The average total length (μM) of chromosomes collected from different province in Iraq.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8191",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Life Cycle and Development of Diptera",title:"Life Cycle and Development of Diptera",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Diptera, or true flies, are of considerable economic importance, as these flies have a valuable role as scavengers, parasitoids and predators of other insects, pollinators, food for predators, bio-indicators of water quality, and tools for scientific research. In nine chapters, this book examines various aspects of flies of the order Diptera as well as some types of mosquitos and midges. Topics covered include taxonomy, phylogeny, life cycle, feeding habits, population control strategies, and more. A unique chapter on forensic entomology is particularly interesting. Beautifully illustrated and expertly researched, this volume will appeal to entomologists, biologists, and naturalists.",isbn:"978-1-83880-226-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-225-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-738-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78142",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"life-cycle-and-development-of-diptera",numberOfPages:182,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3610997886df57ea1ec1cf71b0ff8ce2",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarwar",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8191.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6109,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:13,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:29,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:45,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 2nd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 2nd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 20th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 20th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272992/images/system/272992.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Sarwar, Principal Scientist, is in his thirtieth year of service with the Department of Agriculture, Government of Punjab. He is also currently working for the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. He completed his post doctorate in 2008, funded by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan from the Institute of Plant Protection in the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. He has several hundred published papers to his credit and is recipient of the Shield award, letters of appreciation, and certificates of performance from faculty members of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China. In 2010, the Zoological Society of Pakistan presented him with the Prof. Dr. Mirza Azhar Beg Gold Medal. In 2011, the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology awarded him a Research Productivity Award.\n\nHis research activities focus on integrated pest management for rice, cotton, chickpea, and Brassica crops; predatory mites, ladybird beetles, Chrysoperla, Trichogramma, and parasitoids of fruit flies culturing as bio-control agents; integrated management of fruit flies and mosquitos; and other arthropod pest control methodologies. He has also researched vertebrate pest control, especially controls of rodents in field crops and storage. He was the first to explore thirty-six new species of stored grain mites belonging to eight genera, including Forcellinia, Lackerbaueria, Acotyledon, Caloglyphus, and Troupeauia in the Acaridae family; and Capronomoia, Histiostoma, and Glyphanoetus in the Histiostomatidae family. He also planned and designed research trials on the integrated management of cotton leaf curl virus (CLCV), pest scouting, pest monitoring, and forecasting. He conducted training of progressive farmers and field staff, and provided advisory services to the farmers regarding plant protection practices. He also trained pesticide dealers on the proper handling, distribution, and storing of pesticides.\n\nUnder a coordinated research program, Dr. Sarwar collaborated with other institutes to trace resistance sources for cotton, rice, gram, rapeseed, mustard plants, and stored cereals and pulses. He has supervised post-graduate research and is an external examiner for post-graduate studies. He has also organized various workshops, served as a reviewer for scientific journals, and is a member of various working committees. He is responsible for opening up a new avenue on rearing of predatory mites as bio-control agents of insects and mites pests in greenhouse and field crops.\n\t\nDr. Sarwar is an approved supervisor with the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan. He completed a course in Basic Management organized by the Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Islamabad, in 2011. He has also completed trainings in Beijing, Bangkok, Havana, and Vienna. His is a lifetime member of the Zoological Society of Pakistan.",institutionString:"National Institute for Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"39",title:"Insectology",slug:"insectology"}],chapters:[{id:"71425",title:"Typical Flies: Natural History, Lifestyle and Diversity of Diptera",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91391",slug:"typical-flies-natural-history-lifestyle-and-diversity-of-diptera",totalDownloads:1139,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Order Diptera, comprising of two-winged or true flies, is one of the most commonly recognized and widespread insects all over the world. During their long evolutionary history, virtually every terrestrial and aquatic niche has been occupied by Diptera, thus making these one of the most successful groups of organisms on earth. The main purpose of this chapter is to provide modern, well-illustrated and easily interpretable information for economic importance, life histories, habits and habitats, lifestyles, diversity, identifying and studying, pharmaceutical and industrial applications, ecological and human services, pests and vectors of diseases, predators and herbivores, pollination and biological control agents, association with carcasses, forensic science, phylogeny and classification of Diptera. Without doubt, this fragment of book provides the basics for understanding diversity of a major order of insects and is the first such synopsis of its kind for scientists and public alike.",signatures:"Muhammad Sarwar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71425",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71425",authors:[{id:"272992",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sarwar",slug:"muhammad-sarwar",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar"}],corrections:null},{id:"68802",title:"Taxonomic Shifts in Philornis Larval Behaviour and Rapid Changes in Philornis downsi Dodge & Aitken (Diptera: Muscidae): An Invasive Avian Parasite on the Galápagos Islands",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88854",slug:"taxonomic-shifts-in-em-philornis-em-larval-behaviour-and-rapid-changes-in-em-philornis-downsi-em-dod",totalDownloads:615,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The parasitic larvae of Philornis downsi Dodge & Aitken (Diptera: Muscidae) were first discovered in Darwin’s finch nests on the Galápagos Islands in 1997. Larvae of P. downsi consume the blood and tissue of developing birds, causing high in-nest mortality in their Galápagos hosts. The fly has been spreading across the archipelago and is considered the biggest threat to the survival of Galápagos land birds. Here, we review (1) Philornis systematics and taxonomy, (2) discuss shifts in feeding habits across Philornis species comparing basal to more recently evolved groups, (3) report on differences in the ontogeny of wild and captive P. downsi larvae, (4) describe what is known about adult P. downsi behaviour, and (5) discuss changes in P. downsi behaviour since its discovery on the Galápagos Islands. From 1997 to 2010, P. downsi larvae have been rarely detected in Darwin’s finch nests with eggs. Since 2012, P. downsi larvae have regularly been found in the nests of incubating Darwin’s finches. Exploring P. downsi ontogeny and behaviour in the larger context of taxonomic relationships provides clues about the breadth of behavioural flexibility that may facilitate successful colonisation.",signatures:"Lauren K. Common, Rachael Y. Dudaniec, Diane Colombelli-Négrel and Sonia Kleindorfer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68802",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68802",authors:[{id:"302628",title:"Prof.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Kleindorfer",slug:"sonia-kleindorfer",fullName:"Sonia Kleindorfer"},{id:"309409",title:"Ms.",name:"Lauren",surname:"Common",slug:"lauren-common",fullName:"Lauren Common"},{id:"309410",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachael",surname:"Dudaniec",slug:"rachael-dudaniec",fullName:"Rachael Dudaniec"},{id:"309411",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",surname:"Colombelli-Négrel",slug:"diane-colombelli-negrel",fullName:"Diane Colombelli-Négrel"}],corrections:null},{id:"72809",title:"Life Cycle and Cytogenetic Study of Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93219",slug:"life-cycle-and-cytogenetic-study-of-mosquitoes-diptera-culicidae-",totalDownloads:619,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mosquitoes fall into the Culicidae family of the order Diptera within class Insecta and members of the phylum Arthropod. This family includes two important medical and veterinary important disease vectors due to their roles for transmission of various viruses, bacteria, and parasites—Anophelinae and Culicinae. The mosquitoes undergo four stages of transformation during their lifetime: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. These have complete metamorphoses or so called Holometabola. Commonly known as the southern house mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus Say is a medium-sized brown insect that exists throughout the tropics and the lower latitudes of temperate regions, and a vector of many pathogens of humans as well as both domestic and wild animals. Although an intensified interest in mosquito cytogenetics in the past decade has produced a number of contributions to knowledge on this subject, the available information is still superficial and limited to a few mosquito species only. Therefore, the karyotype of the populations of the mosquito C. quinquefasciatus has been studied collected from three provinces: Babylon, Baghdad, and Wasit of Iraq. The study showed that the chromosomes karyotyping of this species consisted of three pairs of chromosomes (i.e., 2n = 6). In conclusion, it is stressed that prospects are especially good for evolutionary and genetic studies involving chromosomal polymorphism.",signatures:"Sahar Abd",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72809",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72809",authors:[{id:"301713",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahar",surname:"Abd",slug:"sahar-abd",fullName:"Sahar Abd"}],corrections:null},{id:"69709",title:"The Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus): The Breeding Sites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88852",slug:"the-yellow-fever-mosquito-em-aedes-aegypti-em-linnaeus-the-breeding-sites",totalDownloads:631,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Important information about yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) and the identification and quantification of the main Brazilian breeding sites for this vector are highlighted in this chapter. Although most of the control actions have been directed to the adult (winged) phase of the vector, the reduction of immature forms (eggs and larvae) of Aedes is the most important way to control these insects, especially to eliminate breeding sites. These are, in principle, the most important targets for mosquito population control in order to reduce infestation and, consequently, the transmission and incidence of diseases transmitted by insect vectors. Thus, this chapter presents a compilation and discussion that allows comparing characteristics and similarities of Aedes species.",signatures:"Márcia Ramos Jorge, Antonio Pancrácio de Souza, Ricardo Augusto dos Passos, Silvia Maria Martelli, Chaiane Regina Rech, Alexeia Barufatti, Bruno do Amaral Crispim, Helina dos Santos Nascimento and Eduardo José de Arruda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69709",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69709",authors:[{id:"98721",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexeia",surname:"Grisolia",slug:"alexeia-grisolia",fullName:"Alexeia Grisolia"},{id:"186109",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Do Amaral Crispim",slug:"bruno-do-amaral-crispim",fullName:"Bruno Do Amaral Crispim"},{id:"301356",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Arruda",slug:"eduardo-arruda",fullName:"Eduardo Arruda"},{id:"308802",title:"MSc.",name:"Márcia",surname:"Jorge",slug:"marcia-jorge",fullName:"Márcia Jorge"},{id:"308803",title:"Dr.",name:"António",surname:"Souza",slug:"antonio-souza",fullName:"António Souza"},{id:"308804",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Martelli",slug:"silvia-martelli",fullName:"Silvia Martelli"},{id:"308805",title:"MSc.",name:"Chaiane",surname:"Rech",slug:"chaiane-rech",fullName:"Chaiane Rech"},{id:"308806",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Dos Passos",slug:"ricardo-dos-passos",fullName:"Ricardo Dos Passos"},{id:"309891",title:"MSc.",name:"Hélina",surname:"Dos Santos Nascimento",slug:"helina-dos-santos-nascimento",fullName:"Hélina Dos Santos Nascimento"}],corrections:null},{id:"69875",title:"Characterization of the Proliferation Sites of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Artificial Breeding Sites of Caxias, Maranhão, Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89959",slug:"characterization-of-the-proliferation-sites-of-em-aedes-aegypti-em-diptera-culicidae-in-the-artifici",totalDownloads:610,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) is dispersed throughout the Brazilian territory, being a transmitter of dengue and other arboviruses. This study analyzes the main breeding of A. aegypti in semi-arid tropical region. Samples have been collected for 12 months in the dry and rainy periods to watch the main breeding and characteristics of the proliferation sites. Most of the positive containers have been from the storage group (75.96%) found with immature forms mainly in the rainy season, with a predominance of containers having a height superior to 50 cm, protected from the sun and with organic matter. Theses breeding sites, where A. aegypti performs oviposition and survives in the dry season too.",signatures:"Aylane Tamara dos Santos Andrade, Juliana Maria Trindade Bezerra and Valéria Cristina Soares Pinheiro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69875",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69875",authors:[{id:"302800",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeria Cristina",surname:"Pinheiro",slug:"valeria-cristina-pinheiro",fullName:"Valeria Cristina Pinheiro"},{id:"309956",title:"MSc.",name:"Aylane Tamara",surname:"Dos Santos Andrade",slug:"aylane-tamara-dos-santos-andrade",fullName:"Aylane Tamara Dos Santos Andrade"},{id:"309957",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Juliana",surname:"Trindade Bezerra",slug:"maria-juliana-trindade-bezerra",fullName:"Maria Juliana Trindade Bezerra"}],corrections:null},{id:"72710",title:"Post-Embryonic Development of Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti Linnaeus, 1762 at Different Temperatures and CO2 Concentrations, and Their Influences on Hatching and Development of Stabilized Population",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93100",slug:"post-embryonic-development-of-em-aedes-em-em-stegomyia-em-em-aegypti-em-linnaeus-1762-at-different-t",totalDownloads:393,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This research aimed to verify biological parameters of Aedes aegypti Linnaeus, from Londrina, Paraná, in an incubator chamber (BOD) with different temperatures, and to analyze biological aspects of this mosquito from Manaus, Amazonas, in environments simulating the climatic conditions provided by the IPCC. In Londrina, the eggs were incubated for 10 days in BOD at different temperatures. The viability of eggs, number of adults, and mortality rate were analyzed later. In Manaus, the biological cycle time, number of adults, and mortality rate were analyzed in environmental rooms with different temperatures and CO2 concentrations. The viability of eggs and the number of adults from Londrina was greater at 5 and 25°C, while the mortality rate of immatures was greater at 0°C; eggs incubated at 45°C did not hatch. Mosquitoes from Manaus completed the fastest biological cycle in room 4. The mortality percentage in the different instars for rooms 1, 2 and 4 was: 14.4; 28 and 53.6%, respectively. Thus, temperatures from 5 to 29.74°C were more appropriate since values outside these limits can cause deleterious effects on the species during its development, but the A. aegypti mosquitoes from Londrina and Manaus can benefit from the increase in temperature stipulated by the IPCC.",signatures:"Ediane Oliveira do Amaral, André Felipe da Silva, William Ribeiro da Silva, Karina Rossi da Silva, Rosemary Aparecida Roque, Wanderli Pedro Tadei and João Antonio Cyrino Zequi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72710",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72710",authors:[{id:"187928",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao",surname:"Zequi",slug:"joao-zequi",fullName:"Joao Zequi"},{id:"320494",title:"Mr.",name:"Ediane",surname:"Amaral",slug:"ediane-amaral",fullName:"Ediane Amaral"},{id:"320495",title:"Ms.",name:"André",surname:"Silva",slug:"andre-silva",fullName:"André Silva"},{id:"320496",title:"Ms.",name:"William",surname:"Silva",slug:"william-silva",fullName:"William Silva"},{id:"320497",title:"Mr.",name:"Karina",surname:"Silva",slug:"karina-silva",fullName:"Karina Silva"},{id:"320498",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosemary",surname:"Roque",slug:"rosemary-roque",fullName:"Rosemary Roque"},{id:"320499",title:"Dr.",name:"Wanderli",surname:"Tadei",slug:"wanderli-tadei",fullName:"Wanderli Tadei"}],corrections:null},{id:"72176",title:"Bioecology of Blossom Midge of Jasmine, Contarinia maculipennis Felt (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera) in Different Jasminum Cultivars",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92410",slug:"bioecology-of-blossom-midge-of-jasmine-em-contarinia-maculipennis-em-felt-cecidomyiidae-diptera-in-d",totalDownloads:671,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Jasmine is a well-renowned flower around the world especially in the tropics because of its unique fragrance. Jasminum sambac, Jasminum auriculatum, Jasminum grandiflorum, and Jasminum nitidum are the four cultivable species of Jasminum. Blossom midge, Contarinia maculipennis Felt (Cecidomyiidae, Diptera), a dipteran pest, has attained the status of a major pest causing severe economic loss by reducing the marketable quality of the flowers. To compare the lifecycle of the notorious midge in all the cultivable Jasminum species, a detailed laboratory study was conducted at the Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India. The observations on life cycle parameters of blossom midge, C. maculipennis, revealed that the life cycle consists of egg, maggot, pupa, and adult. The life cycle and duration of each stage are found to be the shortest on J. nitidum and the longest on J. sambac.",signatures:"I. Merlin Kamala",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72176",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72176",authors:[{id:"302105",title:"Dr.",name:"Merlin",surname:"Isaac Kamala",slug:"merlin-isaac-kamala",fullName:"Merlin Isaac Kamala"}],corrections:null},{id:"70376",title:"Phylogeny and Functional Morphology of Diptera (Flies)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90421",slug:"phylogeny-and-functional-morphology-of-diptera-flies-",totalDownloads:795,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The order Diptera includes all true flies. Members of this order are the most ecologically diverse and probably have a greater economic impact on humans than any other group of insects. The application of explicit methods of phylogenetic and morphological analysis has revealed weaknesses in the traditional classification of dipteran insects, but little progress has been made to achieve a robust, stable classification that reflects evolutionary relationships and morphological adaptations for a more precise understanding of their developmental biology and behavioral ecology. The current status of Diptera phylogenetics is reviewed in this chapter. Also, key aspects of the morphology of the different life stages of the flies, particularly characters useful for taxonomic purposes and for an understanding of the group’s biology have been described with an emphasis on newer contributions and progress in understanding this important group of insects.",signatures:"Benjamin Kongyeli Badii",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70376",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70376",authors:[{id:"255044",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin Kongyeli",surname:"Badii",slug:"benjamin-kongyeli-badii",fullName:"Benjamin Kongyeli Badii"}],corrections:null},{id:"71322",title:"Diptera Development: A Forensic Science Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90859",slug:"diptera-development-a-forensic-science-perspective",totalDownloads:638,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Insects, particularly Diptera, can reveal a great deal of information to investigators. By using known developmental data along with the common pattern of development displayed by flies, the time of colonization (and by logical extension, the postmortem interval) may be determined. This method requires investigators to know the exact development data of the insects at a scene and be able to do some simple calculations based on the concept of degree days (DD) or degree hours (DH). This chapter will give an overview of the methods currently used by forensic entomologists to translate the developmental cycle of flies into usable data for a crime scene.",signatures:"Adrienne Brundage",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71322",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71322",authors:[{id:"228836",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrienne",surname:"Brundage",slug:"adrienne-brundage",fullName:"Adrienne Brundage"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6895",title:"Moths",subtitle:"Pests of Potato, Maize and Sugar Beet",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"53f66556fd9bcdc455a639838d45c2d8",slug:"moths-pests-of-potato-maize-and-sugar-beet",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6895.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6400",title:"The Complex World of Ants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f90ac84c1aa317bb2557af3b7cc09091",slug:"the-complex-world-of-ants",bookSignature:"Vonnie Shields",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6400.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82613",title:"Dr.",name:"Vonnie D.C.",surname:"Shields",slug:"vonnie-d.c.-shields",fullName:"Vonnie D.C. 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\r\n\tElectromagnetic interference (EMI) problems have been attracting considerable attention due to the extensive use of electromagnetic (EM) waves in wireless communications. EM waves of 0.8–1.2 GHz are used for mobile phones, 2.45 GHz for electronic ranges, 5.6–8.2 GHz (G-band) for synthetic aperture radar (SAR) or microwave communication on the ground, 8.2–12.4 GHz (X-band) and 12.4–18 (Ku-band) for SAR or electron spin resonance (ESR) apparatus. Microwave absorbing material has regained considerable importance as these play a key role in stealth technology where these materials are used in the form of paint coated on the surface of the object to reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) effectively. Apart from radar cross-section reduction, microwave absorber finds applications in other fields as well, such as in electronic applications for antenna’s sidelobe reduction, construction of anechoic chamber, preservation of electromagnetic interference, as protective sheets in a microwave oven, removal of ghost images in TV pictures, noise suppression in cellular phones, etc. This book will tend to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art and history of materials comprising of magnetic, dielectric and industrial waste used in this critically important area.
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They use all warm-blooded animals, causing severe uncomfortable and serious harm due to loss of blood, itching, and allergies as well as transmission of pathogens [1].
Carbon dioxide, which is emitted from respiration as well as sweat, is an attractive substance for mosquitoes [2]. The symptoms or reactions caused by mosquito bites are pink rash around the attacked spot accompanied by itching and pain, and may be accompanied by symptoms of allergies. The saliva of mosquitoes contains chemical components which cause these symptoms on the hosts.
Mosquitoes attack exposed parts of the nose, ears, and limbs, and there is record of a few hundred
The nature of mosquito adults in their frequency to a number of families for feeding makes these important to transport pathogens from the infected person or animal to a healthy person or animal [6]. The mosquitoes occupy an important place among the medical insects carrying dangerous pathogens that lead to human death. The most serious of these causes are the cases of malaria, which is due to the species of
At least 20 species of malaria pathogens have been registered in South Asia, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. The most serious pathogens transmitting species are
The
Yellow fever, which is a short-term acute illness, often causes death and starts with fever, headaches, and jaundice. The patient’s color becomes yellow, internal bleeding and vomiting can occur, and death may take place within 3 days. This type of disease is transmitted by
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Hexapoda
Class: Insecta
Subclass: Pterygota
Order: Diptera
Suborder: Nematocera
Family: Culicidae
Subfamily: Culicinae [13]
The fragmentary data available on mosquito life cycle and cytogenetics clearly indicate the kind and amount of future work to be done. Out of so many kinds of mosquitos thus far described, there have been life cycle and cytogenetics information on fewer species and much of this is very superficial. Therefore, the life cycle and the karyotype of the populations of the mosquito
Mosquitoes fall in the Culicidae family of the Diptera order. This family includes two medically important subfamilies: Anophelinae and Culicinae [14]. The Culicidae family has about 3500 species of mosquitoes belonging to 43 genera, including
However, most of the available classification keys should be used with caution because the phenotypic traits of females may be either multiform or overlapping. The morphological characteristics of the fourth larval stage are also used to determine species; however, some overlaps between species may also be difficulties for the researchers to obtain an accurate classification of mosquito species. Despite the significant phenotypic similarity between the
Mosquitoes are widespread in all the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, which extend into the Arctic Circle but are absent in Antarctica [17]. The eggs from temperate breeds have more strain than those found in warmer regions [18]. Mosquitoes are found at a height of 550 m and a depth of 1250 m below sea level [19]. The shallow-water marshes containing plants are a preferred environment for the growth and reproduction of mosquitoes. The most important species that prefer these environments are the types of
Most mosquitoes mate shortly after leaving the envelope of the pupa. The sperms are passed by the male and are saved by the female within the spermatheca and all eggs can be fertilized in the female throughout her life. Therefore, one mating is sufficient for each female throughout her lifetime [7].
Female mosquitoes need to obtain the blood meal necessary for egg growth and maturity. This is referred to as the development of anautogenous development, as in the case of type
Female often need a blood meal either before or after mating before they mature. Many species draw on humans to get their meals from the blood and feed a little on human blood by preference for any other animal so these are called anthropophilic species in their dietary habits, while those that feed primarily on animals (mammals, reptiles, and birds) are animal lover zoophilic, and mosquitoes feeding on birds are called bird lovers ornithophilic [21].
Some mosquitoes prefer feeding at specific times of the day, such as dusk, dawn, or midnight, but daytime feeding can also occur. A few mosquitoes enter homes often for human feeding and are called endophagic feeders in their eating habits, while those that bite outside of their homes are called exophagic [7].
All mosquito species go through four stages during their life cycles (Figure 1):
egg—hatches when exposed to water;
larva—“wriggler” lives in water and most species come to surface to breathe air;
pupa—“tumbler” does not feed and it is the stage just before emerging as an adult; and
adult—flies short time after emerging and after its body parts have hardened.
Life cycle of mosquito.
The mosquitoes undergo four stages of transformation during their lifetime: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. These have complete metamorphoses or are called Holometabola (Figure 1). Females usually mate once but put eggs in several batches throughout their lives, the largest of which is the first batch. For a female to do so, she must feed more than once on the blood. The blood meal is digested 2–3 days in the tropics and more so in the temperate regions. Pregnant females look for suitable place to lay eggs. They feed on the blood to put another egg batch. This process is repeated until the mosquito dies, which may last up to 1 month. Eggs are usually brown and long cylindrical, placed vertically on the surface of the water and laid together to form an egg raft, which can contain 30–300 eggs (Figure 2). The
Egg raft of
Larva of
The larvae are transformed into the pupa and are of the type of active pupa (Figure 4), which differ in their appearance from the larvae. The large cephalothorax region includes the head and its tail represents the belly of the complete insect. The tail ends with a pair of paddles. Within water, the weight of the pupa is lighter than the weight of water, so they rise again to the surface of the water slowly through the raft or float. The pupa has a pair of trumpets respiratory connected directly to the open air and is used to breathe [11].
Pupa of
The adult’s length is between 3.96 and 4.25 mm (Figure 5), and it is are made up of a head with two large compound eyes, a thorax, a pair of scaled wings, and six jointed legs. The thorax, legs, and wings are covered with dark brown scales. The abdomen is covered with black scales and some of which are white, and the anal cercus is withdrawn. The adults rest on the surfaces in such a way that the thorax and head are parallel to the surface and the hose may form a small angle with the surface. The antenna of the male is plumose, easily visible near the eye and the antenna of the female is pilose [14].
Female adult of
Male mosquitoes last less than a week and the females may live for a couple of months and that is only with ideal conditions depending on how much warmth and moisture. Sometimes females have to wait for about a day for their reproductive parts to develop completely.
The role of mosquitoes life cycle to manage their populations is vital throughout the world and especially in the tropics because these spread many diseases. Generally, mosquitoes control operations are targeted against three different problems; nuisance mosquitoes bother people around homes, in parks, and recreational areas; economically important mosquitoes reduce real estate values consisting of land and the buildings, adversely affecting tourism and related business interests; and public health is the focus when mosquitoes are vectors or transmitters of infectious diseases [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. Therefore, mosquitoes prevention and control involves a basic understanding of their life cycle, removal of potential egg laying sites, removal of any sources of standing water, keeping of weeds and other vegetation mowed and trimmed to minimize shelter for adult mosquitoes, considering stocking of mosquitoes eating fish for areas with ponds, control of adult mosquitoes, and personal protection [28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38].
During the last so many years, there has been a renewed emphasis upon basic research in mosquito biology. The dramatic development of resistance over the world and the unequivocal demonstration of the genetic basis of this resistance have underlined the need for more research and increasingly intensive research on the genetics and cytogenetics of mosquitoes, and today, relatively little is known in this field.
The study shows that the chromosomes karyotyping of this species consists of three pairs of chromosomes (i.e., 2n = 6). There are one pair of sexual chromosomes and two pairs of autosomal chromosomes (Figure 6).
Three pairs of chromosomes of
The average length for autosomal chromosomes collected from Baghdad province is 5.87 and 6.99 μM for chromosome 2 and chromosome 3, respectively, and the length of sexual chromosome is 4.46 μM, the average length for autosomal chromosomes collected from Babylon province is 5.51 and 6.96 μM for chromosome 2 to chromosome 3, respectively, and the length of sexual chromosome is 4.33 μM; while the average length for autosomal chromosomes collected from Wasit province is 5.5 and 6.97 μM for chromosome 2 and chromosome 3, respectively, and the length of sexual chromosome is 3.89 μM (Table 1).
Region | Ch. No. | ||
---|---|---|---|
Ch. I* M ± S.D | Ch. II** M ± S.D | Ch. III** M ± S.D | |
Baghdad | 4.46 ± 1 a | 5.87 ± 1 a | 6.99 ± 1 a |
Babail | 4.33 ± 1 a | 5.51 ± 1.52 a | 6.96 ± 1 a |
Wasit | 3.89 ± 1 a | 5.5 ± 1.52 a | 6.97 ± 1 a |
P = 0.7721 | P = 0.7793 | P = 1.0 |
The average total length (μM) of chromosomes collected from different province in Iraq.
*Sexual chromosomes.
**Mean autosomal chromosomes.
When measuring the arm ratio for the autosomal and sexual chromosomes, it shows that the metacentric chromosomes show the average arm ratio for the chromosomes of the Baghdad province as 1.21, 1.28, and 1.25 μM for chromosomes 1, 2, and 3, respectively; the ratio of arm to autosomal and sexual chromosomes of Babylon as 1.18, 1.15, and 1.20 μM from chromosome 1 to chromosome 3, respectively; and the ratio of arm of the autosomal and sexual chromosomes of the Wasit province as 1.27, 1.20, and 1.30 μM from chromosome 1 to chromosome 3, respectively (Table 2).
Region | Ch. No. | ||
---|---|---|---|
Ch. I* M ± S.D | Ch. II** M ± S.D | Ch. III** M ± S.D | |
Baghdad | 1.21 ± 1 a | 1.28 ± 1 a | 1.25 ± 1 a |
Babail | 1.18 ± 1 a | 1.1 a | 1.20 ± 1 a |
Wasit | 1.27 ± 1 a | 1.20 ± 1 a | 1.30 ± 1 a |
p = 0.99 | p = 0.99 | p = 0.99 |
The average arm ratio for the chromosomes of the different provinces in Iraq.
*Sexual chromosomes.
**Mean autosomal chromosomes.
In regard to the relative length for the autosomal chromosomes, the average length of the relative chromosomes of the Baghdad is 33.98 and 40.18% for chromosome 2 and chromosome 3, respectively, and the relative length of the sexual chromosome is 25.8%, while the relative length of the chromosomes of the Babylon is 32.32 and 41.42% in the case of chromosome 2 and chromosome 3, respectively; the relative length of the sexual chromosome is 25.77%. As for the Wasit province, the relative length of chromosomes is 33.61 and 42.6% in case of chromosome 2 and chromosome 3, respectively, and the rate of relative length of sexual chromosome is the 23.78% (Table 3).
Region | Ch. No. | ||
---|---|---|---|
Ch. I* M ± S.D | Ch. II** M ± S.D | Ch. III** M ± S.D | |
Baghdad | 25.8% ±10 a | 33.98% ±6.08 a | 40.18% ±8.54 a |
Babail | 25.77% ± 10 a | 32.79% ±10 a | 41.42% ±8.54 a |
Wasit | 23.78% ± 10 a | 33.61% ±10 a | 42.6% ±10 a |
p = 0.96 | p = 0.83 | p = 0.99 |
The average length of the relative chromosomes of the
*Sexual chromosomes.
**Mean autosomal chromosomes.
When measuring the average ratio of centromere index for this insect of Baghdad province, it is 43.8 and 44.35 μM for chromosome 2 and chromosome 3, respectively, while the average ratio of the centromere index is 45.1 μM for the sexual chromosome. The average ratio of the centromere index of the Babylon insect is 46.5 and 46.6 μM for chromosome 2 and chromosome 3, respectively, while the chromosome reached 45.72 μM for the sexual chromosome, and the average centromere index of the Wasit province is 45.1 and 43.32 μM for chromosome 2 and chromosome 3, respectively, and for sexual chromosome, it is 44 μM (Tables 4 and 5).
Region | Ch. No. | ||
---|---|---|---|
Ch. I* M ± S.D | Ch. II** M ± S.D | Ch. III** M ± S.D | |
Baghdad | 45.1% ± 10 a | 43.8% ± 10 a | 44.35% ± 10 a |
Babail | 45.72% ± 10 a | 46.5% ± 10 a | 46.6% ± 10 a |
Wasit | 44% ± 10 a | 45.1% ± 10 a | 43.32% ± 10 a |
p = 0.924 | p = 0.980 | p = 0.951 |
The average ratio of centromere index chromosomes of the
*Sexual chromosomes.
**Mean autosomal chromosomes.
Region | Ch. No. | ||
---|---|---|---|
Ch. l* | Ch. ll** | Ch. lll** | |
Baghdad | M Metacentric | M Metacentric | M Metacentric |
Babail | M Metacentric | M Metacentric | M Metacentric |
Wasit | M Metacentric | M Metacentric | M Metacentric |
Classification of chromosomes of the
Sexual chromosomes.
Autosomal chromosomes.
SM: arm ratio = 1.50–2.99. Centromere index = 40.0–25.1.
M: arm ratio = 1.00–1.49. Centromere index = 50.0–40.1.
These results provide important genetic information for understanding the chromosomal structure of
While all mosquitoes need standing water to reproduce, some of the other species have evolved so specifically that they will only lay their eggs in natural or artificial containers. The larvae of most mosquito species hang suspended from the water surface because they need air to breath. An air tube, called a siphon, extends from the larva’s posterior to the water surface. Pupae are also physically active and employ a rolling or tumbling action to escape to deeper water, which is why they are commonly referred to as “tumblers.” The pupal stage lasts from 1.5 to 4 days, after which the pupa’s skin splits along the back allowing the newly formed adult to slowly emerge and rest on the surface of the water. The present study shows that the chromosomes karyotyping of C.
The word “pest” describes an organism that harms crops, harms or irritates animals or humans. Agricultural pests include insects, weeds, bacteria, viruses, fungi and animals that reduce crop yield relative to the potential yield that would be possible in a pest-free world [1]. Some of the epidemic diseases have been carried by insects. In the 14th century, the Bubonic Plague epidemic disease influenced the population of Europe negatively and this disease was transmitted by fleas. Each insect species has different periods in its life cycle. The most important biological forms are “complete metamorphosis” and “incomplete metamorphosis” forms. In complete metamorphosis, the adult insect lays its egg in plant tissue or soil. The larvae that emerge from the eggs do not resemble the adult insect. As they feed and develop, they molt and become pupae. Pupation takes place on the plant or mostly underground. After a certain time, adults emerge from the pupa and the life cycle continues in this way. In incomplete metamorphosis, the nymphs that emerge from the eggs that the adult female gives birth are very similar to the adults. They look like a miniature of the adult. However, the wings are not developed. These nymphs molt as they feed, and their resemblance to the mother increases after each molting period [2]. The attacking of several harmful insect’s damages plant leaves, buds, stems, fruits, flowers and seeds, causing significant crop losses and decrease the market value of crops. For this reason, applying of management methods against pests is significant in the agricultural production [1].
Pest control aims to safely maintain economic, effective and long-term pest control. Generally, it contains suppressing pest populations to economic injury levels rather than eradicating the pest completely. Many pests negatively affect agricultural production in the world. Many methods are used by the producers to minimize the quality and quantity losses of these pests in agricultural production. The main of these methods, which are considered for Plant Protection or Agricultural Control, are cultural measures, quarantine measures, mechanical and physical methods, biological method, biotechnical method, chemical method and integrated pest management, which expresses the combination of the necessary ones [3]. Today, chemical applications are made for producers in terms of ease of application and results [4]. Depending on pesticides for plant protection is related to undesirable effects on the environment, health, and the sustainable effectiveness of their use. The emergence of synthetic pesticides has made it possible to simplify crop systems and abandon more complex crop protection strategies [5]. Pesticides are chemical matters used to decrease the devastating effects of living forms such as rodents, insects, animals, weeds, fungi, which live on or around plants, human and animal bodies, and reduce or damage the nutritional value of food sources during production, storage and consumption. Pesticide term includes all of the chemicals classified as an insecticide (use for harmful insects), herbicide (use for weeds), fungicide (use for fungal diseases), rodenticide (use for rodents), molluscide (use for slugs), avicide (use for birds), acaricide (use for acars), ovicide (use to kill eggs of harmful insects), bactericide (use for bacterial diseases), nematicide (use for nematodes), etc. [6]. However, using of pesticides raises several environmental concerns, including human and animal health hazards. Food contaminated with toxic pesticides is associated with serious effects on human health, as it is the basic necessity of life. More than 98% of applied insecticides and 95% of herbicides end up somewhere other than their target species, including non-target species, air, water and soil. However, pesticides can contaminate soil, water and vegetation. In addition to killing insects or weeds, pesticides can be toxic to several other organisms, including birds, fish, beneficial insects and non-target plants [7]. Many harmful insects cause economic losses in fruit growing. For example, Stem borer (
The simplest form of spread is known as mechanical transmission. Typically, the insect picks up the parasite on its body surface while feeding on the host organism and may release the parasite into a new host body or contaminate the food that will later be eaten by the host. However, many insects pests feed on plant sap and blood in vertebrates and can mechanically transmit pathogens and parasites through contamination of the proboscis [11]. It also has many undesirable effects such as resistance to diseases, insects and weeds. For this reason, since issues such as human health and the protection of biodiversity are kept at the forefront, the issue of chemical control has begun to be questioned [4]. In this study, the subject of chemical control and other control methods which are used as a management method against insect pests that cause economically significant losses in agricultural production is included.
Today, there are pests such as insects, diseases, weeds and animal pests (birds, rodents, etc.) that cause economic losses in agricultural production. Insects and other species that damage crops and also infect humans or animals are therefore pests that should be controlled as much as possible [1]. Some of the harmful insects play a role as vector insect in the spread of important diseases such as virus diseases. In addition, weeds host many disease agents and harmful insect species. Vector insects include aphids, whiteflies and thrips. To give an example, the Brown citrus aphid is the most significant vector insect of citrus tristeza virus (CTV) due to its superior vector productivity, especially for vigorous strains [12]. In the management against these insect pests, Integrated pest management (IPM) is an oncoming based largely on the information of pest biology and ecology to allow farmers to make tactical decisions to optimize ecologically and economically sound control of harmful organisms (pathogens, weeds, insects, vertebrates) [13]. Among these different methods of management; the method of suppressing the pest population with beneficial insects “biological control”; the method of management with using traps, “biotechnical control”; “cultural method”, a method of management with using agricultural methods such as plowing, crop rotation; “chemical control” method with using pesticides such as insecticide, fungicide, acaricide; Methods such as “physical control”, which includes methods such as manually collecting individual pests, pruning damaged plant tissues and removing excessively damaged plants, are applied. In this study, information is given about these control methods which are applied against pests that cause significant damage and economic losses in fruit growing.
Chemical control is the control method against harmful organisms that cause economic loss in plants, by using synthetic or naturally derived chemicals that have a killing effect (toxic effect). These products are called pesticides, synthesized substances or biological agents used to attract, seduce, destroy or mitigate any pest [14]. In addition to the benefits of these chemicals, it is known that they can create extremely important human, animal, plant and environmental health risks. For this reason, these chemicals are produced and sold subject to the most advanced control and inspection systems worldwide. Pesticide is defined by the FAO as a matter or mixture which is used to prevent, repel or destroy organisms such as animal and human vectors and unwanted plants and animals that cause damage in horticultural production.
Besides, FAO defines it as otherwise interfering with the processing, storage, production, transportation or marketing of products such as agricultural crops and animal foods [7]. Historically, in the 1930s, DDT was widely accepted as a pesticide that significantly conduced to the enhancement in the turnover of agricultural crops, especially food products, but then fell out of favor in the 1960s as a result of its different effects than usual [1]. The extent of the damage caused by the pests on agricultural products is high. Problems such as the overuse of pesticides used to minimize this damage and the environment, food poisoning and food insecurity are of great concern. However, insects and other species that cause damage to agricultural production and infect humans or animals have therefore become pests that need to be controlled as much as possible [4]. Pesticides are grouped in many different ways according to their appearance, physical structure and formulation, the pest and disease group they affect and their biological period, the type and group of the active substance they contain, the degree of toxicity and the technique of use. The most commonly used classification forms are the classifications made according to the harmful groups they are used and the active matter group in their structure. Pesticides are grouped by pest species or target organism. In this grouping, there are three main groups of pesticides. These are insecticides, fungicides and herbicides. The most important classifications of pesticides according to their chemical structures are organic chlorine pesticides, phosphorus, carbamates, natural and synthetic prethyroids [15]. The most important way to increase agricultural production; it is to get more products from the unit area, that is, to increase the yield. One of the most significant factors in enhancing the yield is to manage harmful organisms that limit plant production. Pesticide applications are intensively applied in fruit growing because it is easy to apply and effective in a short time.
Biological method is the whole of the measures taken to use natural enemies, entomopathogenic microorganisms or to make them more effective against pests, diseases and weeds that damage crop plants. In other words, the agricultural control activity carried out by using natural enemies to suppress pests in agricultural areas and keep them below the level of economic damage is called biological control [16]. In the “Regulation on the Import and Release of Exotic Biological Control Agents” issued by FAO in 1996, biological control is defined as “a pest control strategy using living natural enemies, antagonists, competitors and other self-reproducing biological entities. This sentence can be said as the definition that best describes the biological method. Predator, parasitoid and entomopathogens are used as biological method agents. Predators live freely and directly feed on large numbers of prey during their lifetime. Parasites are organisms that live and consume or on a larger host [17]. Insect parasites (more precisely called parasitoids) are smaller than their hosts and develop inside or adhere to the outer part of the body of their hosts [18]. Predator insects lay their eggs next to their prey, and the hatched larvae consume their prey by stinging, sucking or chewing. Generally, predatory insects are polyphagous and therefore they are the most important agents which are used in biological control. Parasitoid insects, on the other hand, usually lay their eggs on the pest itself or its eggs. Parasitoid insect larvae emerging from the eggs cause the death of the pest’s egg or itself, and in this way, they suppress the pest population and increase their own population. Entomopathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi and nematodes used against harmful insects. Naturally occurring entomopathogens attack harmful insects, making them sick and sometimes killing them.
The best example of entomopathogens is the beneficial bacteria named “
Biological control, carried out by protecting and supporting native beneficial insects, gives more successful results in large areas than conventional and replicated biological control applications [17].
Biotechnical Control aims to prevent or control the normal biological or physiological activities of pests by using some artificial or natural compounds. That is, it interferes with the behavior and development of pests in their natural life processes such as feeding, mating, laying eggs, and flying. Some substances such as pheromone, attractant, antifeedant, kairomone, insect growth regulator, repellant, oviposition deterrent and chemosterilant are applied on biotechnical control. This management method can not pollute the environment and is compatible with other control methods and does not cause residue problems in foods. The compounds used in this method specifically target only the harmful organism and ensure the preservation of the natural balance. The biotechnical control method can be used in harmony with Organic Agriculture and Integrated Pest Methods [21]. The most commonly used pheromones for biotechnical control methods used within the scope of agricultural pest control are sexually attractive pheromones, which are secreted by females and invite males to mate, and aggregation pheromones that inform a food source or places suitable for nesting. In general, pheromones can be used for four different purposes; Use in combination with a trap for pest population monitoring (Monitoring), likewise combined with a trap for use in a mass trapping technique to reduce pest populations (Mass Trapping), inhibiting mating by emitting an intense signal, preventing males and females from finding each other and preventing them from mating and the use in the technique of mating (Mating Disruption) and finally, the use of pull and kill (Attract & Kill) technique by using it with an insecticide. Monitoring purposes are mostly aimed at determining the population development such as whether there is a pest, if it is, the first adult emergence, the periods when the population is dense, how long the pest is in the nature, when it goes to winter, and the flight period. The utilization of pheromones for monitor purposes is used in population monitoring of many pests [3]. Attractive traps such as McPhail, yellow sticky traps and delta traps are used against harmful insects belonging to the Tephritidae family such as Mediterranean fruit fly and Olive fruit fly, which cause product losses in fruit growing. However, due to the high cost of this type of traps, alternative traps can be used. These types of traps can be prepared by opening holes in the 1 lt. plastic bottles we use in our house, and putting apple juice + sugar mixture in them, and they can be used against these harmful insects, which belong to this family and cause significant yield losses in fruit growing.
One of the oldest methods of pest control in agricultural production is the cultural control method. However, with the development of synthetic pesticides, cultural control methods were quickly abandoned or not focused on, and research on them was largely stopped. The emergence of synthetic pesticides was effective in stopping these studies, as well as the fact that the cultural control method depends on preventive and long-term planning rather than an effective application method. It is applied as a pre-control method because it is less effective than other control methods.
There are many applications such as site selection, planting design and management (crop rotation, planting trap plants, planting and planting timing, placement of alternative hosts, etc.), plowing, irrigation, drainage, fertilization, removal of plant residues, mulching, adjustment of harvest time among cultural control methods [22]. The general principle in the processes considered as “Cultural Control” in the management against diseases, pests and weeds is to reduce the reproduction, shelter and living opportunities of harmful organisms by changing the environment in which they live in a way that is not suitable for the harmful organism. For successful cultural control, the most sensitive periods of harmful organisms should be determined, information about the interaction of host plant, harmful organism and environmental conditions should be learned to prevent the attacks of harmful organisms, to destroy them or to reduce the rate of reproduction, and cultural processes should be changed or developed accordingly. Cultural measures that have been applied for centuries from the past to the present are still important and up-to-date, as they are generally the sum of this knowledge and practices that have been experienced and adopted before, with positive results [23].
The physical method of pests in fruit production has come to the fore in recent times because of the resistance development of pesticides avoidance from residue which causes pesticide and economic causes [24]. In physical control methods, the physical environment of the pest is changed in such a way that the insects no longer pose a threat to the agricultural crop. This can be achieved by creating stress levels ranging from agitation to death, or by using devices such as physical barriers that protect products or pants from invasion. While many physical control methods target a whole range of physiological and behavioral processes, chemical methods have well-defined and limited modes of action [25]. Physical control practices include repelling pests or restricting the accession of pests to plants, distorting the behavior of insects. In addition to this, this method includes the death of insects directly [4]. Physical methods are divided into two main groups. The name of these groups is active and passive [25]. Active methods include picking up the larvae of harmful insects, pruning of damaged or infected plant tissues, and removal of heavily damaged and infected plants. Generally, passive methods consist of the use of a tool or device to remove pests from a product. This equipment acts as a barrier between plants and pests, protecting plants from damage caused by insects. Other passive tools include repellants and traps [20]. Chemical and biological methods are often inharmonious; however, there is a harmony between cultural, biological, and physical methods and when used together they can be more effective against pests than chemical method.
The idea of sterilizing insects’ dates back to earlier than the invention and use of modern insecticides. Sterilization was first tried on
Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137 are the most common sources used for this purpose. Radiation produces dominant lethal mutations in the gametes of insects. These lethal mutations actually do not adversely affect the maturation of the sex cells or the formation of the zygote, and they prevent the maturation of the zygote. Radiation, by interrupting the spermatogenesis in male, stops the formation of sperm (aspermia) and reduces the activity of the sperms or causes the loss of mating power. In this case, the male does not mate or fertilization does not occur because it cannot stay in the mating position long enough. In females, on the other hand, egg formation decreases or does not occur at all, since it damages the organia or the nutrient cells or both [26]. This method is applied effectively against pests such as Olive fruit fly and Mediterranean fruit fly and gives positive results as a management method against these harmful insects.
End of the 19th century, the idea of Integrated Pest Management began to emerge and some applications were seen in the early 20th century. It is noteworthy that in these first applications, only biological control was considered and applied besides chemical control. However, the concept of Integrated Pest Management in its current sense was first put forward in 1954 and its principles were determined in the symposium held in Rome in 1965 by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). It is considered to be the most modern application developed in the field of plant protection. This practice, which is commonly known as integrated pest management and integrated pest control in English, has been defined in previous years with names such as Complementary Control, Complementary Pest Control, Integrated Control, Integrated Pest Management. This management method is defined by the FAO as a control method of pests that takes into account population fluctuations of pest species and their relationship with environment, and keeps their populations below the level of economic damage by using all appropriate control methods and techniques appropriately and this definition is accepted in the world. The aim of this method is expressed as the use of multifaceted tactics in good coordination to ensure balanced crop production, to keep the losses caused by pests at the level that will provide the highest economic gain, to meet the other goals of the farmers, to minimize the risks of pesticides on humans, animals and the environment [27]. Integrated pest management aims not only to suppress or eliminate the population of pests, but also seeks solutions that combine viable, economically acceptable, effective and environmentally friendly, sustainable ways. Integrated pest management aims not only to suppress or eliminate the population of pests, but also seeks solutions that combine viable, economically acceptable, effective and environmentally friendly, sustainable ways. Regular inspection of agricultural lands is always critical and must be done in an integrated management programme. Without control, the information needed to decide whether action should be taken in the first place and how severe the pest population is may not be gathered. Without all this information and properly determining how high and how widespread a pest is in the field, it may not be possible to make the right interventions at the correct time. Therefore, the population and spread of a pest should always be known before taking comprehensive action and planning. The basic principle of the integrated control method is to apply the control method when the pest population rises above the economic damage threshold, not as a routine method that always exists. A carefully planned integrated control program aims to adjust the terrain to prevent the emergence of the pest in the first place and to completely destroy the pest itself or reduce its population if the pest is present in the land [4].
Plants produce defensive metabolites that do not affect normal vegetative growth and development but reduce the palatability of the tissues in which they are produced [28]. In other words, plants have a variety of inducible and constitutive defense mechanisms to defend themselves against attack. These include structural defenses such as spines and waxy cuticles, as well as protein-based and chemical defenses [29]. Plants respond to herbivory through a variety of molecular mechanisms, biochemical and morphological and exhibit multifactorial traits that are constitutively expressed against herbivory or induced upon attack. Plant defenses activated in herbivores are a complex network of different pathways of direct and indirect defenses. Direct defense compounds such as glucosinolates or protease inhibitors directly affect insect performance and feeding behavior, while indirect defenses, such as the emission of volatile organic compounds after herbivore attack, act as attractants for the parasitic wasp that precedes the attacker. As plants develop new defense compounds or mechanisms, resistance to herbivores, their attackers find new ways to bypass or detoxify them [28]. Plant defense chemicals consist of secondary metabolites whose core structures are predominantly terpenes, benzenoids, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids or N-containing compounds. Plant defense chemicals can be classified according to their inducible or structural production. Initially, these classes were grouped according to their responses to pathogens were called phytoalexins and phytoanticipins. These have been defined as low molecular weight phytoalexins, “antimicrobial compounds that are both synthesized and accumulated in plants after exposure to microorganisms, and phytoanticips” as “low molecular weight antimicrobial compounds that are present in plants before they are threatened by microorganisms or are produced only after infection from pre-existing components”. Defense compounds (phytoalexins) induced by these insects may have important functional roles as nutritional deterrents. The disadvantage of inducible defense systems is the delay in the synthesis of new compounds. An alternative strategy is to constitutively produce the compounds in tissues susceptible to attack. The disadvantage of phytoanticipins is the metabolic energy required to produce compounds even in the absence of insect threat and the active form of certain compounds being toxic not only to insects but also to the plant itself a common alternative approach to circumventing the toxicity problem is to store compounds as readily activated non-toxic forms and activate them upon insect attack. These compounds are known as phytoanticipins because they are produced in anticipation of a threat [29].
Global climate change and urbanization have increased the pressure on water, soil and climate, which are the natural resources of agricultural production. As a result of these pressures, existing breeding systems have also been damaged. Urgent measures are required to reduce the increasing pressure and to deliver natural resources suitable for agriculture to future generations. With the increase in the world population, the production areas are decreasing. However, to meet the needs of people with agricultural products produced in these declining areas, the amount of agricultural products produced per unit area should be increased. It is not possible to increase agricultural production only with plant nutrition. It is imperative that plant protection measures are also fully implemented in agricultural products. Due to living and non-living effects, regressions occur in the growth and development of plants. There are some signs of disease in plants. The severity and intensity of these symptoms indicate the extent of the disease. Therefore, these symptoms in plants are very important to find the source of the problem by detecting it well and taking measures in terms of agricultural management. With this information obtained, methods that cause the least harm to the environment and nature should be applied to combat diseases. These management practices are a physical method, cultural method, biological method, biotechnical method, integrated pest management and sterile insect technique. Time is important in the fight against diseases. When the right time is not selected, the success of the control method applied decreases. It is a costly and challenging process for a diseased plant to become healthy. Therefore, it is important to prevent the plant from contracting the disease. Taking precautionary measures to prevent the plant from contracting the disease will provide longer-term gains. The most effective methods should be used without harming the living creatures in nature. When the 7 control methods, we mentioned above are used in the right time and manner, the yield, quality and pest protection methods in agricultural production will become easier. In order to, we can say that all of the methods we mentioned are used properly in sustainable agriculture. Pest control methods in agricultural areas will be much easier if sustainable farming methods are adopted and used appropriately.
The author has no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
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\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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The first part compares the diagnostic efficacy of traditional OCT and cross-polarization OCT (CP OCT); CP OCT and fluorescence cystoscopy (FC) for detecting flat lesions in the bladder at the early stages of cancer. The second part contains a report on achievements in application of CP OCT for detection of recurrent carcinoma in the scar area that is a hardly distinguishable form of bladder cancer using an optimized CP OCT image analysis. The third part of the chapter reviews the results on CP OCT usage for in vivo diagnosis of the bladder cancer after radiation therapy of cervical cancer.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Elena Kiseleva, Gladkova Natalia, Streltzova Olga, Kirillin Mikhail,\nMaslennikova Anna, Dudenkova Varvara, Yunusova Katerina and\nSergeeva Ekaterina",authors:[{id:"68196",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Gladkova",slug:"natalia-gladkova",fullName:"Natalia Gladkova"},{id:"191970",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Kiseleva",slug:"elena-kiseleva",fullName:"Elena Kiseleva"},{id:"191990",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Streltzova",slug:"olga-streltzova",fullName:"Olga Streltzova"},{id:"191992",title:"Mrs.",name:"Varvara",middleName:null,surname:"Dudenkova",slug:"varvara-dudenkova",fullName:"Varvara Dudenkova"},{id:"191993",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Maslennikova",slug:"anna-maslennikova",fullName:"Anna Maslennikova"},{id:"191994",title:"Dr.",name:"Katerina",middleName:null,surname:"Yunusova",slug:"katerina-yunusova",fullName:"Katerina Yunusova"},{id:"191995",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikhail",middleName:null,surname:"Kirillin",slug:"mikhail-kirillin",fullName:"Mikhail Kirillin"},{id:"193422",title:"Dr.",name:"Ekaterina",middleName:null,surname:"Sergeeva",slug:"ekaterina-sergeeva",fullName:"Ekaterina Sergeeva"}]},{id:"54019",doi:"10.5772/67309",title:"Bladder Cancer Markers and Recent Innovations",slug:"bladder-cancer-markers-and-recent-innovations",totalDownloads:1702,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Bladder cancer (urothelial carcinoma) is the most common tumor of the urinary tract. It occurs more frequently among men about 65 years old on average. Two forms of the tumor are known: a non–muscle-invasive one and a muscle-invasive one. The latter turns out to be very aggressive with a survival of 5 years average. The non–muscle-invasive form frequently recurs (60–70%) and in 15% of cases, it progresses into the invasive form. The diagnosis is made mainly by cystoscopy and urine cytology. A high number of researches were dedicated in order to find a simple test using voided urine to frequently monitor possible tumor recurrence. During the last 10 years, many tests were proposed concerning either special proteins of which the most common are the bladder tumor antigen (BTA) and the nuclear matrix protein 22 (NMP22) or the presence of genetic mutations [most frequently, fibroblasts growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) and TP53], alteration of DNA methylation, chromatin structure and, more recently, the presence of specific micro-RNA. Recently the analysis of lipids present in voided urine showed a difference in fatty acids between healthy individuals and those affected by non-invasive forms. These markers appear to have a high specificity and sensitivity: a deepening of these results could lead to the development of a test that avoids invasive treatment and the cost of cystoscopy.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Mariapia Viola-Magni, Samuela Cataldi and Daniela Marocco",authors:[{id:"192375",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariapia",middleName:null,surname:"Viola-Magni",slug:"mariapia-viola-magni",fullName:"Mariapia Viola-Magni"},{id:"197851",title:"BSc.",name:"Samuela",middleName:null,surname:"Cataldi",slug:"samuela-cataldi",fullName:"Samuela Cataldi"},{id:"197852",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Marocco",slug:"daniela-marocco",fullName:"Daniela Marocco"}]},{id:"54063",doi:"10.5772/67280",title:"Intravesical Chemohyperthermia for NMIBC: Rationale and Results of This Developing Treatment",slug:"intravesical-chemohyperthermia-for-nmibc-rationale-and-results-of-this-developing-treatment",totalDownloads:1395,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in men, and the lifetime risk of getting bladder cancer is 2.4%. Approximately 75% of newly diagnosed cases of bladder cancer are non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC), and half of them will show recurrence and/or progression after transurethral resection. Therefore, after transurethral resection, in high-risk patients, intravesical therapy is mandatory. However, bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) is associated with important side effects such as systemic tuberculosis and bladder retraction. Chemohyperthermia (CHT) has shown a 60% lower recurrence rate than standard mitomycin C (MMC). However, its effectiveness in high-risk patients, especially CIS and BCG refractory patients, is even more important. CHT will probably be an option for patients unsuitable for radical cystectomy or those on whom BCG can’t be used. Two main technologies are currently available for intravesical CHT: microwaves and recirculating heated fluids. Both of them have pros and cons that should be known and evaluated by a urologist. In this chapter, we will speak about rationale, technical options, clinical results, ongoing studies, and future perspective for this interesting treatment option for intermediate and high-risk patients with NMIBC.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Sousa-Escandón Manuel Alejandro, Flores Carbajal Javier, Sousa-\nGonzález Daniel and Rodriguez Gómez Silvia",authors:[{id:"191356",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa-Escandón",slug:"alejandro-sousa-escandon",fullName:"Alejandro Sousa-Escandón"}]},{id:"54147",doi:"10.5772/67443",title:"Lymphadenectomy in Muscle Invasive Bladder Cancer",slug:"lymphadenectomy-in-muscle-invasive-bladder-cancer",totalDownloads:1273,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Bladder cancer is the second most common genitourinary malignancy with urothelial cancer comprising nearly 90% of primary bladder tumors. Urothelial carcinoma of the urinary bladder is the fifth most common malignancy in the United States, with an estimated 76,960 new cases and 163,900 deaths in 2016. Radical cystectomy with lymph node dissection remains the standard treatment for patients with muscle-invasive urothelial carcinoma of the bladder, and also for nonmuscle-invasive disease, refractory to intravesical therapy. The current approaches to pelvic lymph node dissections are based on the removal of lymph nodes most commonly harboring metastatic disease, notably the external iliac, obturator, and hypogastric lymph nodes. The boundaries for a standard pelvic lymph node dissection generally include the bifurcation of the common iliac vessels superiorly and the genitofemoral nerve laterally. Extended pelvic lymph node includes the removal of lymph nodes between the bifurcation of the common iliac vessels and the level of the aortic bifurcation, sometimes including distal aortic and caval nodes up to the level of the inferior mesenteric artery, as well as presacral nodes. Extended and superextended dissection has been reported to be associated with superior survival outcome.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Mustafa Ozan Horsanali and Kutan Ozer",authors:[{id:"59702",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa Ozan",middleName:null,surname:"Horsanali",slug:"mustafa-ozan-horsanali",fullName:"Mustafa Ozan Horsanali"},{id:"192699",title:"Dr.",name:"Kutan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozer",slug:"kutan-ozer",fullName:"Kutan Ozer"}]},{id:"59222",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73515",title:"Development of Oncolytic Adenoviruses for the Management of Prostate Cancer",slug:"development-of-oncolytic-adenoviruses-for-the-management-of-prostate-cancer",totalDownloads:1121,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Prostate cancer (PCa) is the fifth most common cause of cancer-related deaths in men globally. Androgen receptor (AR) signalling plays a vital role in initiation and progression and antiandrogens are standard of care first-line therapeutics. However, resistance frequently develops resulting in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Management of CRPC is currently chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy but is mostly palliative due to rapid development of resistance. The need for novel approaches to eliminate mCRPC is compelling; a promising option is replication-selective (oncolytic) adenoviruses with demonstrated efficacy in preclinical models of multidrug-resistant PCa. The safety of various viral mutants has been confirmed in numerous clinical trials with minimal toxicity in patients. Importantly, oncolytic adenoviruses synergise with the current standard of care for mCRPC even in treatment-resistant cells. In early phase I–II clinical trials, promising efficacy in patients with localised PCa was reported after intratumoural administration, and phase III trials are underway. To enable systemic delivery, for targeting of mCRPC, further developments are necessary because of the short half-life of the adenoviral mutants in human blood. Current progress in preventing the high-affinity binding of adenovirus to erythrocytes, hepatocyte uptake, and elimination by hepatic Kupffer cells will be described.",book:{id:"6423",slug:"prostate-cancer",title:"Prostate Cancer",fullTitle:"Prostate Cancer"},signatures:"Ahmed A. Ali and Gunnel Halldén",authors:[{id:"80427",title:"Dr.",name:"Gunnel",middleName:null,surname:"Hallden",slug:"gunnel-hallden",fullName:"Gunnel Hallden"},{id:"232386",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"ahmed-ali",fullName:"Ahmed Ali"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70881",title:"Robot-Assisted Partial Nephrectomy: Evolving Techniques",slug:"robot-assisted-partial-nephrectomy-evolving-techniques",totalDownloads:494,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Robotic-assisted partial nephrectomy is now embraced in urology as a recommended treatment option for small localised renal tumours. There is an increasing trend towards setting up robotic-assisted services in urological centres across the world. Our aim is to review the available published common robotic-assisted partial nephrectomy techniques. We present our institutions’ established step-by-step technique for performing robotic-assisted partial nephrectomy, in order to guide aspiring urologists interested in performing robotic-assisted partial nephrectomies. The importance of pre-operative review of imaging in a multi-disciplinary approach is critical. We emphasise certain tips inperforming a safer procedure.",book:{id:"6424",slug:"evolving-trends-in-kidney-cancer",title:"Evolving Trends in Kidney Cancer",fullTitle:"Evolving Trends in Kidney Cancer"},signatures:"Mohammed Kamil Quraishi, Edward Ramez Latif, Milan Thomas, Ben Eddy, Elio Mazzone and Alexandre Mottrie",authors:[{id:"277566",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Kamil",middleName:null,surname:"Quraishi",slug:"mohammed-kamil-quraishi",fullName:"Mohammed Kamil Quraishi"},{id:"277570",title:"Dr.",name:"Milan",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"milan-thomas",fullName:"Milan Thomas"},{id:"277571",title:"Dr.",name:"Ben",middleName:null,surname:"Eddy",slug:"ben-eddy",fullName:"Ben Eddy"}]},{id:"54132",title:"Cross-Polarization OCT for In Vivo Diagnostics and Prediction of Bladder Cancer",slug:"cross-polarization-oct-for-in-vivo-diagnostics-and-prediction-of-bladder-cancer",totalDownloads:1118,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter contains three parts covering recent efforts to increase the accuracy of optical coherence tomography (OCT) differential diagnostics of bladder pathologies. The first part compares the diagnostic efficacy of traditional OCT and cross-polarization OCT (CP OCT); CP OCT and fluorescence cystoscopy (FC) for detecting flat lesions in the bladder at the early stages of cancer. The second part contains a report on achievements in application of CP OCT for detection of recurrent carcinoma in the scar area that is a hardly distinguishable form of bladder cancer using an optimized CP OCT image analysis. The third part of the chapter reviews the results on CP OCT usage for in vivo diagnosis of the bladder cancer after radiation therapy of cervical cancer.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Elena Kiseleva, Gladkova Natalia, Streltzova Olga, Kirillin Mikhail,\nMaslennikova Anna, Dudenkova Varvara, Yunusova Katerina and\nSergeeva Ekaterina",authors:[{id:"68196",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Gladkova",slug:"natalia-gladkova",fullName:"Natalia Gladkova"},{id:"191970",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Kiseleva",slug:"elena-kiseleva",fullName:"Elena Kiseleva"},{id:"191990",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Streltzova",slug:"olga-streltzova",fullName:"Olga Streltzova"},{id:"191992",title:"Mrs.",name:"Varvara",middleName:null,surname:"Dudenkova",slug:"varvara-dudenkova",fullName:"Varvara Dudenkova"},{id:"191993",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Maslennikova",slug:"anna-maslennikova",fullName:"Anna Maslennikova"},{id:"191994",title:"Dr.",name:"Katerina",middleName:null,surname:"Yunusova",slug:"katerina-yunusova",fullName:"Katerina Yunusova"},{id:"191995",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikhail",middleName:null,surname:"Kirillin",slug:"mikhail-kirillin",fullName:"Mikhail Kirillin"},{id:"193422",title:"Dr.",name:"Ekaterina",middleName:null,surname:"Sergeeva",slug:"ekaterina-sergeeva",fullName:"Ekaterina Sergeeva"}]},{id:"61307",title:"Genetics in the Prostate Cancer",slug:"genetics-in-the-prostate-cancer",totalDownloads:1138,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Any disruption in the intracellular functions ranging from DNA transcription to protein ligand binding as well as intercellular communication may cause cellular transformation to malignant cell in the proper microenvironment when it could escape from the immune system. In this chapter, specifically, genetic alterations playing role in the prostate cancer are intended to be reviewed briefly under the subheadings of genomic instability and the hallmarks of cancer which are sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressors, resisting cell death, enabling the replicative immortality, inducing angiogenesis, activating invasion and progression to metastatic disease, reprogramming of the energy metabolism and evading immune destruction.",book:{id:"6423",slug:"prostate-cancer",title:"Prostate Cancer",fullTitle:"Prostate Cancer"},signatures:"Hikmet Köseoğlu",authors:[{id:"111496",title:"Dr.",name:"Hikmet",middleName:null,surname:"Köseoǧlu",slug:"hikmet-koseolu",fullName:"Hikmet Köseoǧlu"}]},{id:"54587",title:"Genital Organs‐Sparing Radical Cystectomy in Female Patients with Muscle Invasive Urothelial Carcinoma of the Bladder",slug:"genital-organs-sparing-radical-cystectomy-in-female-patients-with-muscle-invasive-urothelial-carcino",totalDownloads:1296,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"There has been considerable interest in urethral‐sparing cystectomy and preservation of the gynecological tract to maintain continence mechanism, sexual function, and reproductive function in young patients who undergo radical cystectomy for muscle‐invasive bladder cancer and this new technique gained acceptance in many centers. The issue of oncological safety of a urethra and anterior vaginal wall‐sparing cystectomy in selected patients has been addressed by several authors. The chapter will discuss the following items: (I) Technique of genital‐sparing radical cystectomy in female patients with muscle invasive transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder. (II) Definition and rationale of genital‐sparing radical cystectomy in female patients. (III) Rational and value of urethral preservation in genital‐sparing cystectomy in female patients with urothelial carcinoma. (IV) Previous reports about genital‐sparing cystectomy in patients with urothelial carcinoma. (V) Value of preservation of the internal genital organs in female patients undergoing radical cystectomy.",book:{id:"5516",slug:"bladder-cancer-management-of-nmi-and-muscle-invasive-cancer",title:"Bladder Cancer",fullTitle:"Bladder Cancer - Management of NMI and Muscle-Invasive Cancer"},signatures:"Hosni Khairy Salem",authors:[{id:"96052",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosni",middleName:"Khairy",surname:"Salem",slug:"hosni-salem",fullName:"Hosni Salem"}]},{id:"67209",title:"Robotic Surgery and Successful Set-Up: A Stepwise Approach",slug:"robotic-surgery-and-successful-set-up-a-stepwise-approach",totalDownloads:690,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Robot purchase, implementation, and sustainability require a number of key challenges to overcome. We provide our experience of managing a potentially daunting task, summarizing the key steps to help deliver such an exciting project. We will take you through team approach options for purchase and safe implementation in the current financial climate.",book:{id:"6424",slug:"evolving-trends-in-kidney-cancer",title:"Evolving Trends in Kidney Cancer",fullTitle:"Evolving Trends in Kidney Cancer"},signatures:"Christopher J. Anderson and Hiten R.H. Patel",authors:[{id:"288771",title:"Dr.",name:"Hilten",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"hilten-patel",fullName:"Hilten Patel"},{id:"290986",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"chris-anderson",fullName:"Chris Anderson"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1165",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard Tissue, Peri-implant Soft Tissue, Restorative Materials, Prosthesis Design, Prosthesis, Patient Satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"