenge of the present: This trinity obstructs the way like a granite block that impedes our intellectual development [36]. Immanuel Wallerstein considers the global structure and the processes of its development to be the central agenda of social science research in the future.
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The four approaches of sociology that have developed since 1970 which turned their thematic focus on world society have, in spite of their different theoretical conceptualizations, one common denominator: they establish elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles in sociology.
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3. Development trends of sociology in the twenty-first century
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In sociology, as in other social science disciplines as well, there are numerous recognizable phenomena of de-nationalization. So, for example, an increase of transnational co-authorships and citations is detectable. There is a continuous rise of transnational and transregional interactive contacts between scientists as well as an increase of transnational co-authorships and citations detectable. Furthermore there has existed for several decades sociological associations beyond a national framework such as the International Sociological Association and regional sociological associations. That is, the academic discipline in the fields of literature and at professional associations moves away from a national context towards a regional and global policy framework.
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Due to global processes that affect every part of the world, sociology is not only forced to embrace global issues, but as a discipline it must also ask itself self-critically again and again the question of which research agendas will be relevant in the future, in order to be able to design innovative and contemporary scientific discourses within the discipline. Required here is a formulation of future trends, which will be indispensable for sociology.
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In the following the extent to which conceptualizations of world society can make relevant and constructive contributions in terms of development trends of sociology in the twenty-first century is discussed. Based on the assumptions of Dirk Kaesler [37] four developmental tendencies of international sociology can be recognized in and for the twenty-first century. According to Kaesler, the following developments will occur:
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The first development states that there will be an increase in the self-reflexive perspective on the constitutive conditions of the sociological discipline.
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The second development predicates that there will be more intensive efforts towards de-nationalization both of sociological conceptuality and methods of empirical social research. In addition there will be a de-essentialization of the narrative in the emergence and development of Western ‘modernity’, which is characterized by an intercrossing enculturation in the dialogue of cultures.
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The third development assumes that the disciplinary self-consciousness of sociology will increase, and at the same time the challenges of inter- and transdisciplinary fields will be accepted.
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The fourth development postulates that there will ultimately be a rise in the formation of transnational intellectual links, which instigates a common sociological theory development together with shared elementary ideas and basic concepts as well as methodological strategies.
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Given these formulated development trends, the approaches of world society can be regarded as pioneer work, since they make significant contributions to a sociology of the twenty-first century in all four mentioned points. This is justified as follows:
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World Society approaches require the self-reflexive perspective of the constitutive conditions of sociology mentioned in the first paragraph. Where the global is appearing as a reference framework of analysis, it is essential to show what little value it has had until now in many approaches in sociology. This may on the one hand be connected with the history of the discipline, but on the other hand also with the fact that many sociologists are to the present day focused on conducting studies mainly in a national context. The world as a framework for sociological studies has been ignored for the most part, or deemed as not relevant.
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World society approaches also make essential contributions to the second mentioned point, the more intensive efforts to de-nationalize sociological concepts and methods of empirical social research. The subject of world ad hoc presupposes a de-nationalization of sociological terms as well as methods of empirical social research. Referring to the former, the merger of the conceptuality of the world and the terminology of society alone—the world society so to speak—already relegates the use of society as a concept from a national or local context to a historical one.
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The third mentioned development trend of international sociology in the twenty-first century—the simultaneous increase in disciplinary awareness with the assumption of the challenges arising from inter- and transdisciplinary fields—is also evident with reference to the issue of world society. Thus, with reference to the last point, the disciplines of political science and international relations in particular [38, 39, 40, 41] as well as history [42], have also adopted the concept of world society.
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Issues of social, political, economic and cultural developments in the world are directly related and de facto cannot be dealt with by one discipline alone. At this point, inter- and transdisciplinary cooperation is an indispensable requirement for taking on the global challenges of the present in a scientifically constructive way. There is no profound scientific progress without pointing out the political formation of world society, without its economic interdependence, its cultural hybrid formations and without its historical bondage. It needs the constructive cooperation of all social science disciplines in order to meet global realities.
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At the same time, apart from this required inter- and transdisciplinary cooperation, individual scientific disciplines must also devote themselves to their genuinely specific topics. For sociology, this means turning to the conceptual apparatus again—especially to its central terminus of society—to relate the analysis of the social in a theoretical perspective on the world context and to advance the development of empirical methods to study global interdependencies.
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The fourth point mentioned, which refers to the increase in the formation of transnational intellectual links, is also given on the subject of world society. So the conceptuality already refers to the stepping out of a national context and the opening out to the global level as a reference framework for analysis.
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The discipline of sociology is confronted with complex tasks in the face of global reality. In order to keep pace with rapidly occurring social transformations, indispensable conceptual innovations are necessary within the discipline.
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Global trends call for groundbreaking visions for social action and for the social order. There is sufficient evidence that it is not easy for sociologists around the world to cope with the complexity and urgency of these tasks. Research and teaching in the field of sociological theory have become a self-referential undertaking, which is much more inspired by the classics of the discipline than by the social problems that surround us [43]. One result of this is certainly that there has been an increase in heterogeneous and strongly divergent orientations in the formation of sociological theory, as well as a lack of intellectual and institutional coherence within sociology itself. On the other hand, a homogenizing effect of globalization can also be observed in the formation of sociological theory. These internal turbulences and the products of intellectual processes are the essential motor for present day sociological self-reflection within the discipline [44].
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The development of sociological knowledge must face global challenges in the third millennium. Genuine innovation and the discussion of continuity and discontinuity in sociological theory and concept formation, as well as the development of methods for detecting global social change, are contemporary requirements of sociology in the face of global reality. Schisms, variations and repetitions are characteristic of the history of sociological ideas. In this respect, sociology can not only be described as a scientific discipline characterized by many paradigms, but there are also often dominating styles in contrast to constructive innovations. What is interesting at this point is the question of whether there has actually been progress in the development of sociological knowledge in the last half-century, or whether it is just a change in certain ways of thinking which is characteristic for the very heterogeneous knowledge landscape of sociology.
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When discussing the future of sociology, the year 1989 is often cited as a major turning point in the history of humankind over the last century. Dirk Kaesler [45] states that sociology as the western science can not ignore the crucial breakthroughs since that year. The year 1989, with its profound political, social, economic and cultural changes, has relativized many of the discipline’s theoretical considerations and practical. In that respect, Nikolai Genov [46] argues that it is now clear that there is a main path of social development and this is called globalization. This process has become the most important reference point and was a homogenizing factor in the development of ideas in the 1990s.
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From this perspective a consolidation effect is attributed to globalization, and the anthology ‘Globalization. Knowledge and Society’ by Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King [47]—distributed to the participants as part of the XII. World Congress of Sociology in Madrid—is designated as a prelude to a new stage in the development of world sociology. In this anthology, globalization is understood as all those processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society; global society [48].
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Globalization is considered here to be a new and far-reaching thematic orientation of the sociological discipline. While the decades before the two world wars were not able to provide a compelling vision of a world society, as these were conducted under the banner of national interest and—in the following decades—sociology had been deadlocked despite increasing internationalization processes in political and ideological dividing lines, so is the era after 1989 characterized by diverse networking and a mutual dependence of the entire globe on structures and processes. These processes are the main cause of substantial changes in world sociology, including the emerging mutual reconciliation and amalgamation of sociological approaches and the results of sociological studies into a strong complex that makes the issue of globalization a unified point of reference. During the 1990s, sociologists blessed this rather complex issue with a great deal of attention. The fact that sociologists gave it so much attention is unique in the development of the discipline and is likely to endure [49].
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World society approaches of sociology, as is the case with sociological system theory, world system analyses, and the world-polity approach, were already formulated at the time of the bipolar world order. That is to say, long before the epochal era of a ‘globalization boom’ [50] began in social sciences.
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During the second half of the twentieth century, no scientific revolutions took place in sociology according to Nikolai Genov [51]. He argues that scientific paradigms were ousted and temporarily replaced—but not overturned. Moreover, despite the enormous social and cognitive challenges the discipline faces, one can only be surprised by the self-satisfaction and narcissism in some parts of the sociological community.
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The development of sociological ideas in the second half of the last century concretely and clearly revealed the strong embedding of sociological knowledge in a specific social context. This embedding has in turn had an effect on the selection of problems of social reality as well as on the interpretation of these problems by sociologists. In the scientific disciplines, a reality is investigated that is characterized by continuous change as well as by the emergence of new configurations, social actors and processes. Therefore a balance of historically rooted and universal analytical concepts must be considered as an essential task of sociology.
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This equilibrium of historically rooted and universal analytical concepts can be found in the global shift of sociology. While at the beginning of its institutionalization as a scientific discipline there was an international orientation present, a national shift began in sociology that characterized the decades until the end of the bipolar world order, an opposing trend now begins with the turning to a global shift of the discipline. The issue of a global shift in sociology in addition to the focus on the world level as a reference framework for analysis also refers to the thematic relatedness of the globalization of the discipline itself, in terms of its self-reflection—a major challenge but a social responsibility for sociology in the twenty-first century.
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4. Global Shift in Sociology
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The term society is still the ‘grand idea’ [52] of the sociological discipline. Martin Albrow [53] assumes that the global as an idea is currently not only a strategic locus in public opinion, but has also led sociologists to return to the basic theories of their discipline. The global shift includes actual progress in the thinking about society. In the entire period of the last half-century, the global has fundamentally renewed the discipline of sociology, especially in the 1990s. But if we anchor the global in the foundations of sociology, we will find a strong theoretical renewal. This has already happened, but it has yet to be recognized in its entirety [54].
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The global, like society, is referred to by Martin Albrow [55] as a ‘grand idea’. In a historical retrospective, the global represented a field of comprehensive communication between people in the period from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, thereby this was more related to territorial expansion; that is, more the conquest of space and the means of communication than the relationships of people. During this time the idea of the global was still separate from ideas of peace and international law. There is no reason why scientists should not be able to note the places and occasions on which there was a focus on the global, by analogy, as one might do for a nation-state [56].
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The global serves as a symbol of collective identity in the concrete case of all humanity, and it is regarded as the central subject of history. In this sense, the current era is also referred to as the ‘Global Age’ [57, 58, 59]. The term global has gradually replaced the term international when referring to the structures and processes that affect people as a whole. The concept ‘global’ always applies to the planet or the earth and therefore also to the interests of all humanity. The term global/globe has two main meanings: the earth and the sphere: and it also implies that human actors live in world society, which encompasses the whole of humankind.
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The various social science disciplines adopted this new terminology at a different pace. The disciplines of political science, business administration and cultural studies were the first; sociology came quite late. It is the plurality and the well-being of a world society which go far beyond the characteristic dispositions of globalization [60].
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Sociological research can, when it develops parallel to theoretical renovation, lead to the introduction of innovations and can therefore provide groundbreaking impulses. New trends can emerge through the acquisition of imported ideas from other scientific disciplines. The reorientation of the thinking on the global and its impact on public affairs and thus on political strategy in recent years has penetrated all disciplines and is the main driving force behind the global paradigm shift. An endogenous source of modification in science is the technology of electronic data processing, which accomplishes progressions in knowledge that were a subject for science fiction stories one generation ago [61].
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In the last five decades, it has been modernization as rationalization, and not the global, which has dominated the public agenda. In general, this has also had an impact on social sciences. This process was accompanied by the dominance of a paradigm in which the nation-state was equated with society. The reorientation to the global changed all this and much of today’s theoretical renewal of sociology flows from the challenges globality poses to modernity [62].
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Due to the extent of the challenge, society is now again in the new focus of theoretical renovation. The global has pushed society as a central and controversial concept back into the contemporary debate. In Western European countries, the discussion was limited to the fact that society was interpreted as an organized citizenship. Society in political, economic and cultural terms served the welfare or warfare state [63].
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Due to globalization processes, areas such as culture, politics and economics were considered relatively separate from the state and ultimately detached from society. This deconstruction of the nation-state recognizes the ever-present potential to reform social relationships and to transgress boundaries addressed to the future and also in a comparative perspective. Subsequently, it was the change of orientation to the global which gave reason to look at the large number of transnational relations and to imagine what form of social order would be appropriate for a world in which national demarcations cannot provide answers to global problems. In this context, Martin Albrow [64] poses the question of whether a global society exists in the form of a world society: A world society is neither the society of the nation-state nor the sum of international relations. We can now ask whether a global society exists in the form of a world society.
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For example, global civil society, visible due to the formation of transnational non-governmental organizations, is dependent on the contribution of world citizens committed to global issues. The identification takes place here with the whole of humankind and not with any nationality. It is the globality that intensifies this new identity policy [65]. Society beyond borders, networking and identity politics draw our attention to social relationships more than to autonomous social units.
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Holistic natures are seen as conditioned by their relationship to other entities in a global environment, which in turn raises a number of questions about the dissolution and transformation. Exceeding the boundaries of society, we are forced to rethink social relations in general. For Asian and African traditions of social thinking, it will be possible to have a much more effective impact on global society than was possible in the Western thinking framework, which is focused on the relationship between the individual and society [66]. From this perspective, relevant contributions are expected from those regions of the world in which social relations have always been regarded as a medium in which collectivities connect. The construction of these collectivities in a global arena will be a setting of trends for the sociological discipline.
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In an earlier period, sociology was preceded by social equality and the purpose of the nation-state. Today, it is the complexity of global interdependencies. In that regard Martin Albrow [67] argues that the sociology of the twenty-first century must make a vital contribution to our species and the planet we inhabit. Accordingly, we expect no less than a synoptic vision and productive theoretical work at a level as was achieved by Georg Simmel, Max Weber and Émile Durkheim in their days, but aligned with our present challenges. The task is extremely difficult, but it can be accomplished. Sociologists have the skills and technical capabilities beyond their visions to work together. There is no choice but to honour the achievements of the old masters, even if current scientists strive to make them obsolete.
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At this point the reformulation and reorientation of the sociological discipline due to the demands of global reality is clearly addressed. It will be indispensable for the future to consider classics of sociology in their contemporary historical context, and at the same time not to be afraid to analyse to what extent they could provide relevant contributions for current challenges. If this does not happen, they must remain in the context of history and be mentioned in this setting; they would have, however, little to contribute to contemporary sociological thinking, which must be oriented towards a worldwide reference framework of the social with a simultaneously new conceptualization of society, and also at the opening up of discipline—especially beyond the familiar paths of Western Europe and North America—to other world regions. A first step towards this would be the perception of what exists in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Arab world region etc. with regard to sociological knowledge and a common discourse of scientists globally.
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There are new realities that require a modified approach. The world, and therefore also the social role of knowledge in general, as well as the related scientific discourse in sociology in particular, has as a field of the science of sociology undergone massive changes over the period of the last 100 years. It is only when a scientific work can change its appearance that it can be transformed; it grows a little further—especially when it breaks the boundaries of its immediate context, that is, its national and historical context—and becomes part of a global interpretation [68].
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In view of how the social refers to the world, sociology in its historical form cannot meet a perspective on the world as a whole. It is its basic conceptual inventory which is indiscernible to world-social developments and global processes, and for this reason must be fundamentally renewed and changed. An essential part of this basic conceptual inventory is the term society. Sociology has conceptualized the term society more or less exclusively as a nationally organized and territorialized unit [69]. Over decades of time the concept of society was in its prevalent use no more and no less than bounded nation-state conceptualized [70].
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The classic, and still highly influential, sociological theory designs contributed to the generalization of a very specific concept, resting on the principle of territoriality and the nation-state form of space. The question of the spatial organization of social relations found as such a clear answer. A historical specific formation—the territorial nation-state—was dehistoricized and was, as it were, a natural container in which all life takes place, institutionalized as an organizing principle of the theory of social science, without, on the other hand, becoming the object of theoretical reflection [71]. In this regard, also Immanuel Wallerstein [72] summarizes on the social science paradigms of nineteenth and twentieth century that we could not even explain why we implicitly assumed that each state has a society and every society has a state. A branch of knowledge that cannot explain such a central phenomena will inevitably be in big trouble. It is the view of sociology as ‘homeland theories of society’ [73] that leads to the assumption that sociological knowledge is, despite all universalistic validity claims, essentially a regionally specific knowledge.
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Conceptualizations of world society stimulate a critique of such a territorializing thinking style. In contrast to traditional sociology, world society approaches are a theoretical programme which tries to implement the sociology of the global as a counter-project. This requires the overcoming of the methodological nationalism as criticized by Ulrich Beck [74], the zombie categories of the national view [75] and also the container theory of state and society [76] as well as the development of fundamentally new conceptual terms, which meet the world as the totality of social relations.
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Present sociological diagnoses have to take global reality into account, and world society approaches provide a pioneering work in this direction. These conceptualizations break with the model of methodological nationalism—until now long uncritically used in the discipline—by postponing questions about the spatial organization of social relations at the global level; and they break even with basic terminologies of the discipline which no longer meet social reality in the third millennium.
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5. Conclusions
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The bottom line of the article is structured along three main conclusions. The extent to which world society approaches represent elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles is the focus of the first conclusion. The second refers to development trends of sociology in the twenty-first century and the nation–state related paradigm of this scientific discipline. The conclusions close with the theming of the global shift of sociology and thereby refer to the pioneering work of world society theorists.
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It can be stated as a first conclusion that it has been proved that world society approaches are a counter-project to the classics of sociology. As a conceptual term, world (wide) society directly points to the diminishing importance of spaces and addresses a conceptualization of society which is understood to be extra-territorialized. The increasing use of digital information and communication technologies for the empirical processing of sociological studies can here contribute significantly to the abolition of the spatial concept as a unit of analysis.
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It is one of the greatest intellectual challenges of the present for all social science disciplines to deal with the world as a framework of culture, economics, law, politics and social reality and to use them constructively for scientific analysis. It certainly needs the courage to say what is not yet explorable since, for example, the empirical methods have not yet been developed; and that since one sits on a theory building in which the ‘universal and global house of sociology’ is to a large extent revealed as a house of few countries of the world, there is still much to do in the field of sociological conceptions and theoretical approaches. At this point conceptualizations of world society can make an important contribution to the global social responsibility of science.
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In the sociological field of world society research, nation-state myths have been disenchanted, the local is identified as global and vice versa, and the central concept of sociology—that of society, which has always been manifold and controversial within the discipline—becomes relevant again.
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The second conclusion of the article refers to development trends of sociology, to the nation-state paradigm of sociology and the breaking thereof due to world society approaches. Here it was discussed how world society conceptualizations can make a constructive contribution to the sociology of the twenty-first century.
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In the face of world society research, sociology is confronted with an often unreflected nation-state paradigm and a state-centric vocabulary, which opposes the perception of the global as a perspective. Sociological knowledge about transnational social spaces or post territorial communions or the perception of the social world as a totality in a normative sense, is yet to be developed profoundly.
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The rise of sociology began with the emergence of the nation-state and nationalism. Therefore, society as the central object of the investigation of sociology was equated with the nation. This form of sociology, which reached its peak in structural functionalism and modernization theory, is increasingly being critically viewed and questioned in the present due to globalization processes: A new, global sociology is taking shape which is no longer oriented towards ‘society’, but rather towards social networks, border areas, border crossings and world society. The sociology of a nationally restricted society deviates from a post/inter/national sociology of hybrid forms, times, and spaces [77].
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The subject of world society requires of many sociological issues—such as class and social structure analyses, poverty and inequality research as well as research fields of cultural sociology or political sociology—an emergence from the analytical unit of a ‘nationally organized society’, which is often assumed to be self-evident. On the basis of sociology, questions about social change, inequality, culture, power and domination have not become obsolete, but they have been moved into a different perspective. In particular, their importance ratio changes at the moment when these questions are referred to at the global reference level.
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In this sense, ‘the globe as a big idea’ has transformed not only sociological theories, but also the form of sociology as a whole. Sociology, which entered the historical stage as a science of ‘modern society’, is on its way to constituting itself as the science of one ‘social world’ [78]. World society approaches to this end had already been preparing sociological discourses on the way that the discipline can enter the contemporary stage of a social world as a unit decades before globalization. They have set trendsetting signposts for the discipline with their theory designs which have the world as a reference framework for the ‘global house of sociology’ to be established, which should openly and constructively address the social challenges of the twenty-first century.
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The discourse on world society can be viewed as a seismograph of the state of current social science discourses in the face of processes of globalization and transnationalism. This seismograph shows how long inter- and transnationalism in the analysis of society have had a minor role in the sociological research of the so-called First World. It may be a great merit for world society sociologists from recent decades to leave the Euro- and North American centrism and to choose the global as the reference frame for the analysis. This implies, not least, the realization that the traditional empirical methods of capturing society are doomed to failure in the context of the global; and the traditional theoretical approaches of sociology as well as their conceptual instruments require a thorough revision.
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In addition to the demonstration of theoretical and empirical challenges, the analysis of world society, themes of globalization and transnationalism, the issue of transnational social spaces and classes, the range of global inequality and questions about transnational citizenship and the extensive field of global justice are new and modern approaches of sociological research. The future will show to what extent, with this thematic selection of research approaches, the nation-state as a reference frame of analysis is abandoned and how a tension between questions of continuity and the discontinuity of sociological concepts to the analysis of globalization and transnationalization as well as world society approaches can be drawn in a convincing way.
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Sociology has, due to world society approaches, some social responsibility to put forward constructive plans in relation to the global shift of its scientific discipline. At the moment, both the merger and the implementation of the plans are important. For sociologists, this project will be a central challenge of the twenty-first century at the construction site of sociology.
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\n\n',keywords:"world society, elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles, development trends of sociology, global social responsibility, global shift",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60484.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/60484.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60484",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60484",totalDownloads:630,totalViews:743,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 18th 2017",dateReviewed:"February 7th 2018",datePrePublished:"April 4th 2018",datePublished:"July 11th 2018",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Conceptualizations of world society represent elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles in sociology. In this research field, nation-state myths have been disenchanted, the local is identified as global and vice versa, and the central concept of sociology—that of society, which has always been manifold and controversial within the discipline—becomes relevant again. World society approaches require the self-reflexive perspective of the constitutive conditions of the discipline of science. They also make essential contributions to the de-nationalization of concepts and to methods of empirical research. Thus conceptuality refers to the stepping out of a national context and the opening out to the global level as a reference framework for analysis. In addition, conceptualizations of world society are an important contribution to the global social responsibility of science. Sociology has, thanks to world society approaches, constructive plans to put forward a global shift of the discipline of science. For sociologists, this project will be a central challenge of the twenty-first century at the construction site of sociology.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60484",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60484",book:{slug:"social-responsibility"},signatures:"Veronika Wittmann",authors:[{id:"228406",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Veronika",middleName:null,surname:"Wittmann",fullName:"Veronika Wittmann",slug:"veronika-wittmann",email:"veronika.wittmann@jku.at",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. World society: elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles in sociology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Development trends of sociology in the twenty-first century",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Global Shift in Sociology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Genov N. Innovationen, Moden und Kontinuität in der Entwicklung des soziologischen Wissens. 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Kosmopolitisierung ohne Kosmopolitik. In: Berking H, editor. Die Macht des Lokalen in einer Welt ohne Grenzen, Frankfurt am Main: Campus; 2006. p. 252-270. [here: see p. 254]\n'},{id:"B76",body:'Beck U. Vorwort, In: Beck U, editor. Perspektiven der Weltgesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp; 1998. p. 7-10. [here: see p. 10f.]\n'},{id:"B77",body:'Pieterse JN. Der Melange-Effekt. In: Beck U, editor. Perspektiven der Weltgesellschaft. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag; 1998. p. 87-124. [here: see p. 118]\n'},{id:"B78",body:'Berking H. Globalisierung. In: Baur N, Korte H, Löw M, Schroer M, editors. Handbuch Soziologie. 1st ed. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften; 2008. p. 117-137. [here: see p. 133]\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Veronika Wittmann",address:"veronika.wittmann@jku.at",affiliation:'
Global Studies, Department of Modern and Contemporary History, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria
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1. Introduction
Rice is such an agricultural commodity that covers the third-highest worldwide production making it one of the most important cereal crops [1]. With its wide geographic distribution extending from 50°N to 35°S, rice is expected to be the most vulnerable cultivated crop to changing climates in future [2, 3]. Rice production is dwindled mainly because of biotic and abiotic stresses due to the complexity of interaction between the stress factors and various molecular, biochemical and physiological phenomena affecting plant growth and development [4, 5]. To battle with these situations, development of adaptive rice varieties is one of the best strategies. Since aboveground parts are often taken into consideration for making stress tolerant varieties, root study remains backward in this aspect. Roots, the hidden portion of the plant have not yet been much focused. Because exploring the root traits of the plant are much more difficult compared to its above-ground traits. But when it comes to the fact of studying the optimal developmental plasticity system and characteristic features of plant growth, the root system is given the first priority [6]. Root system is the site of water and nutrient uptake from the soil, a sensor of abiotic and biotic stresses, and a structural anchor to support the shoot. The root system communicates with the shoot, and the shoot in turn sends signals to the roots [7]. Soil type, moisture and nutrients all strongly influence the architecture of the root system [8, 9, 10]. Recently it has been emphasized that root architectural traits play a decent role for the adaptation of crop varieties under different abiotic stresses [11, 12]. Root interaction with changing environment is a complex phenomenon that differs with genotypes and intensity of stress [13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. For that, different species and also genotypes under the same species may respond contrarily under stress conditions and show different magnitudes of tolerance or susceptibility to stress. These diversities can be exploited by plant breeders to improve stress tolerance in plants. Scientists assume that selection for yield will indirectly select for varieties with the optimum root system. But the fact is, more directed selection for specific root architectural traits could enhance yields for different soil environments [18]. As by 2035, a predicted 26% increase in rice production will be essential to feed the rising population [19], it is imperative to develop high yielding rice cultivars with efficient root systems for better exploitation of natural resources under stressed conditions.
2. Progress in root study of rice under osmotic stress
2.1 Reasons why root study has become the topic of interest
Being the hidden half of the plants, the root system performs several functions like water and nutrient acquisition, mechanical support to the plant and storage of reserve assimilates [7]. In plant, roots are the first organ for sensing the water limitation and the roots are also the signal transmitter to other plant parts through xylem sap and phytohormone which is known as one of the most important root-shoot stress signal mechanism [20, 21, 22, 23]. Development of the root system is a major agronomic trait and proper architecture in a given environment permits plants to survive in water and nutrient deficit conditions and gives the ability to utilize minimum resources efficiently [6].
Crop loss in rice production has become severe now-a-days due to abiotic stresses. Therefore, having a clear knowledge about the architecture and development of roots of rice toward optimizing water and nutrient uptake has become crucial for exploitation and manipulation of root characteristics for enhancing yield under unfavorable conditions [24, 25]. In general, root study comprises the study of the entire root system or a large portion of the plant’s root system [26, 27]. To understand the functional characteristic of root system and the necessity to exploit heterogeneous environment, root architecture study has become crucial in plant productivity as root system architecture is strongly linked with plasticity to the plant through which plant can alter its root structure according to its heterogeneous environment [26].
2.2 Root system architecture of rice
Elongation and branching are the mode of plant root growth. Local environmental conditions, physiological status of the plants and the type of root determine the magnitude and direction of root elongation [6]. Root system architecture (RSA) is thus the three-dimensional geometry of the root system including the primary root, branch roots, and root hairs [6, 26, 28, 29]. Topological, distributional and morphological features combine to form the root system architecture [8, 26, 30]. Topology denotes the branching pattern of individual roots including features like lengths and diameters, number of roots originating from a node, root insertion angles, magnitude and the altitude of root [31, 32]. Measures of the spatial distribution of roots simplify the dissection of root systems [26]. Root morphology refers to the external features of a root axis and may include properties of roots hairs, root diameter and trend of secondary root emergence. Acceleration or inhibition of primary root growth, increment of lateral roots (LRs) and a rise in root hairs and also the formation of adventitious roots are the ways of modification of root system architecture. The primary root is formed during embryogenesis. This primary root produces secondary roots those in turn produce tertiary roots [6, 33]. Root system architecture has proved to be a critical factor in plant survival, contributing to water and nutrient acquisition efficiency and competitive fitness in a given environment [34]. Composition of soil specially water and mineral nutrients availability and plant species have impact on root architecture [6].
Monocot cereals have a complex fibrous root system consisting of an adventitious root (ARs) bunch. Adventitious roots originate from the shoot or subterranean stem. This type of root is sometimes referred to as a nodal or crown root [35]. Root systems of rice plants (Oryza sativa L.) comprise numerous nodal roots of relatively short length: a mature rice plant usually has several hundreds of nodal roots, most of which are less than 40 cm in length [36]. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a model cereal crop with seminal roots that die during the growing period [36]. Thus, lateral roots and adventitious roots are the key determinants of nutrient and water use efficiency in rice [37].
Several embryonic and postembryonic roots including the radicle, the embryonic crown roots, the postembryonic crown roots, the large lateral roots (L-type), and the small lateral roots (S-type) [38] form the rice root systems (see Figure 1). Lateral rice roots can appear on any primary root, including embryonic and crown roots, and can be classified into two main anatomical types [39]. Numerous small lateral roots (S-type) are thin with determinate growth that can be formed from large lateral roots (L-type) and they never bear any lateral roots. Whereas large lateral (L-type) roots are few in number, thinner compared to primary roots that show indeterminate growth. Additionally, lateral elongation of small lateral roots and downward elongation of large lateral roots indicate non-responsiveness of the small lateral roots to gravity. Higher orders of branching can also be observed in the large lateral roots of the crown roots that emerge at later growth stages [40]. These small and large lateral roots exhibit differential growth and lateral root bearing pattern signifying unlike purposes for these two types of lateral roots [37].
Figure 1.
A typical root system architecture at the tiller axis of Oryza sativa L. Black disks indicate individual root bearing phytomer with progressive development chronologically from top to downward. Root hairs form on main axis and all the lateral roots [41].
2.2.1 Phytomer concept
The concept of a phytomer was established around 6–7 decades ago [40, 42]. Clear knowledge about phytomer is required for better understanding of plant development and architecture. Many higher plants, including rice, are composed of successive stem segments called phytomer [43, 44, 45]. Each phytomer consists of an internode of the stem with one leaf, one tiller bud and several adventitious (nodal) roots [36]. The phytomer concept has long been recognized among grass scientists [46, 47]. The coordinated development of stem, tiller bud, and adventitious roots in each phytomer corresponds to the phyllochronic time in rice [43, 44, 48]. This indicates that genotypic variation in root-and-shoot growth can be ascribed to the variation of stem and adventitious root development at the phytomer level [49].
Detailed study of root morphology and architecture at the phytomer level become more obvious with the attainment of new knowledge about segmental architecture of poaceous crops [50, 51, 52, 53]. As the higher plant structure is formed by the repetitive unit of plant growth called phytomer [54], so phytomer formation, its growth and senescence ultimately determine development of plant canopy [47]. Therefore the phytomer components have become the interest of the plant breeder.
2.2.2 Lateral roots
Root axes of rice plants serve functions of anchorage and typically establish overall root system architecture [55]. The lateral roots are the functionally active part of the root system involved in nutrient acquisition and water uptake. The size, type and distribution of lateral roots eventually decide the ultimate length and surface area of an individual root and finally of a whole tiller. Understanding morphology of the lateral roots is therefore important to develop rice cultivars with an efficient root system [11, 56].
In rice, there are two types of lateral roots; long and thick roots, and short and slender roots [57, 58, 59]. It has been designated that the first type as L-type and the latter as S-type [60]. The L-type lateral roots are usually long and thick and are capable of producing higher-order lateral roots, whereas S-type ones are short, slender, and non-branching. In rice plants, these two types of lateral roots are visually distinguishable. The L-type lateral roots show basically identical tissue arrangement with seminal and nodal roots, whereas S-types are anatomically different wherein their vascular systems are simplified [35].
In rice plants, the observed average diameter of S-type lateral roots (first-order) that were produced on mature nodal roots of a one-month-old plant was 80 μm, whereas that of L-type roots was almost double that, i.e., 159 μm. Average length was 7.6 mm for S-type and about 30 mm for L-type. The S-type laterals were almost similar in length, and only very few S-type laterals exceeded 10 mm in length. The L-type laterals varied greatly in length and some of them elongated to more than 300 mm [60]. The small laterals are less effective in water and nutrient uptake than even root hairs [61].
The changes in lateral root development were triggered by changes in water status in the root zone, and these developmental changes were induced by genetic [62, 63] and environmental factors. With regard to the environmental factors, it is shown that phenotypic plasticity promoted lateral root development and that nodal root production was the key trait that ensured stable growth of rice plants grown under changing soil moisture levels [64]. As far as the literature explored, developmental morphology of the individual roots with special reference to different lateral root branches was not studied in detail, probably due to lack of the most appropriate tools and methods [11].
2.2.3 Root hairs
Root hairs are tubular-shaped cells that arise from root epidermal cells called trichoblast; they are thought to increase the absorptive capacity of the root by increasing the surface area [65]. Root hairs contribute as much as 77% of the root surface area of the cultivated crops, forming the major point of contact between the plant and the rhizosphere. Root hair is a long and narrow tube like structure originating from a single cell through tip growth (the deposition of new membrane and cell wall material at a growing tip). For being the major water and nutrient uptake site of plants, root hairs form a progressively significant model system for development studies and cell biology of higher plants [66]. Root hairs had the highest contribution toward total length and surface area of an individual root whereas main axis and first order laterals mostly contributed root volume [11].
Root hairs are localized for many water channels [67], phosphate [68], nitrogen [69], potassium [70], calcium [70], and sulfate transporters [71], all of which are beneficial to water and nutrient uptake by plants [72]. There is significant inter- and intra-specific variation exists for root hair traits, and this has been linked to P uptake. Plants with longer, denser root hairs exhibit greater P uptake and plant growth in P-deficient soils [73, 74, 75]. So, the root hair traits, especially root hair length can be exploited in breeding for improved nutrient uptake and increased fertilizer use efficiency [76]. Considerable researches support an important role for root hairs in P attainment [73, 74, 75, 77, 78]. Root hair length and root hair density (which is usually correlated with root hair length) have clear value for the acquisition of P and probably other diffusion-limited nutrients such as K and ammonium [79].
Usually root hair traits have a low heritability and their expression is influenced by soil type resulting in lack of research in this field [6, 80, 81]. It has been proposed that plasticity in root epidermis development as a response to a variety of environmental conditions might reflect a function of root hairs in sensing environmental signals, after which plants adjust themselves to the stress conditions, such as by increasing nutrient acquisition and water uptake or by helping to anchor the plant to the soil [82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87]. Root hair elongation increases root surface area. Root surface area increment is a common phenomenon when the plants are subjected to the stress condition like salinity, drought or other abiotic stresses [79, 88, 89, 90, 91].
2.3 Research progress of rice root study till date under osmotic stress
Plants recurrently face several stresses like salinity, drought, submergence, low temperature, heat, oxidative stress and heavy metal toxicity while exposed to the nature. Growth and grain production in cereals is often limited by these stresses under field conditions. All these stresses either directly or indirectly impose osmotic stress to plants that ultimately affect the final yield of rice. Root is the first part which can sense these stresses better than other plant parts. So researchers prioritize the fact of understanding the root adaptive responses of plants upon osmotic stress. In the last 30 years, comprehensive studies have been performed focusing on architecture and developmental morphology of roots and their genetic and molecular basis [11]. Morphological and anatomical development of the rice root system was thoroughly reviewed [92] whereas the mystery of root length was also reviewed [93]. A recent study highlighting the growth, development and genetic reasons of root morphology and function of crop plants was provided by [94]. An outstanding study on root system architecture and its molecular and genetic background also greatly contributed to the relevant literature recently [37]. The physiological background of root branching was also studied [7, 33]. The root parameters that are focused by the studies comprising root anatomy, plant height, root-shoot ratio, length, diameter, density, surface area and volume of root, root elongation rate, root branching, expansion of root regarding tiller development, maximum root depth, distribution pattern of root in soil column, root hydraulic conductivity, hardpan penetrability, all of which possess innumerable functional implication [95]. Roots of large diameter show greater penetration ability [96, 97, 98] and branching [8, 99] because of having larger radii of xylem vessel and poorer axial resistance to water flux [100].
2.3.1 Plasticity of root traits under drought
Water is essential for survival and plant growth. As a sessile organism, plants constantly encounter water deficit, which is the most severe environmental stress limiting plant growth and productivity in natural and agricultural systems [101, 102]. Thus, water stress tolerance has been a fundamental scientific question in plant biology.
Plants have evolved complex adaptive mechanisms that enable them to survive drought conditions. Over more than five decades, researchers have identified osmotic adjustment, antioxidant protection, and stomatal movement as key adaptive mechanisms for survival where both osmotic adjustment and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in this plastic development process [103]. To cope with the changing water status in the growing environment, plants have evolved various adaptive mechanisms by which plants can modify root allocation and root system architecture to obtain more water [104].
Numerous studies have provided evidence to show that when plants are subjected to water stress, root growth is strongly inhibited, although root development is less sensitive to water stress than that of shoots [105, 106, 107].
Root system architecture is regulated by osmotica [108]. The osmotic potential of the soil alters the depth of the root system, its overall mass, the rate of root elongation and the number of lateral roots in many plants, including Arabidopsis [8, 9, 107, 109, 110].
Root length, root dry weight, and root production are limited by drought stress [111, 112]. Roots are the significant plant part which increase plant adaptability power to soil water deficits by maintaining water uptake under dry conditions [113]. Root and other root components such as root hair, root-shoot ratio, and root length are found to be decreased in drought sensitive varieties. But the resistant varieties which possess tolerance capacity against drought showed increase in root hair, high root to shoot ratio and root length [114]. Roots are considered as the most efficient plant organ which helps plant to uptake water and minerals from the soil and during drought stress. Root proliferation and changes in root parts occurs to take more water from deeper regions of the soil [25]. Different types of changes are observed in root growth of drought resistant rice varieties such as a deeper and highly branched root system than drought- sensitive varieties [115]. Plant also extends its roots for more nutrients (such as phosphorus) and water uptake which results in more root to shoot ratio [116]. In recent years breeding for developing larger and more efficient root systems has become the hotspot in research in some crops such as rice, as there is a relation between root system size and tolerance to water stress [81, 117].
The change in lateral root development, i.e. in the plasticity of the root system, exhibited under water deficit conditions may play an important role in drought stress tolerance [35]. From an agronomical view, the knowledge about lateral root development is useful for breeding varieties with drought stress tolerance [118].
2.3.2 Modification of root system components under submergence stress
The importance of root system structure is particularly recognizable when its significance in relation to its function is clearly identified. The significance of root system structure in nutrient and water uptake was stressed in previous study [119].
Under waterlogged conditions, the plant roots have to function in anaerobic soil, and there are at least two morphological adaptations that roots exhibit in response to anaerobiosis, i.e., development of new adventitious roots [120, 121] and superficial rooting (i.e., the concentration of new root growth in the upper layers of the soil) [122]. Nodal root production (increase in number) continued to take place, however, in the sense that when adventitious roots in the lower nodal position of the plant’s stem die due to waterlogging injury, new adventitious roots appear at the next highest nodal position. There appears to be a direct relationship between the death of older adventitious roots and the development of new ones. Progressively waterlogged plants generally show smaller root system size than those grown in a well-drained condition. It is considered that the turgor pressure affects the cell elongation and growth of plants [123, 124]. Aerobic cultivars of rice have greater ability for plastic lateral root production than irrigated lowland cultivars under transient moisture stresses [125].
2.3.3 Plasticity of root traits under salinity stress
We have a little understanding of the responses of roots and root hairs to salinity stress and their function in stress tolerance. The efficient root system can either avoid or lessen the osmotic stress. Usually, growth, morphology, and physiology of the roots alter first under salinity stress and the whole plant is then affected. Therefore, the responses and characteristics of the roots under saline conditions are of primary importance for plant salt-tolerance [126]. It is supposed that root morphology affects salt accumulation around the roots impeding uptake of water from saline areas. Modification of root morphology has a big potential to develop crop salt tolerance [127]. Root hairs have higher sensitivity to salt than other root traits and shoots [128]. Environmental factors also regulate the root hair development [128]. The development of root epidermal cells has great plasticity where the differentiation programs can be switched from one to another in response to external factors [17]. Plasticity in development of root epidermis as a response to a variety of environmental conditions might reflect a function of root hairs in sensing environmental signals, after which plants adjust themselves to the stress conditions [82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 129].
Root hair growth and development and their physiological role in response to salt stress are largely unknown [128]. The development of root epidermis cells has great plasticity where the differentiation programs can be switched from one to another in response to external factors [17]. Root hairs have higher sensitivity to salinity than do roots and shoots [128]. Systematic study on root hair plasticity induced by salt stress and the possible role in plant adaptation/tolerance to salinity is still lacking [128]. Usually root hair traits have a low heritability and their expression is influenced by soil type resulting in lack of research in this field [6, 80, 81].
2.4 Varietal differences in rice root morphological characteristics
Earlier many scientists had reported root morphology and its distribution were greatly varied based on genotypes of plant species [13, 14, 15, 16]. There is widespread evidence that root architecture and different root characteristics of many crop species varies among genotypes [14, 130, 131, 132, 133]. In a few quite recent studies, the importance of studying root architectural traits has been emphasized for the adaptation of the crop varieties to various abiotic stress conditions. Genotypic variation has a significant role in adapting the adverse environmental and edaphic effects [14]. Inter- and intra-species variations in root architectural traits are very useful to breed the crops for root features optimum for diverse environmental conditions [134, 135, 136].
Root anatomical and morphological traits have been well studied in rice [92]. Varietal differences in root morphological characteristics such as length and thickness have been reported in cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) in various studies [11, 14, 41, 137]. In general, the roots of upland rice cultivars are thicker and penetrate more deeply into the soil than those of lowland cultivars [14]. Root distribution has also been quantitatively characterized by using several traits, including root length, volume, and density in the soil at different depths, and these characteristics differed among cultivars [92, 138, 139, 140].
3. Future prospects of rice root study
Understanding and improvement of root system and its genetics plays a pivotal role to become self-sufficient and to achieve sustainability in rice production. Actually more yields from the limited input rely on our capability to unambiguously manipulate the plants. And exploring the diversity of root architecture both in genetic and phenotypic basis will directly connect to this concern. Although great strides have been made to understand the root morphology but in future, more intense investigations to elucidate the functional implication of root morphological variation may aid in selection of root system with anticipated characteristics.
Future exploration of stress responses regulated by roots at cellular or tissue level will open the door of further breeding research. Besides the modern gene pools, exploration of genes and alleles in wild relatives and landraces will also provide interesting features that will be easier to transfer to cultivated rice. Further it is important to have a better understanding on the epigenetic regulation of roots and root development under stressful conditions. There will be a need for high throughput phenotyping systems coupled with automated data analysis for accelerating the development. Endorsement of approaches including both root ideotype-based screening and selection for grain yield may establish a fruitful screening system. Alongside designing new genetic screening methods based on a better knowledge of the integrated stress responses will be also appreciated. Dynamic root/soil interaction modeling will aid in integrating different functional parameters (e.g. water uptake per length of root) under a variety of environmental conditions. Overall the root system being less accessible and more complex than other agronomic traits, achieving the ambitious goal of future rice root research, coordinated effort and joint resources are required. The sensible and appropriate efforts will have a crucial role to play in future crop production in vulnerable climate and resource scarcity prioritizing the objective of serving food to 9 billion world populations by the year 2050.
Conflict of interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
\n',keywords:"Oryza sativa L., root system, osmotic stress, adaptive mechanisms, lateral roots",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73228.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73228.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73228",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73228",totalDownloads:123,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 1st 2020",dateReviewed:"August 31st 2020",datePrePublished:"September 25th 2020",datePublished:"March 3rd 2021",dateFinished:"September 16th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Being one of the major cereal crops, rice has a great effect on food security of the world population. But worldwide rice production faces severe threat due to a combination of factors like uncontrolled human rise, limited agricultural land and increasing environmental stresses. Coping with this situation is an urgent call for meeting the challenge. For overwhelming rice production by battling with this condition, scientists and researchers try their best to develop such rice varieties which can adapt to adverse climatic conditions. But, the majority of the research efforts are given on above ground parts of rice to make it stress tolerant. Root, one of the major parts of plant, remains unnoticed although it has immense possibility of adaptation under stress conditions. Fruitful and efficient utilization of limited resources are possible through healthier and competent root systems. Selection and breeding of rice genotypes with extensive root systems may contribute to more efficient use of soil nutrient resources and this ultimately influences the yield stability of rice.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73228",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73228",signatures:"Afsana Hannan, Md. Najmol Hoque, Lutful Hassan and Arif Hasan Khan Robin",book:{id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",publishedDate:"March 3rd 2021",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"322667",title:"Prof.",name:"Arif Hasan Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Robin",fullName:"Arif Hasan Khan Robin",slug:"arif-hasan-khan-robin",email:"gpb21bau@bau.edu.bd",position:null,institution:{name:"Bangladesh Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"322844",title:"Mrs.",name:"Afsana",middleName:null,surname:"Hannan",fullName:"Afsana Hannan",slug:"afsana-hannan",email:"afsana.gpb@bau.edu.bd",position:null,institution:null},{id:"329290",title:"Mr.",name:"Md. Najmol",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque",fullName:"Md. Najmol Hoque",slug:"md.-najmol-hoque",email:"najmulhaque466@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"329291",title:"Prof.",name:"Lutful",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",fullName:"Lutful Hassan",slug:"lutful-hassan",email:"lhassan.gpb@bau.edu.bd",position:null,institution:{name:"Bangladesh Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Progress in root study of rice under osmotic stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Reasons why root study has become the topic of interest",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Root system architecture of rice",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Phytomer concept",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Lateral roots",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Root hairs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.3 Research progress of rice root study till date under osmotic stress",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.3.1 Plasticity of root traits under drought",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.3.2 Modification of root system components under submergence stress",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.3.3 Plasticity of root traits under salinity stress",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.4 Varietal differences in rice root morphological characteristics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. 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DOI: 10.1093/jxb/43.7.925'},{id:"B101",body:'Hsiao TC. Plant responses to water stress. Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 1973; 24:519-570. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.pp.24.060173.002511'},{id:"B102",body:'Reddy AR, Chaitanya KV, Vivekananda M. Drought-induced responses of photosynthesis and antioxidant metabolism in higher plants. Journal of Plant Physiology. 2004; 161:1189-1202. DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2004.01.013'},{id:"B103",body:'Ji H, Liu L, Li K, Xie Q , Wang Z, Zhaom X, Li X. PEG-mediated osmotic stress induces premature differentiation of the root apical meristem and outgrowth of lateral roots in wheat. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2014; 65:4863-4872. DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eru255'},{id:"B104",body:'Ji H, Li X. ABA mediates PEG-mediated premature differentiation of root apical meristem in plants. Plant Signaling and Behavior. 2014; 9:e977720. DOI: 10.4161/15592324.2014.977720'},{id:"B105",body:'Westgate ME, Boyer JS. 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The Development of Plant Roots in Soil in Soil Conditions and Plant Growth. 9th ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York; 1961'},{id:"B110",body:'van der Weele CM, Spollen WG, Sharo RE, Baskin TI. Growth of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings under water deficit studied by control of water potential in nutrient-agar media. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2000; 51:1555-1562. DOI: 10.1093/jexbot/51.350.1555'},{id:"B111",body:'Anjum SA, Wang L, Farooq M, Khan I, Xue L. Methyl jasmonate-induced alteration in lipid peroxidation, antioxidative defence system and yield in soybean under drought. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 2011; 197:296-301. DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00468.x'},{id:"B112",body:'Bansal R, Pradheep K, Kumari J, Kumar S, Yadav MC, Gurung B, Kumari NK, Rana JC. Physiological and biochemical evaluation for drought tolerance in wheat germplasm collected from arid western plains of India. 2016'},{id:"B113",body:'Turner NC. Drought resistance and adaptation to water deficits in crop plants. Stress physiology in crop plants. 1979; 343-372'},{id:"B114",body:'Huang B, Fry JD. Root anatomical, physiological, and morphological responses to drought stress for tall fescue cultivars. Crop Science. 1998; 38:1017-1022. DOI: 10.2135/cropsci1998.0011183X003800040022x'},{id:"B115",body:'Price AH, Tomos AD, Virk DS. Genetic dissection of root growth in rice (Oryza sativa L.) I. A hydrophonic screen. Theoretical Applied Genetics. 1997; 95:132-142. DOI: 10.1007/s001220050542'},{id:"B116",body:'Narang RA, Bruene A, Altmann T. Analysis of phosphate acquisition efficiency in different Arabidopsis accessions. Plant Physiology. 2000; 124,1786-1799. DOI: 10.1104/pp.124.4.1786'},{id:"B117",body:'Price AH, Steele K, Gorham J, Bridges J, Moore B, Evans J, Richardson P, Jones RGW. Upland rice grown in soil-filled chambers and exposed to contrasting water-deficit regimes I. Root distribution, water use and plant water status. Field Crops Research. 2002; 76:11-24. DOI: 10.1016/S0378-4290(02)00010-2'},{id:"B118",body:'Ogawa A, Kawashima C, Yamauchi A. Sugar accumulation along the seminal root axis, as affected by osmotic stress in maize: A possible physiological basis for plastic lateral root development. Plant Production Science. 2005; 8:173-180. DOI: 10.1626/pps.8.173'},{id:"B119",body:'Bray RH. A nutrient mobility concept of soil-plant relationship. Soil Science. 1954;78:9-22. DOI: 10.1097/00010694-195407000-00002'},{id:"B120",body:'Kono Y, Yamauchi A, Nonoyama T, Tatsumi J. Comparison of growth responses to waterlogging of summer cereals with reference to rooting ability. Japanese Journal of Crop Science. 1988; 57:321-331. DOI: 10.1626/jcs.57.321'},{id:"B121",body:'Yamauchi A, Kono Y, Tatsumi J, Inagaki N. Comparison of the capacities of water-logging and drought tolerances among winter cereals. Japanese Journal of Crop Science. 1988; 57:163-173. 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Genotypic variation in patterns of root distribution, nitrate interception and response to moisture stress of a perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) mapping population. Grass and Forage Science. 2007; 62:265-273. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2494.2007.00583.x'},{id:"B132",body:'Whalley W, Dodd I, Watts C, Webster C, Phillips A, Andralojc J, White R, Davies W, Parry M. Genotypic variation in the ability of wheat roots to penetrate wax layers. Plant and Soil. 2013; 364:171-179. DOI: 10.1007/s11104-012-1342-0'},{id:"B133",body:'Hebbar KB, Rane J, Ramana S, Panwar N, Ajay S, Rao AS, Prasad P. Natural variation in the regulation of leaf senescence and relation to N and root traits in wheat. Plant and Soil. 2014; 378:99-112. DOI: 10.1007/s11104-013-2012-6'},{id:"B134",body:'Bouteille M, Rolland G, Balsera C, Loudet O, Muller B. Disentangling the intertwined genetic bases of root and shoot growth in Arabidopsis. PLoS One. 2012;7e32319. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032319'},{id:"B135",body:'De Deyn GB, Cornelissen JH, Bardgett RD. Plant functional traits and soil carbon sequestration in contrasting biomes. Ecology Letters. 2008; 11:516-531. DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01164.x'},{id:"B136",body:'Lynch JP. Roots of the second green revolution. Australian Journal of Botany. 2007; 55:493-512. DOI: 10.1071/BT06118'},{id:"B137",body:'Nupur JA, Hannan A, Islam MAU, Sagor GHM, Robin AHK. Root Development and Anti-Oxidative Response of Rice Genotypes under Polyethylene Glycol Induced Osmotic Stress. Plant Breeding and Biotechnology.2020; 8:151-162. DOI: 10.9787/PBB.2020.8.2.151'},{id:"B138",body:'Nemoto H, Suga R, Ishihara M, Okutsu Y. Deep rooted rice varieties detected through the observation of root characteristics using the trench method. Breeding Science. 1998; 48:321-324. DOI: 10.1270/jsbbs1951.48.321'},{id:"B139",body:'Hirayama M, Nemoto H, Hirasawa H. Relation between root system and drought resistance in Japanese upland rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties with medium to late maturing under field conditions. Japanese Journal of Crop Science. 2007; 76:245-252. DOI: 10.1626/jcs.76.245'},{id:"B140",body:'Kato Y, Kamoshita A, Yamagishi J, Imoto H, Abe J. Growth of rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars under upland conditions with different levels of water supply. Plant Production Science, 2007; 10:3-13. DOI: 10.1626/pps.10.3'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Afsana Hannan",address:null,affiliation:'
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He received M.D. and Ph.D. degree. In 2012, Oiso serves as an Associate Professor at Departments of Dermatology and Patient Safety & Management, Kinki University Faculty of Medicine, in Osaka-Sayama, Osaka, Japan. In 1988, he was a student at Osaka City University School of Medicine in Osaka, Japan. In 1997, Dr. Oiso was a graduate student at Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine in Osaka, Japan. In 2001, he was a Postdoctoral Fellow at Human Medical Genetics Program, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center in Denver, USA. 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He was a resident at the Department of Dermatology, Chiba University School of Medicine, Chiba, Japan, in 1989 and at the National Hospital Organization Chiba Medical Hospital, Chiba, Japan, in 1991. He was a staff dermatologist at Self-Defense Forces Central Hospital, Tokyo, Japan, in 1991; Second Department of Dermatology, Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan, in 1992; and Tokyo Metropolitan Police Hospital, Tokyo, Japan, in 1993. Moreover, he was a Visiting Research Fellow at the Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, USA, in 1995 and at the Division of Rheumatology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, USA, in 1996. In addition, he was a staff dermatologist at the Second Department of Dermatology, Toho University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan, in 1997 and the Department of Dermatology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan, in 2000. In 2002, he was an Assistant Professor at the Department of Dermatology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, Kawasaki, Japan, and since 2006, he has been an Associate Professor. His research interests include vasculitis, connective tissue disease, atopic dermatitis, melanocyte, and fibroblast. Kawakami received the 2nd International Conference on Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (ICCLE) Awards (2008), The first Eastern Asia Dermatology Congress (EADC) Award (2010), and the Japanese Society of Investigative Dermatology (JSID) Award (2010). He is a Section Editor of The Journal of Dermatology (2010).\r\nBiography Updated on 5 November 2010\r\n\r\nTamihiro Kawakami, M.D., Ph. D.\r\nDepartment of Dermatology, St. Marianna University School of Medicine, \r\n2-16-1 Sugao, Miyamae-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511, Japan\r\nTel: +81-44-977-8111\r\nFax: +81-44-977-3540\r\nE-mail: tami@marianna-u.ac.jp",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St. Marianna University School of Medicine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
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As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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If your manuscript:
\n\n
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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