Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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New "artifical" devices were developed and are now able to do much more than solely pacemaking of the heart. In this book different aspects of pacemaker - functions and interactions, in various organ systems were examined. In addition, various areas of application and the potential side effects and complications of the devices were discussed.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-616-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6488-3",doi:"10.5772/845",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"aspects-of-pacemakers-functions-and-interactions-in-cardiac-and-non-cardiac-indications",numberOfPages:208,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c466df43e69f99f13186f22e9123b6a6",bookSignature:"Oliver Vonend and Siegfried Eckert",publishedDate:"September 15th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1475.jpg",numberOfDownloads:28467,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:12,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 3rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 7th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"36038",title:"Dr.",name:"Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Vonend",slug:"oliver-vonend",fullName:"Oliver Vonend",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36038/images/1695_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Germany, he is currently an assistant professor of the department of Nephrology of the Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf. Oliver Vonend was working in London, Baltimore and Boston concentrating on neuroscience and the sympathetic nervous system before he moved to the Ruhr-University Bochum. As a Junior-Professor he directed many doctoral theses in the he field of experimental nephrology. In 2008 he started his actual position in Duesseldorf. One of his major clinical fields of interest is the workup and treatment of resistant hypertension. He has various national and international publications in the areas of experimental and clinical hypertension. Besides the evaluation of secondary causes for hypertension he analyzes the efficiency of electrical baroreceptor stimulation and high frequency renal nerve ablation as new options for resistant hypertension.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"252244",title:"Dr.",name:"Siegfried",middleName:null,surname:"Eckert",slug:"siegfried-eckert",fullName:"Siegfried Eckert",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252244/images/system/252244.jpg",biography:"Specialist in internal medicine / cardiology / angiology\nDiabetologist DDG / Hypertensiologist DHL / European Hypertension Specialist ESH /\nCardiovascular preventive medicine DGPR\nAdditional qualification Interventional Cardiology (DGK)\nAdditional qualification Interventional Therapy of the Peripheral Arteries and Pelvic Arteries (DGA / DGK)\nAdditional qualification Interventional Therapy of the Visceral and Renal Arteries (DGA / DGK)\n\nHead of Angiologiestellv. 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\n
1. Introduction
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With the unceasingly expanding industrial development, environmental pollution caused by industrial effluents has nowadays become the most urgent issue to be solved [1]. In particular, various industrial processes and human activities contaminate the global water supply, which is a serious problem for living beings. During the past decades, great efforts have been made on the degradation of organic wastewater pollutants. The visible-light-driven photocatalysis attracts much attention, since such a photocatalytic process can directly convert organic pollutants (e.g., methylene blue (MB), methyl orange (MO), rhodamine B (RhB), phenol, and etc.) to harmless products (CO2 and H2O) under sunlight irradiation.
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The organic dye models (MB, MO, and RhB) in textile and other industrial effluents have become one series of the major environmental contaminants, which have serious implications on the environment and human health [2]. Meanwhile, phenol is a widely used chemical and present in a great variety of emitted waste effluents. Organic dyes and phenol degrade slowly in the environment and are extremely toxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, and refractory in nature [3]. Therefore, tremendous efforts have been made to fabricate high-efficiency photocatalysts for the control of wastewater pollution.
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As one of the earliest studied n-type semiconductor photocatalysts, TiO2 has been widely used in environmental purification owing to its appropriate band position, high chemical stability, low cost, and nontoxicity [4]. However, TiO2 is only responsive to ultraviolet (UV) light owing to its wide bandgap energy (3.2 eV), which occupies no more than 4% of the solar spectrum, hence greatly restricting its practical applications [5]. Among the developed catalysts, BiVO4 is one of the most attractive photocatalysts due to its unique properties, such as ferroelasticity, photochromic effect, ionic conductivity, and visible-light responsibility [6]. It is nontoxic and has a relatively narrow bandgap energy (2.4 eV) when it is monoclinic in crystal structure. Many publications on BiVO4 describing phase structures, synthesis methods, physicochemical properties, applications, and so on have emerged since its inaugural work by Kudo et al. as a photocatalyst for O2 evolution in 1999 [7]. As a promising material, BiVO4 is extensively applied in various fields, such as gas sensors, batteries, electrolytes, water splitting, and other applications [8].
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Semiconductor is a kind of materials with electrical conductivity between conductor (such as metals) and insulator (such as ceramics). The unique electronic property of a semiconductor is characterized by its valence band (VB) and conduction band (CB). The VB of a semiconductor is formed by the interaction of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), while the CB is formed by the interaction of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). There is no electron state between the top of the VB and the bottom of CB. The energy range between CB and VB is called forbidden bandgap (also called bandgap energy), which is usually denoted as Eg. The band structure, including the bandgap and the positions of VB and CB, is one of the important properties for a semiconductor photocatalyst, because it determines the light absorption property as well as the redox capability of a semiconductor [9].
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As shown in reaction 1, the photocatalytic reaction initiates from the generation of electron−hole pairs upon light irradiation. When a semiconductor photocatalyst absorbs photons with energy equal to or greater than its Eg, the electrons in the VB will be excited to the CB, leaving the holes in the VB. The electron-hole pairs generation process in BiVO4 can be expressed as follows:
BiVO4+hv→e_(BiVO4) + h+(BiVO4)E1
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These photogenerated electron−hole pairs may further be involved in the following three possible processes [9]: (i) successfully migrating to the surface of semiconductor, (ii) being captured by the defect sites in bulk and/or on the surface region of semiconductor, and (iii) recombining and releasing the energy in the form of heat or photon. The last two processes are generally viewed as deactivation processes because the photogenerated electrons and holes do not contribute to the photocatalytic reactions. Only the photogenerated charges that reach to the surface of semiconductor can be available for photocatalytic reactions. The defect sites in the bulk and on the surface of semiconductor may serve as the recombination centers for the photogenerated electrons and holes, which would decrease the efficiency of the photocatalytic reaction.
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It is well known that the photocatalytic activity of a semiconductor depends strongly upon three factors: adsorption behavior, photoresponsive region, and separation efficiency of electron–hole pairs [10]. The adsorption behavior can usually be enhanced by improving the surface areas of catalysts. In this aspect, how to extend the photoresponsive region and improve the separation efficiency of electron–hole pairs are important factors on the photocatalytic performance of a semiconductor [11]. The way to extend the photoresponsive region of a semiconductor photocatalyst is mainly the doping of nonmetals or transition metals, which can also improve the separation efficiency of electron–hole pairs and increase the oxidation power of photogenerated carriers [12, 13]. In general, noble metals (e.g., Ag, Pt, Au, and Pd) have been used as electron acceptors to separate the photoinduced hole–electron pairs and promote the interfacial charge transfer processes [14].
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Generally speaking, physicochemical properties of a material may be quite different depending on its crystal phase structure. The phase structure of BiVO4 is one of the important factors determining its photocatalytic performance [15]. BiVO4 has mainly three polymorphs in nature, including zircon–tetragonal, scheelite–tetragonal, and scheelite–monoclinic. The zircon–tetragonal phase can be formed via a low-temperature (100°C) synthesis route, whereas the scheelite-monoclinic phase can be generated using a high-temperature (400–600°C) synthesis method [16]. Moreover, the phase transformation between the scheelite monoclinic and the scheelite tetragonal can occur reversibly at 255°C [17]. It has been confirmed that the sheelite monoclinic structure of BiVO4 is the most photocatalytically active under visible-light irradiation. The greater reactivity can be associated with the energy band structure since monoclinic and tetragonal BiVO4 have bandgap energies of 2.4 and 2.9 eV, respectively. [8, 18, 19] Though BiVO4 has better photocatalytic performance, various strategies have been proposed to further improve its activity. In addition to the crystal structure, the photocatalytic property also strongly depends upon the morphology of BiVO4 [20]. Different morphological semiconductor photocatalysts have been prepared by many researchers. Efficient charge separation is the most important factor that determines the photocatalytic performance [9]. Furthermore, creation of heterjunction [21] and porous structure [22] as well as doping of element(s) [23] and using of support [24] are also effective strategies for improving charge separation efficiency.
As one of new photocatalysts, monoclinic BiVO4 (m-BiVO4) with a bandgap energy of 2.4 eV has drawn great attention for its excellent performance under visible-light illumination [7, 25]. Therefore, many strategies, such as solid-state reaction, hydrothermal or solvothermal, chemical bath deposition, and solution combustion methods, are employed for the synthesis of monoclinic BiVO4. The morphology of a crystal plays a crucial role in determining its physicochemical property [26]. In recent years, scientists have been devoted to developing various synthetic routes to realize the tailored fabrication of m-BiVO4 with different morphologies that show distinct photocatalytic properties [27]. For example, the hydrothermal method is widely used to prepare m-BiVO4 with different morphologies because the morphology of the final product obtained via such a process can be easily controlled by changing the reaction conditions, such as reaction temperature, reaction time, solution pH, and concentration [6]. Recently, different morphologies (such as nanospheres, nanorods, nanoflowers, nanosheets, nanotubes, hyperbrached) of monoclinically structured BiVO4 crystallites have been synthesized by the hydrothermal method with the assistance of surfactants and pH-controlling additives [28]. Table 1 summarizes the physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the typical BiVO4 reported in the literature.
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Photocatalyst
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Crystal structure
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Surface area (m2/g)
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Eg (eV)
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Reaction condition
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Degradation efficiency and light illumination time
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References
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Sphere-like BiVO4
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Monoclinic
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1.75
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−
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Visible light, 80 mL RhB (0.01 mmol/L), 0.1 g sample
Physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the well-defined morphological BiVO4 photocatalysts.
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2.1. Sphere-like BiVO4
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Among different morphologies of BiVO4, microspherical or nanospherical BiVO4 particles are mostly reported. For example, Kunduz et al. [29] reported the preparation of monoclinic bismuth vanadate catalysts by hydrothermal method at different pH values and the removal of phenol from wastewater under natural sunlight illumination. Homogenous and spherical BiVO4 (particle size = 40–90 nm) was formed at pH = 2 (Figure 1d), the bandgap energy of the BiVO4 sample calculated from the absorption edge was 2.37 eV. This BiVO4 sample showed a high phenol conversion (100%) within 90 min of natural sunlight illumination, which was related to the morphology of BiVO4 (surface area = 10 m2/g).
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Figure 1.
(a−g, i, j) SEM and (h) TEM images of sphere-like BiVO4: (a) [2], (b) [6], (c) [22], (d) [29], (e) [30], (f) [31], (g) [32], (h) [33], (i) [34], and (j) [35].
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An one-pot template-free hydrothermal method was developed for the fabrication of BiVO4 microspheres with a tetragonal–monoclinic heterophasic structure [30]. The average diameter, bandgap energy, and BET surface area of the as-prepared BiVO4 microspheres were 4–6 μm, 2.48 eV, and 2.62 m2/g, respectively. The BiVO4 microspheres exhibited the highest photocatalytic activity with ca. Ninety-eight percentage degradation of RhB, remarkably superior to the pure monoclinic–scheelite BiVO4 and tetragonal–zircon BiVO4. The enhanced photocatalytic performance was attributed to the more effective separation of photogenerated carriers generated in the heterophasic BiVO4. Based on free radical scavenging and N2/O2-purging experiments, the degradation of RhB was believed to be driven mainly by the participation of •O2− and a lesser extent by the participation of holes and •OH.
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Sun et al. [31] prepared monoclinic scheelite BiVO4 hollow spheres (diameter = 3000–4000 nm) using a simple hydrothermal method with urea as guiding surfactant. It is observed that the RhB removal efficiency of BiVO4 hollow spheres was more than 80% after 50 min of visible-light irradiation without adding any H2O2. The superior activity of the m-BiVO4 sample was attributed to two reasons: (i) the BET surface area of the hierarchical hollow spheres was 10.6 m2/g, the higher surface area provided not only more surface reached by the visible light but also more active sites, which would result in good photocatalytic performance and (ii) the large hollow space inside the microspheres greatly decreased the density of m-BiVO4, thus rendering them to be easily suspended in water.
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Monoclinic BiVO4 crystals with a particle size of 400–700 nm and a surface area of 1.75 m2/g were synthesized with the assistance of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) [2]. The given RhB solution (100 mL, 10−5 M) was completely degraded within 20 min of visible-light irradiation, which was due to the addition of CTAB during the catalyst fabrication process.
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Many other researchers also reported various kinds of spherical BiVO4 crystallites (Table 1). For example, Ma et al. [32] prepared BiVO4 microspheres by a hydrothermal method in the presence of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) for the removal of MB under sunlight illumination. Jiang et al. [22] reported porous spherical BiVO4 using urea as pH adjustor and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) as surfactant for MO degradation. Castillo et al. [33] studied flame-assisted synthesis of nanoscale spherical BiVO4 for the degradation of MB under visible-light illumination. These spherical BiVO4 samples exhibited good photocatalytic activities for the degradation of organic dyes under visible-light irradiation.
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2.2. Flower-like BiVO4
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A flower-like morphology is usually composed of nanorods or nanosheets. Flower-like particles not only look beautiful, but also show good photocatalytic performance. Fan et al. [34] prepared monoclinic BiVO4 with a flower-like morphology via a simple hydrothermal route by adjusting the amount of surfactant (PVP K30). The photocatalytic efficiency for the decolorization of MB aqueous solution could reach 75% in 2 h of visible-light irradiation. The UV-visible diffuse reflectance absorption spectra reveal that this BiVO4 sample showed excellent absorption of visible light in the region of up to 600 nm, and the Eg was 2.14 eV. The flower-like sample was composed of numerous BiVO4 sub-nanoparticles (400–500 nm) (Figure 2). The BiVO4 possessed a small size, a narrow bandgap energy, and a high BET surface area (61.6 m2/g), which facilitated the enhancement of photocatalytic activity.
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Figure 2.
SEM images of flower-like BiVO4: (a) [28], (b) [34], (c) [36], (d) [37], and (e) [38].
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An m-BiVO4 sample with a regular morphology was prepared using a facile hydrothermal method with Bi2O3 and NH4VO3 as starting material [36]. The as-synthesized sample had a flower-like structure with a diameter of 1–2 μm and a bandgap energy of 2.46 eV. About 58% of MO in the aqueous solution was degraded after sunlight irradiation for 4 h. Photocatalytic performance of the as-prepared BiVO4 sample was much better than that of P25 under the same reaction conditions, which might be ascribable to the flower structure and the larger surface area of the nanosheet-like BiVO4 sample. Larger surface area can facilitate the harvesting of light, whereas the thinness of the nanosheets can cause a bigger distortion of the unit cell induced by the large surface strain. All of those factors might contribute to the improvement in photocatalytic activity of BiVO4.
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2.3. Rod-like BiVO4
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\nFigure 3 shows the scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images of the rod-like BiVO4 samples. Hu et al. [27] reported the controlled fabrication of monoclinic BiVO4 with a rod-like structure and investigated the effect of calcination temperature on the sunlight-driven photocatalytic degradation of RhB. It is found that the sample calcined at 300°C exhibited a superior photocatalytic activity: RhB at an initial concentration of RhB lower than 10 mg/L could be completely decolorized after 6 h of sunlight irradiation. The bandgap energy and BET surface area of the rod-like BiVO4 photocatalyst were 2.46 eV and 3.5 m2/g, respectively. It can be observed from the SEM images (Figure 3) that the sample obtained after calcination at 300°C was composed of dispersive and short rod-like nanocrystals, thus displaying higher BET surface area, which would enhance the adsorption ability and hence improve the photocatalytic performance. Dai and coworkers [35] prepared monoclinic BiVO4 single crystallites with different morphologies using the triblock copolymer P123-assisted hydrothermal strategy with bismuth nitrate and ammonium metavanadate as metal source and various bases as pH adjustor. The rod-like BiVO4 sample was obtained at pH = 6 using NH3–H2O as pH adjustor. This sample displayed a higher surface area (3.2 m2/g) and a lower bandgap energy (2.26 eV). The rod-like BiVO4 sample showed excellent visible-light-driven photocatalytic activity for MB degradation in an aqueous solution under visible light irradiation: 90% degradation was achieved within 2 h of reaction. The unusually high visible-light-driven catalytic performance of monoclinically crystallized rod-like BiVO4 single crystallite was associated with its higher surface area and surface oxygen defect concentrations as well as the unique particle morphology.
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Figure 3.
SEM images of rod-like BiVO4: (a) [27], (b) [35], (c) [39], and (d) [40].
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2.4. Peanut-like BiVO4
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Chen et al. [41] synthesized m-BiVO4 with a hollow peanut-like morphology (Figure 4b) using L-lysine as surfactant, and studied its photocatalytic activity for the degradation of crystal violet under solar light irradiation. The best performance was observed over the sample crystallized at 160°C in the presence of L-lysine and after calcination at 550°C. Ninety-eight percentage of the crystal violet could be removed after exposure for 1 h. Although the surface area decreased with the rise in calcination temperature [2.0 m2/g (at 350°C), 0.86 m2/g (at 450°C), and 0.54 m2/g (at 550°C)], their bandgap energies were about 2.4 eV, and the sample calcined at 550°C performed better than the one calcined at 450 or 350°C. The authors assigned the good photocatalytic activity of m-BiVO4 to its unique hollow peanut-like morphology and pure monoclinic phase of high crystallinity, rather than to the bandgap energy and surface area. The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of several kinds of peanut-like BiVO4 samples reported in the literature are listed in Table 1.
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Figure 4.
SEM images of peanut-like BiVO4: (a) [37], (b) [41], (c) [42], and (d) [43].
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2.5. Polyhedron-like BiVO4
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The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the related polyhedral BiVO4 samples are summarized in Table 1. For example, Han et al. [44] reported the synthesis of monodispersed octahedral m-BiVO4 nanocrystals via a simple hydrothermal route in the presence of sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS). The octahedral m-BiVO4 nanocrystal with a size of 200–300 nm (Figure 5b) exhibited the highest photocatalytic activity (RhB was completely degraded within 10 h of visible-light irradiation). The octahedral crystals displayed higher surface area (3.97 m2/g) and narrower bandgap energy (2.25 eV). Such a good photocatalytic activity was attributed to the good crystallization with fewer structural defects and preferred crystal facets for surface-controlled photocatalysis as well as the better optical absorption property and higher surface area. Zhu et al. [45] has successfully synthesized monoclinic decahedral BiVO4 by the microwave-assisted hydrothermal method with Tween-80 as template. The photocatalytic efficiency of decahedral BiVO4 obtained hydrothermally at 160°C showed the highest photocatalytic MB degradation efficiency (ca. 82% MB was degraded after 160 min of visible-light irradiation). The bandgap energy of the sample derived hydrothermally at 160°C was 2.35 eV. The authors concluded that the good photocatalytic performance of the decahedral BiVO4 sample was related to the imperfect crystal and small size, which resulted in the efficient separation of the electron–hole pairs.
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Figure 5.
SEM images of polyhedron-like BiVO4: (a) [35], (b) [44], (c) [45], and (d) [46].
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2.6. Olive-like BiVO4
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The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of several kinds of olive-like BiVO4 samples are listed in Table 1. Adopting the facile pH-dictated solvothermal route with the aid of either NH3–H2O or NaOH, Dong et al. [37] controllably synthesized the uniform monoclinic scheelite BiVO4 with hierarchical structures. As the pH value was adjusted to 6.26 using NaOH as the pH controller, the olive-like BiVO4 crystallites (bandgap energy = 2.40 eV) was generated. The olive-like BiVO4 sample showed a RhB degradation efficiency of 97% after 10 h of sunlight irradiation. It should be noted that this sample did not have a high surface area (4.6 m2/g) in comparison with other samples (surface area = 6.3–11.1 m2/g) obtained at different pH values. Apparently, the enhanced photocatalytic performance was not related to the surface area and aspect ratios of the fabricated photocatalysts, but to the unique morphological configurations. Lei et al. [39] synthesized olive-like BiVO4 using a hydrothermal strategy at pH = 3.0. As seen from the SEM images (Figure 6c), the sizes of the BiVO4 particles were predominantly 1.8–2.9 μm in length and 1.1–1.8 μm in diameter. The olive-like BiVO4 photocatalyst with a bandgap energy of 2.5 eV showed the highest photocatalytic activity, which could photocatalytically degrade 50.5% RhB after 150 min of visible-light illumination. The synergic effect of monoclinic phase and particle size contributed to the high photocatalytic efficiency of the olive-like BiVO4 photocatalyst.
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Figure 6.
SEM images of olive-like BiVO4: (a) [26], (b) [37], (c) [39], and (d) [42].
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Dai and coworkers [38] fabricated the BiVO4 samples with a monoclinic scheelite-type structure and various morphologies via an alcoho-hydrothermal route with Bi(NO3)3 and NH4VO3 as precursor and sodium hdroxide as pH adjustor in the absence or presence of triblock copolymer P123. It is realized that the pH of the precursor solution and the surfactant greatly affected the particle shape and architecture of BiVO4. Porous BiVO4 particles with spherical, flower-like, and sheet-like shapes were obtained in the presence of P123 at a reaction temperature of 180°C and a pH of 2, 7, or 10, respectively. A rod-like BiVO4 was generated at reaction temperature = 180°C and pH = 2. The four BiVO4 samples possessed a surface area of 1.4–3.8 m2/g and a bandgap energy of 2.47–2.54 eV. The difference in morphology of the BiVO4 particles gave rise to discrepancies in surface area, surface oxygen deficiency density, and (040) crystal face exposure. The rod-like BiVO4 sample that possessed the largest surface area, the highest surface oxygen deficiency density, the highest (040) crystal face exposure, and the lowest bandgap energy performed the best for MO degradation under visible-light irradiation. It is concluded that the particle morphology could influence the photocatalytic activity of BiVO4 and the rod-like shape was favorable for the improvement in photocatalytic activity.
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2.7. Microtube-like BiVO4
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The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of tubular BiVO4 samples reported in the literature are summarized in Table 1. Single-crystalline monoclinic BiVO4 microtubes with a side length of 800 nm and a wall thickness of 100 nm (Figure 7b) were synthesized by a facile reflux method at 80°C [47]. The results of optical absorption experiments reveal that in addition to the UV light region, the BiVO4 microtubes also had a strong absorption in the visible-light region and the bandgap energy was estimated to be 2.36 eV. The RhB photodegradation over the BiVO4 microtubes was up to 96% after 3 h of visible-light irradiation, which could be associated with its distinctive morphology.
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Figure 7.
SEM images of microtube-like BiVO4: (a) [35], (b) [47], (c) [48], and (d) [49].
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2.8. Dumbbell-like BiVO4
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Lu et al. [50] reported the controllable synthesis of dumbbell-like BiVO4 with a hierarchical nanostructure (Figure 8b) and a bandgap energy of 2.51 eV by employing a simple hydrothermal process. The photocatalytic degradation of RhB over the dumbbell-like BiVO4 sample was up to 90% within 4.5 h of visible-light irradiation, which was much higher than the P25 sample under the same reaction conditions. The good visible-light-driven photocatalytic efficiency was related to the exposed crystal planes, which could not only provide more active sites for the photocatalytic reaction but also effectively promote the separation efficiency of the electron–hole pairs. The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of several kinds of dumbbell-like BiVO4 samples reported in the literature are summarized in Table 1.
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Figure 8.
SEM images of dumbbell-like BiVO4: (a) [37], (b) [50], (c) [51], and (d) [52].
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2.9. Needle-like BiVO4
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The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the typical needle-like BiVO4 samples are summarized in Table 1. For example, Obregón et al. [43] prepared monoclinic BiVO4 with different morphologies by a surfactant-free hydrothermal method through adjusting the pH value, precipitating agent type, hydrothermal temperature, and treatment time. The needle-like particles (Figure 9b) obtained with hydrothermal treatment at 100°C and NH4OH as pH controlling agent showed the best efficiency (50–60% after 2 h of UV-visible-light irradiation) for MB photodegradation. The surface areas of the samples obtained with hydrothermal treatment time of 2, 8, and 20 h were 30.2, 2.7, and 1.6 m2/g, respectively. It should be noted that the slight diminution in surface area had no clear effect on the photocatalytic performance of the sample. Therefore, the best performance was not associated with the surface area, but strongly affected by the crystallite size and morphology.
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Figure 9.
SEM images of needle-like BiVO4: (a) [37], (b) [43], (c) [53], and (d) [54].
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2.10. BiVO4 with other morphologies
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In addition to the well-morphological BiVO4 samples described above, there are some kinds of BiVO4 samples with other morphologies (Figure 10) that have been prepared. Most of them perform well in the photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes (Table 1).
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Figure 10.
SEM images of BiVO4 with various morphologies: (a) [16], (b) [26], (c) [31], (d) [35], (e) [36], (f) [42], and (g) [53].
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3. Porous BiVO4 photocatalysts
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Most of the monoclinic BiVO4 samples obtained using the above methods are bulk materials and are low in surface area (<4 m2/g) [55, 56], which is unfavorable for photocatalytic applications. The reasons are as follows: (i) the amount of surface active sites is intimately related to the surface area [57, 58] and (ii) a porous architecture can increase the ability to capture incident light and the transfer of reactant and product molecules [59]. Therefore, it is of significance to controllably prepare BiVO4 photocatalysts that are porous in structure and high in surface area. The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of typical porous BiVO4 samples are summarized in Table 2.
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Photocatalyst
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Crystal structure
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Crystallite size (nm)
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Surface area (m2/g)
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Eg (eV)
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Reaction condition
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Degradation efficiency and light illumination time
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References
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3DOM BiVO4
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Monoclinic
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185
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23.6
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2.50
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Visible light, 200 mL phenol (0.1 mmol/L), 0.2 g sample
Physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the porous BiVO4 photocatalysts.
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By adopting an alcoho-hydrothermal method with Bi(NO3)3 and NH4VO3 as precursor, sodium hydroxide as pH adjustor, ethanol and ethylene glycol as solvent, and dodecylamine, oleylamine, or oleic acid as surfactant, Dai and coworkers [59] prepared the BiVO4 materials with various shapes and/or mesoporous architectures. Photocatalytic activities of the as-derived samples were measured for phenol degradation in the presence of H2O2 under visible-light illumination, and effect of phenol concentration on photocatalytic performance was also probed. The authors pointed out that the surfactant and pH exerted a significant impact on particle morphology and crystal phase structure of BiVO4. Monoclinic BiVO4 samples with a porous olive-like shape could be fabricated with dodecylamine, oleylamine, or oleic acid as surfactant at a pH of 1.5 or 3.0 and a reaction temperature of 100°C. Short-rod-like monoclinic BiVO4 and porous sheet-layered spherical orthorhombic Bi4V2O11 were generated with dodecylamine as surfactant at reaction temperature = 100°C and pH = 7.0 and 11.0, respectively. Among all of the as-prepared BiVO4 samples, the porous sample with an olive-like morphology and a surface area of 12.7 m2/g (derived with dodecylamine and at pH = 1.5) exhibited the best visible-light-driven photocatalytic performance for phenol degradation (96% phenol was removed within 4 h of visible-light illumination).
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Jiang et al. [60] prepared monoclinic BiVO4 single crystallites with a porous octapod-like morphology using the P123-assisted hydrothermal method with bismuth nitrate and ammonium metavanadate as metal source and various bases as pH adjustor. The BiVO4 with a surface area of 11.8 m2/g and a bandgap energy of 2.38 eV showed excellent photocatalytic activities for the degradation of MB and phenol. Near 100 and 91% degradation of MB and phenol were achieved within 2 and 4 h of visible-light irradiation, respectively. The authors concluded that the high visible-light-driven catalytic performance of the porous octapod-like BiVO4 single crystallites was associated with the higher surface area, porous structure, and lower bandgap energy.
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Peanut-shaped porous monoclinic BiVO4 with high yield was prepared using a simple template-free solvothermal method [61]. The pore size of the sample was 2.2 nm. Compared to the BiVO4 sample obtained hydrothermally, the porous BiVO4 sample exhibited a higher photocatalytic activity for the degradation of RhB and maintained high catalytic efficiency in the repeated recycles of the H2O2-containing system. Nearly, complete degradation of RhB was observed after 1 h of sunlight irradiation. It is noteworthy that the bandgap energy (2.38 eV) of the porous BiVO4 sample was higher than that (2.28 eV) of the nonporous BiVO4 sample, but the surface area (7.3 m2/g) of the former was considerably higher than that (2.1 m2/g) of the latter.
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Li et al. [57] prepared ordered mesoporous monoclinic BiVO4 using mesoporous silica (KIT-6) as template. The mesoporous BiVO4 sample had a surface area of 59 m2/g and a pore size of 3.5 nm. The mesoporous BiVO4 exhibited a superior visible-light-driven photocatalytic activity for the degradation of MB. The degradation rate over the mesoporous BiVO4 sample was twice as active as the conventional BiVO4 sample, and 85% MB could be degraded after 3 h of visible-light illumination. The mesoporous BiVO4 sample possessed a large surface area, an ordered structure, and a small crystal size, thus resulting in excellent visible-light photocatalytic activity. The most attractive feature of the mesoporous BiVO4 semiconductor with a bandgap energy of 2.20 eV was its excellent visible-light response ability.
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Liu et al. [3] prepared three-dimensionally ordered macroporous (3DOM) bismuth vanadates with a monoclinic crystal structure and high surface areas (18–24 m2/g) using ascorbic acid-assisted poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)-templating strategy. The average macropore size and wall thicknesses of the BiVO4 samples were in the ranges of 160–185 and 24–70 nm, respectively. The photocatalytic performance of the porous BiVO4 samples was evaluated for the degradation of phenol in the presence of a small amount of H2O2 under visible-light illumination. The results showed that the conversion of phenol could reach 94% at an initial phenol concentration of 0.1 mmol/L after 3 h of visible-light irradiation. However, only 51% phenol was degraded over the bulk BiVO4 sample. The authors concluded that the excellent photocatalytic activity of 3DOM BiVO4 was associated with the high-quality 3DOM-structured BiVO4 that has a high surface area and a surface oxygen vacancy density.
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Wang et al. [62] reported the 3DOM-structured monoclinic InVO4 with high surface areas (35–52 m2/g) using the citric acid-, tartaric acid-, or ascorbic acid-assisted PMMA-templating strategy. From the SEM images, among the as-obtained samples, the InVO4 sample derived with PMMA in the presence of ascorbic acid showed the best quality in 3DOM architecture and a bandgap energy of 2.50 eV, with the macropore and nanovoid (on the skeletons) sizes being in the ranges of 130–160 and of 2–10 nm, respectively. Ninety-eight percentage MB was removed over the ascorbic acid-derived sample within 1 h of visible-light illumination. It is concluded that the excellent photocatalytic activity of this sample was related to its higher surface area and surface oxygen vacancy density and lower bandgap energy as well as the better quality of 3DOM structure.
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Dai and coworker [63] loaded certain amounts of chromia on the surface of 3DOM InVO4 to obtain the yCrOx/3DOM InVO4 (y = 5, 10, 15, and 20 wt%) photocatalysts. They investigated the photocatalytic degradation of RhB in the presence of H2O2 under visible-light illumination and found that (i) chromia in the yCrOx/3DOM InVO4 samples were highly dispersed on the surface of 3DOM InVO4; (ii) after loading of CrOx, the surface areas of the yCrOx/3DOM InVO4 samples decreased; (iii) after visible-light illumination for 200 min, the RhB conversion was 47% over 3DOM InVO4, 90% over 5CrOx/3DOM InVO4, 96% over 10CrOx/3DOM InVO4, 97% over 20CrOx/3DOM InVO4, and 99% over 15CrOx/3DOM InVO4; (iii) the yCrOx/3DOM InVO4 samples exhibited stronger absorption in the UV- and visible-light than the 3DOM InVO4; (iv) the yCrOx/3DOM InVO4 samples possessed higher amounts of surface oxygen vacancies than the 3DOM InVO4 sample. These authors concluded that the good visible-light-driven catalytic activity of 15CrOx/3DOM InVO4 was associated with its CrOx loading, higher surface area and surface oxygen vacancy density, and lower bandgap energy as well as the better quality of 3DOM structure.
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Ji et al. [64] prepared the 3DOM InVO4–BiVO4 (InBi-3D) and its supported noble metal (M) nanoparticles (0.17 wt% M/InBi-3D, M = Au, Ag, Pd, Pt) using the PMMA-templating and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)- or PVP-assisted reduction methods, respectively. There was co-presence of orthorhombic InVO4 and monoclinic BiVO4 in the InBi-3D or M/InBi-3D samples. The as-fabricated samples displayed a surface area of 17–30 m2/g, a M particle size of 2.5–3.8 nm, and a bandgap energy of 2.50–2.56 eV. The 0.08 wt% Au/InBi-3D sample exhibited the best photocatalytic activity: The complete degradation of RhB, MB, and RhB + MB could be achieved within 50, 90, and 120 min of visible-light illumination. The authors believe that the 3DOM hierarchical architecture, InVO4–BiVO4 composite, and high dispersion of plasmonic gold nanoparticles were the main factors responsible for excellent photocatalytic efficiency of the InBi-3D-supported Au sample.
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Dai and coworkers [65] prepared 3DOM BiVO4 (3D-BiV), AgBr/3D-BiV, and M/AgBr/3D-BiV (M = Au, Pt, and Pd) photocatalysts using the PMMA-templating, low-temperature deposition, and PVA-protected reduction methods, respectively. The AgBr and noble metals were uniformly distributed on the surface of 3D-BiV. The 3DOM BiVO4 sample performed better than the commercial TiO2 sample. The 10 wt% AgBr/3D-BiV sample exhibited a reduced performance, which might be caused by the shielding effect of excessive AgBr in visible-light spectrum on the 3DOM BiVO4 support. When noble metal was deposited on the surface of 10 wt% AgBr/3D-BiV, the photocatalytic performance was much improved, and the 0.17 wt% Pd/AgBr/3D-BiV sample performed the best: Almost complete degradation of 4-chlorophenol was achieved within 150 min of visible-light illumination. The authors assigned the excellent photocatalytic performance of 0.17 wt% Pd/AgBr/3D-BiV to the good 3DOM structure, high surface oxygen adspecies concentration, easy transfer and separation of photogenerated carriers, and synergistic effect between AgBr or Pd nanoclusters and BiVO4.
\n
\n
\n
4. Heteroatom-doped BiVO4 photocatalysts
\n
Up to now, many investigations have been made to improve the photocatalytic performance of visible-light-responsive BiVO4 by doping heteroatoms that can efficiently avoid the charge recombination via trapping both electrons and holes. The co-doping with both cations and anions can also extend the visible-light absorption spectrum of BiVO4.
\n
\n
4.1. Doping with anions
\n
Yin et al. [66] reported the one-step fabrication of high-performance C-doped BiVO4 photocatalyst with hierarchical structures under visible-light irradiation. The sample calcined at 400°C with a carbon content of 1.5 wt% showed the best photocatalytic MB degradation efficiency (100% degradation after 1 h of visible-light irradiation), which was 6.3 times higher than that over the pure BiVO4 sample (18% degradation after 1 h of visible-light irradiation). The XRD result showed that 1.5 wt% C-BiVO4 had a smaller crystalline size (18.7 nm) in comparison with pure BiVO4 (28.5 nm). Moreover, the bandgap energy of 1.5 wt% C-BiVO4 was about 2.39 eV, which was smaller than that (2.46 eV) of pure BiVO4. The photocatalytic performance was enhanced by C-doping because it improved the efficient separation and transfer of the photogenerated electrons and holes, as evidenced by the results of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) measurements.
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Tan et al. [67] fabricated a N-doped monoclinic BiVO4 photocatalyst via a facile microwave hydrothermal route using NaN3 as nitrogen source. The photocatalytic performance of the samples was evaluated by the decolorization of RhB under the simulated sunlight irradiation. After 4 h of the simulated sunlight irradiation, the degradation efficiencies over the pure BiVO4 and N-doped BiVO4 samples were 48 and 97%, respectively, indicating that N-doped BiVO4 was twice as active as pure BiVO4. The bandgap energy (2.0 eV) of N-doped BiVO4 was narrower than that (2.2 eV) of pure BiVO4, whereas the surface area (1.34 m2/g) of the former was close to that (0.21 m2/g) of the latter. The enhancement in photocatalytic activity could be attributable to the small particle size, narrow bandgap, and most importantly, the existence of multi-atomic BiVO4 centers and surface oxygen vacancies, which improved the mobility of charge carriers and inhibited the recombination of charge carriers.
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F-doped BiVO4 particles were synthesized through a simple two-step hydrothermal process [68]. The XRD results demonstrated that the presence of F− ions did not change the phase structure of monoclinic BiVO4. F-doped BiVO4 was consisted of relatively uniform spheres with a diameter of 2–4 μm, and the bandgap energy was 2.39 eV. When the BiVO4/NaF molar ratio was 1: 0.9, the derived F-doped BiVO4 sample exhibited the highest photocatalytic MB degradation activity (99% MB was degraded after 3 h of visible-light irradiation). The appropriate amount of F– ions introduced into the BiVO4 crystal lattice might effectively restrain the recombination of photogenerated electron–hole pairs, thus facilitating the improvement in photocatalytic activity.
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Jiang et al. [69] prepared fluoride-doped BiVO4 with the different F/Bi molar ratios using the hydrothermal strategy with the hydrothermally derived BiVO4 as precursor and NH4F as fluoride source. All of the samples were of single-phase monoclinic scheelite structure. The doping of fluorine did not induce any alteration in crystal structure but changed the morphology of the sample particles. Compared to the undoped BiVO4 sample, the fluoride-doped BiVO4 samples showed higher oxygen adspecies concentration. When the F/Bi molar ratio was 0.29, the BiVO4 sample with a surface area of 14.6 m2/g and a bandgap energy of 2.42 eV performed the best for the degradation of phenol, giving a 97% phenol degradation efficiency within 2 h of visible-light irradiation. The authors concluded that the excellent photocatalytic performance of fluoride-doped BiVO4 was associated with its higher surface area and adsorbed oxygen species concentration, stronger optical absorbance performance, and lower bandgap energy.
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Other anions (e.g., S and B) were also doped into the BiVO4 lattice (Table 3). For example, Guo et al. [70] found that S-doped BiVO4 was superior to pure BiVO4 in photocatalyzing the degradation of MB under visible-light irradiation, since an appropriate amount of S2− ions could improve the separation efficiency of photogenerated electron–hole pairs and hinder their recombination.
\n
\n\n
\n
Photocatalyst
\n
Crystal structure
\n
Crystallite size (nm)
\n
Surface area (m2/g)
\n
Eg (eV)
\n
Reaction condition
\n
Degradation efficiency and light illumination time
\n
References
\n
\n\n\n
\n
0.5 wt% C–BiVO4
\n
Monoclinic
\n
35.7
\n
1.18
\n
−
\n
Visible light, 200 mL phenol (5 mg/L), 0.2 g sample
Physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the heteroatom-doped BiVO4 photocatalysts.
\n
Employing a dodecylamine-assisted alcohol-hydrothermal method in the absence and presence of thiourea or Na2S, Zhao et al. [71] synthesized the sulfur-doped BiVO4 samples. The S-doped samples possessed a monoclinic scheelite structure and a surface area of 8.4–9.9 m2/g, and the bandgap energies of the S-doped BiVO4 samples were narrower than that of pure BiVO4. The S-doped BiVO4 sample with a S content of 0.78 wt% showed the best photocatalytic performance for the degradation of MB and formaldehyde. The photodegradation efficiency of MB was 92% within 2.5 h of visible-light illumination, but only 45% MB was degraded over pure BiVO4 under the same conditions. It is believed that a higher adsorbed oxygen species concentration and a lower bandgap energy were responsible for the excellent photocatalytic activity of the 0.78 wt% S-BiVO4 sample. These authors also investigated the porous olive-like morphological S-doped bismuth vanadate-supported iron oxide (yFeOx/BiVO4δS0.08, y = 0.06–1.40 wt%) photocatalysts derived from the dodecylamine-assisted alcohol-hydrothermal and incipient wetness impregnation methods [72]. It is shown that the yFeOx/BiVO4δS0.08 photocatalysts possessed a monoclinic scheetlite BiVO4 phase, a porous olive-like shape, a surface area of 8.8–9.2 m2/g, and a bandgap energy of 2.38–2.42 eV. Bi5+, Bi3+, V5+, V3+, Fe3+, and Fe2+ species were concurrently present on the surface of yFeOx/BiVO4δS0.08. Among all of the as-fabricated samples, the 1.40 wt% FeOx/BiVO4;δS0.08 sample showed the highest photocatalytic activity for MB degradation under visible-light irradiation. It is concluded that the sulfur and FeOx co-doping, higher adsorbed oxygen species concentration, and lower bandgap energy were responsible for the excellent visible-light-driven catalytic activity of 1.40 wt% FeOx/BiVO4δS0.08.
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\n
\n
4.2. Doping with cations
\n
Cation doping is another approach to enhance the photocatalytic degradation efficiency of BiVO4, including transition metal doping and rare-earth doping (Table 3). For example, Li et al. [73] prepared Cu-doped monoclinic BiVO4 by a facile hydrothermal method and used the degradation of RhB to evaluate their photocatalytic activities. 1 wt% Cu-BiVO4 showed the best degradation performance: 95% of RhB was degraded within 80 min of visible-light irradiation, whereas pure BiVO4 can only degrade 60% of RhB within the same time. The bandgap energy of 1 wt% Cu-BiVO4 was 2.55 eV, resulting in the photoabsorption ability of the 1 wt% Cu-BiVO4 sample slightly stronger than undoped BiVO4 (bandgap energy = 2.57 eV). The amount of oxygen vacancies increased in the copper-doped samples. Possible factors that significantly enhance photocatalytic performance could be as follows: (i) Cu2+ substituted partial V5+ ions with lower oxidation state, generating a certain amount of oxygen vacancies; (ii) the generated oxygen vacancies can capture the electrons to suppress recombination of the photoinduced carriers; and (iii) the photoinduced carriers freely diffuse to the active sites on the surface of the photocatalyst where oxidation of organic species takes place.
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Zhou et al. [74] prepared a series of visible-light-sensitive monoclinic Co-BiVO4 photocatalysts by the heteronuclear complexing method with diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) as chelating agent. The bandgap was narrowed by doping cobalt. The bandgap energies of the Co-doped BiVO4 samples at cobalt molar content of 0 and 1–10 wt% were 2.44 and 2.39–2.43 eV, respectively. The photocatalytic activity of Co-BiVO4 was studied by the decolorization of MB. The 5 wt% Co-BiVO4 sample exhibited the highest photocatalytic activity with a 85% of MB removal (65% of MB removal by pure BiVO4) within 5 h of visible-light irradiation. There was no significant loss of photocatalytic activity in three successive runs (each lasted for 6 h). Therefore, Co-BiVO4 was photocatalytically stable and resistant to photocorrosion during the photocatalytic degradation of organic dyes.
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Obregón et al. [75] synthesized Er-BiVO4 by means of a microwave-assisted hydrothermal method and examined the photodegradation of MB under sunlike excitation. The Er-doped BiVO4 sample showed a mixed phase of monoclinic and tetragonal structures. The optimal MB conversion was achieved over the sample with 0.75 atom% of erbium, over which the complete MB degradation was reached after 40 min of light illumination. The reaction rate obtained over this photocatalyst was 20 times higher than that over the undoped BiVO4 sample. Two clear absorption edges in the diffuse reflectance spectra of the sample appeared, and the corresponding bandgap energies were ca. 2.4 and 2.8 eV, which were associated with the monoclinic and tetragonal phases, respectively. In order to understand the role of erbium doping in the luminescent properties of the sample, the photoluminescence spectra upon 523 and 655 nm excitations were studied. Upon 655 nm excitation, the up-converted emission of the 0.75 atom% Er-BiVO4 sample was almost suppressed in the 400–600 nm range. Therefore, the dramatic improvement in photocatalytic activity induced by Er3+ doping could correlate to a co-operative process involving the electronic and luminescence mechanism. This sensitization mechanism could improve the photon efficiency of the photocatalytic process, and the formation of a monoclinic–tetragonal heterostructure could also be responsible for a more effective charge separation.
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Co-doping with two different elements can exhibit better photocatalytic activity than the doping of single element. Wang et al. [76] reported that photodegradation of MO over BiVO4 doped with B species showed a higher MO degradation rate than the pure BiVO4 sample under visible-light irradiation. With the doping of europium, the photocatalytic MO degradation rate over Eu–B co-doped BiVO4 increased with the rise in europium content, and then decreased when the amount of europium was high enough. Co-doping of two different elements can further increase the photocatalytic activity due to the synergistic effects of a number of factors (such as higher specific area, smaller Eg, and more oxygen vacancies) induced by the co-doping of Eu and B.
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Obregón et al. [77] also reported a highly active monoclinic–tetragonal BiVO4 by doping with Yb3+ and Er3+, which can completely photodegrade MB within 1 h of sunlike excitation. According to the results of structural and morphological characterization, one can deduce that the presence of Yb3+ and Er3+ induced the stabilization of the tetragonal phase probably due to its partial incorporation into the BiVO4 lattice. The improved photocatalytic efficiency was ascribed to two reasons: (i) the doping of lanthanide ions favored the co-existence of a monoclinic-tetragonal heterostructure, and such a structural configuration could optimize the charge separation and (ii) Yb3+ and Er3+ luminescence tandem led to a supportive photoluminescence up-conversion process, which could render the energy transfer process from erbium ions to the monoclinic BiVO4 phase.
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It should be noted that not all of the photocatalytic activity enhancement can be ascribed to the higher specific area, small crystallite sizes, smaller Eg, and more oxygen vacancies of the heteroatom-doped BiVO4 samples. For example, Yao et al. [78] reported that the doping of Mo ions could significantly enhance the photocatalytic activity of BiVO4 for MB photodegradation, which was due to its strong acidity on the surface instead of the reasons mentioned above. Moreover, many other researchers also studied the effect of heteroatom-doping on photocatalytic activity of BiVO4, as been summarized in Table 3.
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\n
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5. BiVO4-based heterojunction photocatalysts
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In comparison with single-component photocatalyst, the heterostructure photocatalyst usually exhibits a higher photocatalytic performance for the degradation of various organic contaminants since it can facilitate the effective separation of photoinduced carriers and suppress the recombination of the electron–hole pairs, leaving more charge carriers to form reactive species [85].
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Absorption of photons by a semiconductor photocatalyst induces the photogenerated electrons and holes. The photogenerated charge carriers are separated or recombined on the way to the surface reaction sites. The charge separation is a crucial factor determining the light to conversion efficiency [9]. Therefore, much attention has been paid on increasing the charge separation efficiency. Fabrication of a heterojunction structure has been recognized as a useful strategy to avoid charge recombination in a semiconductor catalyst.
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\n
5.1. Co3O4/BiVO4 heterojunction
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Co3O4 is a p-type semiconductor with interesting electronic and magnetic properties, thus various kinds of Co3O4/BiVO4 composite structures have been studied [86]. The enhancement in photocatalytic activity of the Co3O4/BiVO4 composite is attributed to the efficient charge transfer and separation between Co3O4 and BiVO4 driven by the internal electric field or potential difference created by the heterojunction.
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Long et al. [86] prepared the Co3O4/BiVO4 composite photocatalyst with a p–n heterojunction semiconductor structure using the impregnation method. These authors observed that the Co3O4/BiVO4 composite sample (0.8 wt% cobalt content) obtained after calcination at 300°C showed a much better photocatalytic activity than pure BiVO4 for phenol degradation under visible-light irradiation. The decrease of phenol concentration over pure BiVO4 was only about 6% within 3 h of visible-light irradiation, but phenol concentration dropped by 85% after Co3O4 was loaded on the surface of BiVO4 under the same conditions. The enhanced activity was attributed to the formation of a p–n heterojunction structure and the decrease of recombination of photogenerated hole–electron pairs.
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Yu and coworkers [87] also investigated the BiVO4 decorated with Co3O4, which showed a much higher photocatalytic activity than pure BiVO4. The authors believed that the high crystallinity of BiVO4 and the formed p–n heterojunction of Co3O4/BiVO4 improved the photocatalytic performance. The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the Co3O4/BiVO4 heterojunction samples reported in the literature are summarized in Table 4.
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\n\n
\n
Photocatalyst
\n
Surface area (m2/g)
\n
Eg (eV)
\n
Reaction condition
\n
Degradation efficiency and light illumination time
Physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the BiVO4-based heterojunction photocatalysts.
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5.2. TiO2/BiVO4 heterojunction
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As we know, TiO2 has been widely used in environmental purification, H2 production, photosynthesis, CO2 reduction, etc. TiO2 is cheap, stable, nontoxic, and environmentally friendly, and hence an ideal model for investigations of semiconductor photocatalysts [9]. However, a major drawback of TiO2 is that only UV in the solar spectrum (about 3–5%) can be utilized to initiate the photocatalytic redox processes.
\n
\nTable 4 summarizes the physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the TiO2/BiVO4 heterojunction samples reported in the literature. Xie et al. [88] prepared TiO2/BiVO4 nanocomposites with different molar ratios by impregnating BiVO4 particles into a TiO2 sol and after a thermal treatment at 450°C. The phenol degradation efficiency (74% after 1 h of visible-light illumination) over the TiO2/BiVO4 nanocomposites was as 4 times as that over pure BiVO4. The results of the transient-state surface photovoltage responses and atmosphere-controlled steady-state surface photovoltage spectra demonstrated that the lifetime of photogenerated charge carriers over the nanosized BiVO4 sample could be prolonged by approximately millisecond timescale after a proper molar ratio of nanocrystalline TiO2 was coupled. The promoted charge separation was responsible for the unexpected high photocatalytic activity for phenol degradation under visible-light irradiation.
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5.3. CeOx/BiVO4 heterojunction
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Apart from the most commonly used TiO2 catalyst, cubic fluorite cerium dioxide (CeO2), a semiconductor with a bandgap energy similar to that of TiO2 [89], shows a promising photocatalytic activity for the degradation of various organic dye pollutants [90]. CeO2 has been used in the splitting of water for H2 evolution and the degradation of phenol or chlorinated phenol under UV irradiation [91, 92]. However, the broad bandgap energy of CeO2 limits its applications in visible-light illumination [92]. As we know, the heterojunction structure in composite photocatalysts can dominate photoinduced charges in the direction of transport, distance of separation, and rate of recombination, leading to the efficient separation of photogenerated charges and thus greatly improving the photocatalytic activity of the heterojunction-structured sample. If BiVO4 is coupled with CeO2 to form a heterojunction structure, it is possible to generate visible-light-driven catalysts that show excellent photocatalytic performance.
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Wetchakun et al. [89] prepared the BiVO4/CeO2 nanocomposites by coupling a homogeneous precipitation method with a hydrothermal process. Photocatalytic activities of the as-prepared samples were examined for the degradation of MB, MO, and a mixture of MB and MO aqueous solutions under visible-light irradiation. The XRD patterns reveal that the BiVO4/CeO2 nanocomposite was composed of BiVO4 and CeO2, and BiVO4 in the composite sample was present in two crystalline phases. The sample with a BiVO4/CeO2 molar ratio of 0.6: 0.4 showed the highest photocatalytic activity (the highest MB degradation of 80% was achieved within 30 min of light irradiation). The absorption of BiVO4/CeO2 nanocomposites increased in the visible-light region (485–505 nm). Moreover, the low bandgap energy (2.46 eV) of BiVO4/CeO2 nanocomposites also influenced the dyes degradation.
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The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the CeO2/BiVO4 heterojunction samples reported in the literature are summarized in Table 4.
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5.4. g-C3N4/BiVO4 heterojunction
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As a promising photocatalyst candidate for organic pollutant removal, graphite-like carbon nitride (g-C3N4) exhibits a relatively high photocatalytic activity under visible-light illumination due to its rapid separation of photoinduced charge carriers [93, 94]. The very negative CB (−1.13 eV) of g-C3N4 enables a strong reduction power of electrons (e−) in the CB. Nevertheless, there are still some shortcomings (e.g., the limited visible-light absorption below 450 nm and the low surface area) for the utilization of g-C3N4 in photocatalysis [95, 96]. Recently, continuous efforts have been made to improve the photocatalytic performance of g-C3N4. Among these, combining g-C3N4 with other semiconductors to construct heterostructures can effectively promote the separation rate of photoexcitated charge carriers [97]. BiVO4 and g-C3N4 are selected to construct heterojunction photocatalysts according to the following considerations: (i) both BiVO4 and g-C3N4 have been proved to be promising visible-light photocatalysts with desirable chemical stability and (ii) their suitable energy band alignments are beneficial for the separation of light-induced electron–hole pairs in the as-formed heterojunction photocatalysts. More importantly, the g-C3N4/BiVO4 heterojunction structures can be easily modified to achieve a controllable coverage of g-C3N4 on BiVO4 via a thermal annealing process, during which the g-C3N4 phase can be thermally etched by oxidation in air [7, 98].
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Li et al. [98] prepared an efficient g-C3N4/BiVO4 heterojunction photocatalyst with BiVO4 networks decorated by discrete g-C3N4 nanoislands for highly efficient photocatalytic degradation of MB. There was the co-existence of BiVO4 and g-C3N4 phase in the composite samples. Among these heterojunction photocatalysts, the g-C3N4/BiVO4 heterojunction sample with a g-C3N4/BiVO4 ratio of 15: 3 performed the best photocatalytically in the degradation of MB. In this sample, the g-C3N4 phase displayed a discrete nanoisland morphology (5–10 nm in diameter), which was attached tightly to the surface of BiVO4. The as-synthesized g-C3N4/BiVO4 photocatalyst showed a superior visible-light photocatalytic activity, which was about 4.5 and 6.9 times as high as that over pure BiVO4 and g-C3N4, respectively. The enhanced photocatalytic activity can be ascribed to the increased charge separation efficiency, fully exposed reactive sites, and separated redox reaction sites as well as excellent visible-light response in the network composites. The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the g-C3N4/BiVO4 heterojunction samples are summarized in Table 4.
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5.5. rGO/BiVO4 heterojunction
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Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) with excellent electrical conductivity and high carrier mobility has been proved to be an excellent media for electron transfer. The widely accepted mechanism for the enhancement in photocatalytic performance is that chemical bonding between rGO and semiconductor could accelerate the transfer of photogenerated electrons in semiconductor to rGO, thus effectively suppressing the recombination of photogenerated carriers [99]. The rGO/BiVO4 composites have attracted much attention and significant research progress has been achieved.
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Wang et al. [100] fabricated the rGO/BiVO4 nanocomposite photocatalysts with excellent visible-light photocatalytic activities through electrostatic self-assembly via a simple surface charge modification on amorphous BiVO4 powders with silane coupling agent. The surface areas of rGO/BiVO4 and BiVO4 were 23.57 and 2.62 m2/g, respectively, and their corresponding bandgap energies were 2.41 and 2.47 eV. The photocatalytic MB degradation efficiency over rGO/BiVO4 was 94.1%, whereas that over bare BiVO4 was just 24.1% after 30 min of visible-light irradiation. The smaller particle size with a high surface area and an increased interfacial interaction in rGO/BiVO4 gave rise to increased photocatalytic reaction sites, extended photoresponding range, and enhanced photogenerated charge separation and transportation efficiency.
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The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the rGO/BiVO4 heterojunction samples reported in the literature are summarized in Table 4.
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5.6. Bi2WO6/BiVO4 heterojunction
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As one of the typical Aurivillius oxides with a layered structure, Bi2WO6 has attracted increasing attention in many research fields due to its excellent intrinsic physicochemical properties [101], including ferroelectric piezoelectricity, pyroelectricity, catalytic activity, non-linear dielectric susceptibility, and luminescence. Besides, Bi2WO6 is a typical n-type semiconductor with a direct bandgap energy of 2.8 eV and exhibits good photocatalytic performance in the degradation of organic pollutants and the splitting of water under visible-light irradiation [102]. However, pure Bi2WO6 can only respond to the light with a wavelength of less than 450 nm, which accounts for a small part of solar light [103]. In addition, fast recombination of the photoinduced electron–hole pairs in Bi2WO6 restricts photocatalytic performance considerably [104]. Hence, to extend the range of light absorption and accelerate separation of the photogenerated charge carriers in Bi2WO6, a semiconductor with a low bandgap energy could be doped with Bi2WO6 to generate a heterojunction architecture [105]. For example, Ju et al. [105] prepared the Bi2WO6/BiVO4 (C-Bi2WO6/BiVO4) heterojunction photocatalyst via a hydrothermal process and after calcination at 600°C. There were co-presence of monoclinic BiVO4 and orthorhombic Bi2WO6 phases, and no obvious changes in XRD peak shape and position in the calcined (C-Bi2WO6, C-BiVO4, and C-Bi2WO6/BiVO4) and uncalcined (Bi2WO6/BiVO4) samples. The C-Bi2WO6/BiVO4 sample possessed a better crystallinity than the uncalcined Bi2WO6/BiVO4. The surface areas of the C-Bi2WO6, C-BiVO4, Bi2WO6/BiVO4, and C-Bi2WO6/BiVO4 samples were 7.67, 3.62, 20.78, and 2.69 m2/g, respectively, indicating that calcination at a high temperature led to a decrease in surface area. The C-Bi2WO6/BiVO4 sample exhibited a higher photocatalytic activity (RhB degradation efficiency reached 100% within 30 min of visible-light illumination) than the C-Bi2WO6, C-BiVO4, or Bi2WO6/BiVO4 sample. A high surface area did not give rise to a good photocatalytic activity, suggesting that there were other factors influencing the photocatalytic activity of the sample. The bandgap energies of C-Bi2WO6, C-BiVO4, Bi2WO6/BiVO4, and C-Bi2WO6/BiVO4 were 2.69, 2.30, 2.18, and 2.08 eV, respectively. The results indicate that the C-Bi2WO6/BiVO4 photocatalyst had a wider light absorption range and a more suitable bandgap energy. Based on the calculated energy bands and trapping experiment results, the authors proposed that the difference of band potentials in the two semiconductors could induce an inner electric field at the interface between Bi2WO6 and BiVO4, resulting in the efficient separation of photoinduced electrons and holes on the n–n heterojunction and a great reduction in recombination of the photoinduced charge carriers. Therefore, the enhanced photocatalytic activity of C-Bi2WO6/BiVO4 could be mainly ascribed to the effective separation of photoinduced electron–hole pairs at the heterojunction interface as well as the wider photoabsorption range and better crystallinity.
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5.7. Cu2O/BiVO4 heterojunction
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Cu2O is a p-type semiconductor with a direct bandgap energy of 2.0 eV and has a noticeable light absorption capability in the visible-light region [106]. The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the Cu2O/BiVO4 and CuO/BiVO4 heterojunction samples reported in the literature are summarized in Table 4. For example, Yang et al. [107] reported that the Cu2O/TiO2 network sample showed a much higher photocatalytic activity than the pure TiO2 sample under the irradiation of artificial solar light, and the enhanced activity of the former could be attributed to the extended absorption in the visible-light region and the effective separation of photogenerated carriers at the p–n junction interface formed between Cu2O and TiO2. Since the CB edge of Cu2O is much higher than that of BiVO4 [108], the Cu2O/BiVO4 composite may be an ideal system to form the p–n junction, consequently enhancing the separation of charge carriers and promoting the photocatalytic activity of BiVO4.
\n
Wang et al. [109] prepared the Cu2O/BiVO4 photocatalysts with a heterogeneous nanostructure and a p–n junction by coupling a hydrothermal process with a polyol strategy. The XRD pattern of the Cu2O/BiVO4 sample was quite similar to that of the pure BiVO4 nanocrystals, and no obvious peaks due to the Cu2O phase were detected. It can be seen from the SEM image of the Cu2O/BiVO4 sample that a large number of Cu2O nanoparticles (5–20 nm in size) were assembled on the surface of the BiVO4 nanocrystals. Under the irradiation of visible light, the photocatalytic phenol degradation efficiency (41.0%) over the Cu2O/BiVO4 sample was more than two times higher than that (20%) of pure BiVO4 nanocrystals. The bandgap energies of BiVO4 and Cu2O/BiVO4 were 2.48 and 2.45 eV, respectively. Therefore, the enhanced photocatalytic activity of the Cu2O/BiVO4 sample could be ascribed to formation of the p–n junction between p-type Cu2O and n-type BiVO4. The photogenerated electrons and holes were effectively separated and the recombination of electron–hole pairs was substantially suppressed. Thus, the separated electrons and holes were then free to initiate reactions with the reactants adsorbed on the photocatalyst surface, leading to an enhanced photocatalytic activity.
\n
\n
\n
5.8. Bi2O3/BiVO4 heterojunction
\n
Bi2O3 is an active p-type semiconductor with an Eg of 2.7–2.8 eV [110]. Table 4 summarizes the physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the Bi2O3/BiVO4 heterojunction samples. Bessekhouad et al. [111] applied the Bi2O3 semiconductor to degrade orange II in water under visible-light illumination. There are few studies in the literature on the use of Bi2O3 as photocatalyst in the degradation of organic dyes [112]. Coupling m-BiVO4 with Bi2O3 to form a heterojunction is an effective approach to enhance the separation of generated electron–hole pairs.
\n
Guan et al. [113] synthesized the BiVO4 and BiVO4@Bi2O3 microspheres with a hollow olive-like morphology and a n–p core-shell structure by a sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate (AOT)-assisted mixed solvothermal method and a NaOH etching process under hydrothermal conditions. The degradation of RhB was employed to evaluate the photocatalytic activity of the BiVO4@Bi2O3 samples. The BiVO4@Bi2O3 sample was composed of two phases: monoclinic scheelite BiVO4 and cubic Bi2O3. Surface areas of BiVO4 and BiVO4@Bi2O3 were 1.45 and 1.48 m2/g, respectively, and their corresponding photocatalytic RhB degradation efficiencies were 42 and 88%. The results indicate that the photocatalytic activity of the sample did not depend on the surface area. The estimated bandgap energies of the BiVO4 and BiVO4@Bi2O3 were 2.43 and 2.52 eV, respectively. In order to probe the reason of enhanced photocatalytic performance, the band-edge positions of the two semiconductors were calculated. The CB-edge potential of Bi2O3 (0.03 eV) was more active than that of BiVO4 (0.32 eV). Therefore, photoinduced electrons on the surface of Bi2O3 would easily transfer to BiVO4 under the inducement action of the internal p–n electric field, leaving holes on the Bi2O3 VB. In such a way, the photoinduced electrons and holes could be effectively separated. Therefore, the enhanced activity of core-shell BiVO4@Bi2O3 microspheres can be mostly attributed to the p–n heterojunction structure, thus the reducing the recombination probability of photogenerated hole–electron carriers.
\n
\n
\n
5.9. BiOCl/ BiVO4 heterojunction
\n
In recent years, much attention has been paid on the bismuth oxyhalides (BiOX, X = Cl, Br, I) [114] and their composites in heterogeneous photocatalysis because of their characteristic hierarchical structures and unique optical properties [115]. Among them, BiOCl has drawn considerable attention as a novel photocatalyst due to their unique layered structure and high photocorrosion property [116]. However, BiOCl is similar to TiO2, which is semiconductor with a wide bandgap Eg of 3.5 eV [117] and can only absorb UV light (less than 5% of solar energy), leading to poor photocatalytic activity under visible-light illumination.
\n
A visible-light-active BiOCl/BiVO4 photocatalyst with a p-n heterojunction structure was prepared using a hydrothermal method [118]. There were co-presence of two phases: monoclinic BiVO4 and tetragonal BiOCl. The highest photocatalytic activity (85% MO was degraded after 11 h of visible-light irradiation) was obtained over the BiOCl/BiVO4 heterojunction catalyst (BiOCl/BiVO4 molar ratio = 13: 87). The surface area (2.802 m2/g) of this sample was medium in comparison with those of pure BiVO4 (0.950 m2/g), Degussa P25 (56.000 m2/g), and other heterojunction catalysts (2.512–5.315 m2/g). The absorption edges of pure BiOCl and BiVO4 were 360 and 520 nm, respectively. The BiOCl/BiVO4 composites exhibited dual absorption edges at 360 and 520 nm, indicating the co-presence of BiOCl and BiVO4. Moreover, the absorbance in the 360−520 nm range gradually decreased with increasing the BiOCl content in the BiOCl/BiVO4 samples. Because BiOCl had negligible activity for MO degradation under visible-light irradiation, the enhanced photocatalytic activity after addition of BiOCl was due to formation of the heterojunction structure. The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the BiOX (X = Cl, Br, I)/BiVO4 heterojunction and other BiVO4-based heterojunction samples are listed in Table 4.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Supported BiVO4 photocatalyst
\n
Due to fast recombination of photogenerated electrons and holes or lack of appropriate reaction sites, single semiconductor-based photocatalysts usually do not show high efficiency in photocatalysis [9]. To improve the photocatalytic performance, it is necessary to fabricate composite photocatalysts by loading proper oxidation or reduction cocatalyst(s) on a semiconductor. In such a composite photocatalyst, the role of the cocatalyst(s) is as follows [9]: (i) providing trapping sites for the photogenerated charges and promoting the charge separation, thus enhancing the quantum efficiency; (ii) improving the photostability of the catalyst by timely consuming the photogenerated electrons and holes; and (iii) catalyzing the reactions by lowering the activation energy. Various kinds of cocatalysts have been applied to BiVO4 to improve the photocatalytic removal of organics, including metal cocatalysts, metal oxide cocatalysts, and metal sulfide cocatalysts. As early in 2005, Kohtani et al. [137] prepared silver particles loaded on BiVO4 by an impregnation method for the degradation of 4-n-alkylphenols. Since then, noble metal-loaded BiVO4 has been widely investigated. Because the work function of a noble metal is usually larger than that of most semiconductors, electron transfer from CB of semiconductor to metal happens readily.
\n
Chen et al. [138] prepared the Ag/BiVO4 composites using a one-step method with ethylene glycol and water as solvent and L-lysine as surfactant. The photocatalytic performance of the composites was evaluated for the degradation of MB in an aqueous solution under visible-light irradiation. Based on the XRD and XPS results, only a small part of the Ag presented as metallic Ag (Ag0) dispersed on the surface of BiVO4, whereas most of Ag was present in oxidized Ag (Ag+). The Ag particles with a size of about 5 nm were in close contact with BiVO4. More than 98% of MB could be degraded over 6.5 wt% Ag/BiVO4 within 100 min of visible-light illumination. The 6.5 wt% Ag/BiVO4 sample had a surface area of 4.84 m2/g and a bandgap energy of 2.4 eV. The results demonstrate that a proper amount of Ag in the composite could promote the separation of photogenerated electrons and holes.
\n
Au/BiVO4 heterogeneous nanostructures were synthesized using a cysteine-linking strategy through the in situ growth of gold nanoparticles on the BiVO4 microtubes and nanosheets [139]. Many small gold nanoparticles with an average size of 7.2 nm were dispersed on the surface of BiVO4 microtubes or nanosheets. The bandgap energies of BiVO4 microtubes, Au-BiVO4 microtubes, BiVO4 nanosheets, and Au-BiVO4 nanosheets were 2.52, 2.51, 2.55, and 2.54 eV, respectively. The MO degradation efficiencies over the Au-BiVO4 microtubes and nanosheets were 36 and 100% after 50 min of visible-light irradiation, respectively. However, the pure BiVO4 microtubes and nanosheets exhibited almost no activities for MO degradation. The enhanced photocatalytic efficiency of the Au-loaded sample was attributed to two aspects: (i) the conjugated gold nanoparticles on the BiVO4 surface might act as electron sinks to retard the recombination of the photogenerated electrons and holes in BiVO4 so as to improve the charge separation on its surface and (ii) the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) of gold nanoparticles attached on the BiVO4 surface can also enhance the visible-light photocatalytic efficiency.
\n
Table 5 summarizes the physical properties and photocatalytic activities of BiVO4-supported reduction cocatalysts reported in the literature.
\n\n
Li et al. [140] prepared the CuO/BiVO4 photocatalysts by an impregnation method. The highest MB photodegradation efficiency was obtained over the sample with a 5 atom% Cu content and after calcination at 300°C. MB could be completely degraded after 2 h of light irradiation. The bandgap energies of pure BiVO4 and 5 atom% CuO/BiVO4 were 2.40 and 2.34 eV, respectively. Moreover, the surface area (5.62 m2/g) of 5 atom% CuO/BiVO4 was higher than that (1.89 m2/g) of pure BiVO4. Therefore, the authors concluded that a proper Cu loading could effectively improve the photocatalytic activity.
\n\n
\n\n
\n
Photocatalyst
\n
Crystal structure
\n
Crystallite size (nm)
\n
Surface area (m2/g)
\n
Eg (eV)
\n
Reaction condition
\n
Degradation efficiency and light illumination time
\n
References
\n
\n\n\n
\n
6.5 wt% Ag/BiVO4
\n
Monoclinic
\n
5
\n
4.83
\n
2.40
\n
Visible light, 100 mL MB (0.02 mmol/L), 0.05 g sample
Physical properties and photocatalytic activities of the BiVO4-supported photocatalysts.
\n\n
Chala et al. [141] prepared the pure BiVO4 and Fe-loaded BiVO4 samples by a hydrothermal method. Photocatalytic activities of the samples were examined using the degradation of MB under visible-light irradiation. The Fe/BiVO4 sample with an optimal iron loading of 5.0 mol% showed the best photodegradation performance (81%) within 30 min of visible-light illumination. The iron loading did not affect the crystal structure of BiVO4, and the iron oxides (mainly Fe2O3) might be loaded merely on the surface of BiVO4. The bandgap energies of BiVO4 and 5.0 mol% Fe/BiVO4 were 2.51 and 2.38 eV, respectively. Loading with Fe2O3 creates subband states in the bandgap of BiVO4 which could then be easily excited to produce more electron–hole pairs under visible-light irradiation, hence resulting in higher photocatalytic performance. Surface areas of the pure BiVO4 and 5.0 mol% Fe/BiVO4 samples were 6.44 and 15.27 m2/g, respectively, indicating that loading of BiVO4 with iron oxides led to an increase in surface area. The higher surface area could possibly provide more active sites on the catalyst surface, which gave rise to an enhancement in photocatalytic activity. The physical properties and photocatalytic activities of BiVO4-supported oxidation cocatalysts and dual cocatalysts reported in the literature are summarized in Table 5.
\n
In comparison with single cocatalyst-loaded BiVO4 photocatalysts stated above, Li et al. [142] prepared two types of photocatalysts (M/MnOx/BiVO4 and M/Co3O4/BiVO4, where M stands for noble metals) with reduction and oxidation cocatalysts by a photodeposition method for the photocatalytic degradation of MO and RhB. The photocatalytic activity of Pt/MnOx/BiVO4 was remarkably enhanced when Pt and MnOx were selectively deposited on the electron-rich and hole-rich facets, which was mainly due to the synergetic effect of dual cocatalysts. Moreover, Lin et al. [143] also studied Pt-RuO2/BiVO4 for photocatalytic oxidation of thiophene under visible-light irradiation. The considerable enhancement in photocatalytic activity also confirmed the simultaneous presence of the reduction and oxidation cocatalysts, which was beneficial for the efficient separation and transfer of the photogenerated electrons and holes.
\n
\n
\n
7. Photocatalytic degradation mechanism
\n
\n
7.1. Organic dyes photodegradation mechanisms
\n
According to the literature, the main factors influencing the degradation rate of organic dyes are hydroxyl radicals (•OH), superoxide radical (•O2−), dissolved oxygen (O2), and holes (h+). The mechanisms for degradation of organic dyes (such as MB, MO, and RhB) are similar. Taking an example, the photocatalytic degradation mechanism over the BiVO4 quantum tubes–graphene composite sample for the degradation of RhB under visible-light illumination is illustrated in Figure 11.
\n
It is well known that a complete photocatalytic process is generally divided into three stages: light harvesting, separation of photogenerated charges, and interfacial reactions [148]. In the photocatalytic reaction of converting dyes to CO2 and H2O over the BiVO4–graphene composite material, the electrons (e−) are provided by photoexcitation of BiVO4 (CB electrons). In this regard, BiVO4 can absorb visible light to generate electron–hole pairs (reaction (1)). In fact, the photogenerated electrons instantly transfer from the CB of BiVO4 to the carbon atoms of graphene (reaction (2)). Simultaneously, these electrons on the surface of graphene can be captured by the adsorbed O2 molecules to produce •O2− (reaction (3)). Meanwhile, the holes on the surface of BiVO4 can be scavenged by the ubiquitous H2O molecules or OH− to yield •OH radicals (reaction (4)). In this case, the RhB molecules can be subsequently destroyed into CO2 and H2O (reaction (5)) by the generated •O2− and OH radicals due to their high activities [123].
BiVO4+hv→BiVO4(h+)+ BiVO4(e-)E2
BiVO4(e-)+ graphene→BiVO4+ graphene (e-)E3
grapheme (e-)+ O2→graphene +•O2−E4
BiVO4(h+)+ OH-(H2O)→BiVO4+•OHE5
•O2-+•OH + RhB→CO2+ H2OE6
h++ RhB→CO2+ H2OE7
H2O2+ e-→•OHE8
\n
Figure 11.
A schematic reaction mechanism illustrating the visible light-driven photodegradation of RhB over the m-BiVO4 quantum tubes–graphene nanocomposite catalyst [123].
\n
It is noteworthy that holes (h+) can directly react with RhB molecules to generate CO2 and H2O (reaction (6)). Moreover, in order to improve the photocatalytic performance, H2O2 is often added to the dye solution as electronic sacrificial agent. It has been reported that a small amount of H2O2 in the initial dye solution was beneficial for trapping e− to form •OH radicals (reaction (7)) and also inhibiting the recombination of e−/h+ pairs.
\n
\n
\n
7.2. Phenol and its derivatives photodegradation mechanisms
\n
The difference of degradation of phenol and its derivatives from that of degradation of organic dyes is that the intermediate products are usually generated, which are difficult to be completely degraded to CO2 and H2O.
•O2-+•OH + phenol→by−productsE9
\n
There are at least 20 intermediates (see Figure 12) of phenol photodegradation [149], the photodegradation process of phenol is hence very complicated. Furthermore, the routes of phenol photodegradation are different under different experimental conditions. Although the active species for phenol degradation are also the •OH, •O2−, O2, and h+, phenol is difficult to be completely destroyed to CO2 and H2O.
\n
Figure 12.
Chemical structures of the by-products derived from phenol photocatalytic degradation [149].
\n
For example, Guo et al. [150] studied degradation of phenol (C0 = 100 mg/L) over TiO2 under UV light irradiation. Intermediates were analyzed with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The reaction routes were proposed, as shown in Figure 13. The •OH radicals attack the phenyl ring, yielding catechol, resorcinol, and hydroquinone, then the phenyl rings in these compounds break up to give malonic acid, the formed short-chain organic acids (such as maleic, oxalic, acetic, formic) are finally converted to CO2 and H2O.
\n
Figure 13.
Phenol photodegradation route [150].
\n
Moreover, Devi and Rajashekhar [151] also proposed a possible phenol degradation mechanism over TiO2 under the conditions of UV light, catalyst dosage = 400 mg/L, phenol concentration = 20 mg/L, and ammonium persulfate (APS) = 100 mg/L), as shown in Figure 14.
\n
Based on a plenty of literature, many possible phenol degradation mechanisms have been proposed. Unfortunately and inevitably, the by-products are always generated. It is noted that the toxicity of the by-products generated in phenol degradation processes may be stronger than phenol itself. Therefore, how to directly convert phenol into harmless products is still a big challenge.
\n
Figure 14.
Phenol photodegradation mechanism [151].
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusive remarks and prospect
\n
A large number of BiVO4 and its related materials with different morphologies and various structures, such as well-defined morphological BiVO4, porous BiVO4, heteroatom-doped BiVO4, BiVO4-based heterojunction, and supported BiVO4, have been successfully synthesized in the literature. Most of them show good or even excellent photocatalytic performance for the degradation of organic dyes, phenol or its derivatives under the illumination of visible light. The structure–photocatalytic performance relationship of these materials has been established, and the involved photocatalytic degradation mechanisms have been proposed.
\n
Due to severe situations in water contamination, researchers have devoted themselves to resolve these problems. In particular, the photocatalytic technology has attracted more and more attention because of its unique advantages. However, it has still a long way to make photocatalytic technology widely practicable. Therefore, three strategies are suggested to further improve the photocatalytic performance: (i) It is greatly desired to design and fabricate novel and highly efficient photocatalytic materials; (ii) although photocatalytic reaction mechanisms have been studied for many years, it is still difficult to identify the elementary reaction steps, therefore in situ characterization techniques are used to disclose the reaction mechanisms in essence; and (iii) since the photocatalytic performance can be improved significantly if light, heating, plasmon, electric or magnetic field is coupled, the synergetic effects of these energy coupling would be expected to improve the photocatalytic performance of a photocatalyst.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"well-defined morphology, porous BiVO4 photocatalyst, heteroatom-doped BiVO4, BiVO4-based heterojunction, supported BiVO4",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/50373.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/50373.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50373",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50373",totalDownloads:2484,totalViews:467,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:76,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 23rd 2015",dateReviewed:"February 29th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 24th 2016",dateFinished:"April 21st 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Organic compounds, such as organic dyes and phenols, are the main pollutants in wastewater. In the past years, a large number of studies on the fabrication and photocatalytic organics degradation of BiVO4 and its related materials have been reported in the literature. In this chapter, we shall focus on the advancements in the synthesis and photocatalytic applications of several kinds of BiVO4-based photocatalysts: (i) well-defined morphological BiVO4 photocatalysts, (ii) porous BiVO4 photocatalysts, (iii) heteroatom-doped BiVO4 photocatalysts, (iv) BiVO4-based heterojunction photocatalysts, and (v) supported BiVO4 photocatalysts. We shall discuss the structure–photocatalytic performance relationship of the materials and the involved photocatalytic degradation mechanisms. In addition, we also propose the research trends and technologies for practical applications of the BiVO4-based photocatalytic materials.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/50373",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/50373",book:{id:"5139",slug:"semiconductor-photocatalysis-materials-mechanisms-and-applications"},signatures:"Kunfeng Zhang, Jiguang Deng, Yuxi Liu, Shaohua Xie and\nHongxing Dai",authors:[{id:"178116",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongxing",middleName:null,surname:"Dai",fullName:"Hongxing Dai",slug:"hongxing-dai",email:"hxdai@bjut.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"178119",title:"Dr.",name:"Kunfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Kunfeng Zhang",slug:"kunfeng-zhang",email:"zhangkunfeng6035@163.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"178120",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiguang",middleName:null,surname:"Deng",fullName:"Jiguang Deng",slug:"jiguang-deng",email:"jgdeng@bjut.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"178121",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuxi",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Yuxi Liu",slug:"yuxi-liu",email:"yxliu@bjut.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"178122",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaohua",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",fullName:"Shaohua Xie",slug:"shaohua-xie",email:"shaohuax@emails.bjut.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Well-defined morphological BiVO4 photocatalysts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Sphere-like BiVO4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Flower-like BiVO4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Rod-like BiVO4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Peanut-like BiVO4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Polyhedron-like BiVO4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6. Olive-like BiVO4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7. Microtube-like BiVO4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.8. Dumbbell-like BiVO4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.9. Needle-like BiVO4",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.10. BiVO4 with other morphologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Porous BiVO4 photocatalysts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Heteroatom-doped BiVO4 photocatalysts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.1. Doping with anions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.2. Doping with cations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. BiVO4-based heterojunction photocatalysts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.1. Co3O4/BiVO4 heterojunction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.2. TiO2/BiVO4 heterojunction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"5.3. CeOx/BiVO4 heterojunction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.4. g-C3N4/BiVO4 heterojunction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.5. rGO/BiVO4 heterojunction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.6. Bi2WO6/BiVO4 heterojunction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"5.7. Cu2O/BiVO4 heterojunction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"5.8. Bi2O3/BiVO4 heterojunction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"5.9. BiOCl/ BiVO4 heterojunction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27",title:"6. Supported BiVO4 photocatalyst",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"7. Photocatalytic degradation mechanism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"7.1. Organic dyes photodegradation mechanisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"7.2. Phenol and its derivatives photodegradation mechanisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31",title:"8. Conclusive remarks and prospect",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nLi HY, Sun YJ, Cai B, Gan SY, Han DX, Niu L, et al. Hierarchically Z-scheme photocatalyst of Ag@AgCl decorated on BiVO4 (040) with enhancing photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic performance. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2015;170–171:206–214. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2015.01.043\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nYin WZ, Wang WZ, Zhou L, Sun SM, Zhang L. CTAB-assisted synthesis of monoclinic BiVO4 photocatalyst and its highly efficient degradation of organic dye under visible-light irradiation. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2010;173:194–199. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.08.068\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nLiu YX, Dai HX, Deng JG, Zhang L, Au CT. Three-dimensional ordered macroporous bismuth vanadates: PMMA-templating fabrication and excellent visible light-driven photocatalytic performance for phenol degradation. Nanoscale. 2012;4:2317–2325. doi:10.1039/c2nr12046a\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nNi M, Leung MKH, Leung DYC, Sumathy K. A review and recent developments in photocatalytic water-splitting using TiO2 for hydrogen production. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2007;11:401–425. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2005.01.009\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nWu Q, Han RB, Chen PF, Qi XM, Yao WF. Novel synthesis and photocatalytic performance of BiVO4 with tunable morphologies and macroscopic structures. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing. 2015;38:271–277. doi:10.1016/j.mssp.2015.04.040\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nLi F, Yang CY, Li QG, Cao W, Li TH. The pH-controlled morphology transition of BiVO4 photocatalysts from microparticles to hollow microspheres. Materials Letters. 2015;145:52–55. doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2015.01.043\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nKudo A, Omori K, Kato H. A novel aqueous process for preparation of crystal form-controlled and highly crystalline BiVO4 powder from layered vanadates at room temperature and its photocatalytic and photophysical properties. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 1999;121:11459–11467. doi:10.1021/ja992541y\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nNalbandian MJ, Zhang ML, Sanchez J, Choa YH, Cwiertny DM, Myung NV. Synthesis and optimization of BiVO4 and co-catalyzed BiVO4 nanofibers for visible light-activated photocatalytic degradation of aquatic micropollutants. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A. 2015;404–405:18–26. doi:10.1016/j.molcata.2015.04.003\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nMa Y, Wang XL, Jia YS, Chen XB, Han HX, Li C. Titanium dioxide-based nanomaterials for photocatalytic fuel generations. Chemical Reviews. 2014;114:9987–10043. doi:10.1021/cr500008u\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nGao XM, Wang ZH, Fu F, Li WH. Effects of pH on the hierarchical structures and photocatalytic performance of Cu-doped BiVO4 prepared via the hydrothermal method. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing. 2015;35:197–206. doi:10.1016/j.mssp.2015.03.012\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nJiang RB, Li BX, Fang CH, Wang JF. Metal/semiconductor hybrid nanostructures for plasmon-enhanced applications. Advanced Materials. 2014;26:5274–5309. doi:10.1002/adma.201400203\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nTang JT, Song BB, Deng Q, Xin HC. Facile hydrothermal-carbonization approach to carbon-modified BiVO4 composites with enhanced photocatalytic activity. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing. 2015;35:90–95. doi: 10.1016/j.mssp.2015.01.053\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nZhou B, Zhao X, Liu HJ, Qu JH, Huang CP. Synthesis of visible-light sensitive M–BiVO4 (M = Ag, Co, and Ni) for the photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. 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Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2007;103:162–167. doi:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2007.02.008\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nFan HM, Jiang TF, Li HY, Wang DJ, Wang LL, Zhai JL, . Effect of BiVO4 crystalline phases on the photoinduced carriers behavior and photocatalytic activity. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2012;116:2425–2430. doi:10.1021/jp206798d\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nWalsh A, Yan Y, Huda MN, Al-Jassim MM, Wei SH. Band edge electronic structure of BiVO4: Elucidating the role of the Bi s and V d orbitals. Chemistry of Materials. 2009;21:547–551. doi:10.1021/cm802894z\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nPark Y, McDonald KJ, Choi KS. Progress in bismuth vanadate photoanodes for use in solar water oxidation. Chemical Society Reviews. 2013;42:2321–2337. doi:10.1039/c2cs35260e\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nYing YQ, Tao FF, Hong TJ, Wang LX. Controlled fabrication of bismuth vanadium oxide hierarchical microtubes with enhanced visible light photocatalytic activity. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing. 2015;32:82–89. doi:10.1016/j.mssp.2015.01.009\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nWetchakun N, Chaiwichain S, Inceesungvorn B, Pingmuang K, Phanichphant S, Minett AI, . BiVO4/CeO2 nanocomposites with high visible-light-induced photocatalytic activity. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 2012;4:3718–3723. doi:10.1021/am300812n\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nJiang HY, Dai HX, Meng X, Zhang L, Deng JG, Liu YX, . Hydrothermal fabrication and visible-light-driven photocatalytic properties of bismuth vanadate with multiple morphologies and/or porous structures for methyl orange degradation. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2012;24:449–457. doi:10.1016/S1001-0742(11)60793-6\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nThalluri SM, Hernándeza S, Bensaid S, Saracco G, Russo N. Green-synthesized W- and Mo-doped BiVO4 oriented along the {040} facet with enhanced activity for the sun-driven water oxidation. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2016;180:630–636. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2015.07.029\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nGe L. Novel Pd/BiVO4 composite photocatalysts for efficient degradation of methyl orange under visible light irradiation. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2008;107:465–470. doi:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2007.08.016\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nLuo HM, Mueller AH, McCleskey TM, Burrell AK, Bauer E, Jia QX. Structural and photoelectron chemical properties of BiVO4 thin films. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2008;112:6099–6102. doi:10.1021/jp7113187\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nWang XJ, Liu HL, Wang JR, Chang LL, Song NN, Yan ZZ, . Additive-free solvothermal preparation, characterization, and photocatalytic activity of 3D butterfly-like BiVO4. Research on Chemical Intermediates. 2015;41:2465–2477. doi:10.1007/s11164−013-1360-4\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nHu LM, Dong SY, Li YK, Pi YQ, Wang JQ, Wang YK, . Controlled fabrication of monoclinic BiVO4 rod-like structures for natural-sunlight-driven photocatalytic dye degradation. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers. 2014;45:2462–2468. doi:10.1016/j.jtice.2014.04.022\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nXu C, Zhu GQ, Wu JL, Liang J. Template-free hydrothermal synthesis different morphologies of visible-light-driven BiVO4 photocatalysts. Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. 2014;14:4475–4480. doi:10.1166/jnn.2014.8039\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nKunduz S, Soylu GSP. Highly active BiVO4 nanoparticles: The enhanced photocatalytic properties under natural sunlight for removal of phenol from wastewater. Separation and Purification Technology. 2015;141:221–228. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2014.11.036\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nHu Y, Li DZ, Sun FQ, Wang HB, Weng YQ, Xiong W, . One-pot template-free synthesis of heterophase BiVO4 microspheres with enhanced photocatalytic activity. 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Hydrothermal synthesis and photoelectric properties of BiVO4 with different morphologies: an efficient visible-light photocatalyst. Applied Surface Science. 2011;257:7758–7762. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2011.04.025\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nMeng X, Zhang L, Dai HX, Zhao ZX, Zhang RZ, Liu YX. Surfactant-assisted hydrothermal fabrication and visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue over multiple morphological BiVO4 single-crystallites. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2011;125:59–65. doi:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2010.08.071\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nLi HB, Liu GC, Duan XC. Monoclinic BiVO4 with regular morphologies: Hydrothermal synthesis, characterization and photocatalytic properties. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2009;115:9–13. doi:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2009.01.014\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nDong SY, Feng JL, Li YK, Hu LM, Liu ML, Wang YF, . Shape-controlled synthesis of BiVO4 hierarchical structures with unique natural-sunlight-driven photocatalytic activity. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2014;152–153:413–424. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2014.01.059\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nJiang HY, Dai HX, Meng X, Zhang L, Deng JG, Ji KM. Morphology-dependent photocatalytic performance of monoclinic BiVO4 for methyl orange degradation under visible-light irradiation. Chinese Journal of Catalysis. 2011;32:939–949. doi:10.1016/S1872-2067(10)60215-X\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nLei BX, Zeng LL, Zhang P, Sun ZF, Sun W, Zhang XX. Hydrothermal synthesis and photocatalytic properties of visible-light induced BiVO4 with different morphologies. Advanced Powder Technology. 2014;25:946–951. doi:10.1016/j.apt.2014.01.014\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nWang XK, Li GC, Ding J, Peng HR, Chen KZ. Facile synthesis and photocatalytic activity of monoclinic BiVO4 micro/nanostructures with controllable morphologies. Materials Research Bulletin. 2012;47:3814–3818. doi:10.1016/j.materresbull.2012.04.082\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nChen L, Yin SF, Huang R, Zhang Q, Luo SL, Au CT. Hollow peanut-like m-BiVO4: facile synthesis and solar-light-induced photocatalytic property. CrystEngComm. 2012;14:4217–4222. doi:10.1039/c2ce06684j\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nLu YJ, Shang HS, Shi FJ, Chao C, Zhang X, Zhang B. Preparation and efficient visible light-induced photocatalytic activity of m-BiVO4 with different morphologies. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 2015;85:44–50. doi:10.1016/j.jpcs.2015.04.016\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nObregón S, Caballero A, Colón G. Hydrothermal synthesis of BiVO4: Structural and morphological influence on the photocatalytic activity. Applied Catalysis B. 2012;117–118:59–66. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2011.12.037\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nHan MD, Chen XF, Sun T, Tan O, Tse M. Synthesis of mono-dispersed m-BiVO4 octahedral nano-crystals with enhanced visible light photocatalytic properties. CrystEngComm. 2011;13:6674–6679. doi:10.1039/c1ce05539a\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nZhu ZF, Zhang L, Li JQ, Du J, Zhang YB, Zhou JQ. Synthesis and photocatalytic behavior of BiVO4 with decahedral structure. Ceramics International. 2013;39:7461–7465. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2013.02.093\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nChang YK, Wu YS, Lu CS, Lin PF, Wu TY. Photodegradation of alachlor using BiVO4 photocatalyst under visible light irradiation. Water, Air & Soil Pollution. 2015;226:194–205. doi:10.1007/s11270-015-2452-0\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nZhou L, Wang WZ, Zhang LS, Xu HL, Zhu W. Single-crystalline BiVO4 microtubes with square cross-sections: Microstructure, growth mechanism, and photocatalytic property. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2007;111:13659–13664. doi:10.1021/jp065155t\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nYing YQ, Tao FF, Hong TJ, Wang LX. Controlled fabrication of bismuth vanadium oxide hierarchical microtubes with enhanced visible light photocatalytic activity. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing. 2015;32:82–89. doi:10.1016/j.mssp.2015.01.009\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nLiu W, Yu YQ, Cao LX, Su G, Liu XY, Zhang L, . 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Environmental Science & Technology. 2014;48:10345–10353. doi:10.1021/es502290f\n'},{id:"B96",body:'\nLiu G, Niu P, Sun CH, Smith SC, Chen ZG, Lu GQ, . Unique electronic structure induced high photoreactivity of sulfur-doped graphitic C3N4. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2010;132:11642–11648. doi:10.1021/ja103798k\n'},{id:"B97",body:'\nTian N, Huang HW, He Y, Guo YX, Zhang TR, Zhang YH. Mediator-free direct Z-scheme photocatalytic system: BiVO4/g-C3N4 organic–inorganic hybrid photocatalyst with highly efficient visible-light induced photocatalytic activity. Dalton Transactions. 2015;44:4297–4307. doi:10.1039/c4dt03905j\n'},{id:"B98",body:'\nLi CJ, Wang SP, Wang T, Wei YJ, Zhang P, Gong JL. Monoclinic porous BiVO4 networks decorated by discrete g-C3N4 nano-Islands with tunable coverage for highly efficient photocatalysis. Small. 2014;10:2783–2790. doi:10.1002/smll.201400506\n'},{id:"B99",body:'\nLiu BQ, Liu ZF, Zhang XY, Yang LY, Zhang N, Pan GL. 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Enhancement of visible-light photocatalysis by coupling with narrow-band-gap semiconductor: A case study on Bi2S3/Bi2WO6. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 2012;4:593–597. doi:10.1021/am2017199\n'},{id:"B104",body:'\nGui MS, Zhang WD, Chang YQ, Yu YX. One-step hydrothermal preparation strategy for nanostructured WO3/Bi2WO6 heterojunction with high visible light photocatalytic activity. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2012;197:283–288. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2012.05.032\n'},{id:"B105",body:'\nJu P, Wang P, Li B, Fan H, Ai SY, Zhang D, . A novel calcined Bi2WO6/BiVO4 heterojunction photocatalyst with highly enhanced photocatalytic activity. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2014;236:430–437. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2013.10.001\n'},{id:"B106",body:'\nFernando CAN, de Silva PHC, Wethasinha SK, Dharmadasa IM, Delsol T, Simmonds MC. Investigation of n-type Cu2O layers prepared by a low cost chemical method for use in photovoltaic thin film solar cells. Renewable Energy. 2002;26:521–529. doi:10.1016/S0960-1481(01)00157-4\n'},{id:"B107",body:'\nYang LX, Luo SL, Li Y, Xiao Y, Kang Q, Cai QY. High efficient photocatalytic degradation of p-nitrophenol on a unique Cu2O/TiO2 p–n heterojunction network catalyst. Environmental Science & Technology. 2010;44:7641–7646. doi:10.1021/es101711k\n'},{id:"B108",body:'\nAbdulkarem AM, Aref AA, Abdulhabeeb A, Li YF, Yu Y. Synthesis of Bi2O3/Cu2O nanoflowers by hydrothermal method and its photocatalytic activity enhancement under simulated sunlight. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2013;560:132–141. doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.01.134\n'},{id:"B109",body:'\nWang WZ, Huang XW, Wu S, Zhou YX, Wang LJ, Shi HL, . Preparation of p–n junction Cu2O/BiVO4 heterogeneous nanostructures with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2013;134–135:293–301. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2013.01.013\n'},{id:"B110",body:'\nPaola AD, García-López E, Marcì G, Palmisano L. A survey of photocatalytic materials for environmental remediation. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2012;211–212:3–29. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.11.050.\n'},{id:"B111",body:'\nBessekhouad Y, Robert D, Weber JV. Photocatalytic activity of Cu2O/TiO2, Bi2O3/TiO2 and ZnMn2O4/TiO2 heterojunctions. Catalysis Today. 2005;101:315–321. doi:10.1016/j.cattod.2005.03.038\n'},{id:"B112",body:'\nSánchez-Martínezn D, Juárez-Ramírez I, Torres-Martínez LM, León-Abarte I. Photocatalytic properties of Bi2O3 powders obtained by an ultrasound-assisted precipitation method. Ceramics International. 2016;42:2013–2020. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2015.10.007\n'},{id:"B113",body:'\nGuan ML, Ma DK, Hu SW, Chen YJ, Huang SM. From hollow olive-shaped BiVO4 to n-p core-shell BiVO4@Bi2O3 microspheres: Controlled synthesis and enhanced visible-light-responsive photocatalytic properties. Inorganic Chemistry. 2011;50:800–805. doi:10.1021/ic101961z\n'},{id:"B114",body:'\nWang CH, Shao CL, Liu YC, Zhang LN. Photocatalytic properties BiOCl and Bi2O3 nanofibers prepared by electrospinning. Scripta Materialia. 2008;59:332–335. doi:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2008.03.038\n'},{id:"B115",body:'\nZhao LJ, Zhang XC, Fan CM, Liang ZH, Han PD. First-principles study on the structural, electronic and optical properties of BiOX (X = Cl, Br, I) crystals. Physica B. 2012;407:3364–3370. doi:10.1016/j.physb.2012.04.039\n'},{id:"B116",body:'\nShenawi-Khalil S, Uvarov V, Menes E, Popov I, Sasson Y. New efficient visible light photocatalyst based on heterojunction of BiOCl–bismuth oxyhydrate. Applied Catalysis A: General. 2012;413–414:1–9. doi:10.1016/j.apcata.2011.10.029\n'},{id:"B117",body:'\nChai SY, Kim YJ, Jung MH, Chakraborty AK, Jung D, Lee WI. Heterojunctioned BiOCl/Bi2O3, a new visible light photocatalyst. Journal of Catalysis. 2009;262:144–149. doi:10.1016/j.jcat.2008.12.020\n'},{id:"B118",body:'\nHe ZQ, Shi YQ, Gao C, Wen LN, Chen JM, Song S. BiOCl/BiVO4 p-n heterojunction with enhanced photocatalytic activity under visible-light irradiation. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2014;118:389–398. doi:10.1021/jp409598s\n'},{id:"B119",body:'\nHu Y, Li DZ, Wang HB, Zeng GP, Li XH, Shao Y. Role of active oxygen species in the liquid-phase photocatalytic degradation of RhB using BiVO4/TiO2 heterostructure under visible light irradiation. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical. 2015;408:172–178. doi:10.1016/j.molcata.2015.07.025\n'},{id:"B120",body:'\nZalfani M, Schueren B, Hu ZY, Rooke JC, Bourguiga R, Wu M, . Novel 3DOM BiVO4/TiO2 nanocomposites for highly enhanced photocatalytic activity. Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 2015;3:21244–21256. doi:10.1039/c5ta00783f\n'},{id:"B121",body:'\nXu J, Wang WZ, Wang J, Liang YJ. Controlled fabrication and enhanced photocatalystic performance of BiVO4@CeO2 hollow microspheres for the visible-light-driven degradation of rhodamine B. 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Fabrication and efficient visible light-induced photocatalytic activity of Bi2WO6/BiVO4 heterojunction. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2012;136:472–476. doi:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2012.07.013\n'},{id:"B126",body:'\nYuan Q, Chen L, Xiong M, He J, Luo SL, Au CT, . Cu2O/BiVO4 heterostructures: synthesis and application in simultaneous photocatalytic oxidation of organic dyes and reduction of Cr(VI) under visible light. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2014;255:394–402. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2014.06.031\n'},{id:"B127",body:'\nLi JQ, Cui MM, Guo ZY, Liu ZX, Zhu ZF. Synthesis of dumbbell-like CuO-BiVO4 heterogeneous nanostructures with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. Materials Letters. 2014;130:36–39. doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2014.05.084\n'},{id:"B128",body:'\nJang JS, Kim HG, Lee SH. Efficient photocatalytic degradation of acid orange 7 on metal oxide p–n junction composites under visible light. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 2012;73:1372–1377. doi:10.1016/j.jpcs.2012.07.009\n'},{id:"B129",body:'\nChen L, Zhang Q, Huang R, Yin SF, Luo SL, Au CT. Porous peanut-like Bi2O3–BiVO4 composites with heterojunctions: one-step synthesis and their photocatalytic properties. Dalton Transactions. 2012;41:9513–9518. doi:10.1039/c2dt30543g\n'},{id:"B130",body:'\nWu XB, Zhou HL, Gu SN, Wang FZ, Liu J, Li WJ. In situ preparation of novel heterojunction BiOBr/BiVO4 photocatalysts with enhanced visible light photocatalytic activity. RSC Advances. 2015;5:92769–92777. doi:10.1039/c5ra17552f\n'},{id:"B131",body:'\nHuang HW, Liu LY, Zhang YH, Tian N. Novel BiIO4/BiVO4 composite photocatalyst with highly improved visible-light-induced photocatalytic performance for rhodamine B degradation and photocurrent generation. RSC Advances. 2015;5:1161–1167. doi:10.1039/c4ra12916d\n'},{id:"B132",body:'\nLi HL, Yu K, Lei X, Guo BJ, Fu H, Zhu ZQ. Hydrothermal synthesis of novel MoS2/BiVO4 hetero-nanoflowers with enhanced photocatalytic activity and a mechanism investigation. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2015;119:22681–22689. doi:10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b06729\n'},{id:"B133",body:'\nLamdab U, Wetchakun K, Phanichphant S, Kangwansupamonkon W, Wetchakun N. Highly efficient visible light-induced photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue over InVO4/BiVO4 composite photocatalyst. Journal of Materials Science. 2015;50:5788–5798. doi:10.1007/s10853-015-9126-6\n'},{id:"B134",body:'\nLi JQ, Cui MM, Guo ZY, Liu ZX, Zhu ZF. Preparation of p–n junction BiVO4/Ag2O heterogeneous nanostructures with enhanced visible-light photocatalytic activity. Materials Letters. 2015;151:75–78. doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2015.03.078\n'},{id:"B135",body:'\nSong YH, Xu H, Yan J, Wang C, Cai GB, Li HM, . Preparation, characterization and photocatalytic activity of AgBr/BiVO4 composite photocatalyst. 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Visible-light driven degradation of ibuprofen using abundant metal-loaded BiVO4 photocatalysts. Chemosphere. 2014;117:527–531. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.09.017\n'},{id:"B147",body:'\nGe L. Novel Pd/BiVO4 composite photocatalysts for efficient degradation of methyl orange under visible light irradiation. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2008;107:465–470. doi:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2007.08.016\n'},{id:"B148",body:'\nLiao GZ, Chen S, Quan X, Zhang YB, Zhao HM. Remarkable improvement of visible light photocatalysis with PANI modified core-shell mesoporous TiO2 microspheres. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 2011;102:126–131. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2010.11.033\n'},{id:"B149",body:'\nGrabowska E, Reszczynska J, Zaleska A. Mechanism of phenol photodegradation in the presence of pure and modified-TiO2: A review. Water Research. 2012;46:5453–5471. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2012.07.048\n'},{id:"B150",body:'\nGuo ZF, Ma RX, Li GJ. Degradation of phenol by nanomaterial TiO2 in wastewater. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2006;119:55–59. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2006.01.017\n'},{id:"B151",body:'\nDevi LG, Rajashekhar KE. A kinetic model based on non-linear regression analysis is proposed for the degradation of phenol under UV/solar light using nitrogen doped TiO2. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical. 2011;334:65–76. doi:10.1016/j.molcata.2010.10.025\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Kunfeng Zhang",address:null,affiliation:'
Beijing Key Laboratory for Green Catalysis and Separation, Key Laboratory of Beijing on Regional Air Pollution Control, Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials, Education Ministry of China, Beijing, China
Laboratory of Catalysis Chemistry and Nanoscience, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
Beijing Key Laboratory for Green Catalysis and Separation, Key Laboratory of Beijing on Regional Air Pollution Control, Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials, Education Ministry of China, Beijing, China
Laboratory of Catalysis Chemistry and Nanoscience, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
Beijing Key Laboratory for Green Catalysis and Separation, Key Laboratory of Beijing on Regional Air Pollution Control, Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials, Education Ministry of China, Beijing, China
Laboratory of Catalysis Chemistry and Nanoscience, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
Beijing Key Laboratory for Green Catalysis and Separation, Key Laboratory of Beijing on Regional Air Pollution Control, Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials, Education Ministry of China, Beijing, China
Laboratory of Catalysis Chemistry and Nanoscience, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
Beijing Key Laboratory for Green Catalysis and Separation, Key Laboratory of Beijing on Regional Air Pollution Control, Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Materials, Education Ministry of China, Beijing, China
Laboratory of Catalysis Chemistry and Nanoscience, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
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1. Introduction
Mixed methods research (MMR) is defined as the collection, analysis, and integration of both quantitative data (e.g., RCT outcome) and qualitative data (e.g., observations, semi-structured interviews) to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem than might be obtained through quantitative or qualitative research alone [1, 2]. Relevant strategies for the use of mixed methods in health services research include adding qualitative interviews to follow up on the outcomes of intervention trials, gathering both quantitative and qualitative data to assess patient reactions to a program implemented in a community health setting, or using qualitative data to describe or explain the mechanism of a study correlating behavioral and social factors to specific health [3]. We want to find out if this is important in the field of counseling.
2. What is mixed methods research (MMR)?
I want to start this chapter with the “Classification”, the “five purposes for mixing in mixed-methods research”:
Triangulation seeks convergence, corroboration, and correspondence of results in different ways.
Complementarity seeks elaboration, enhancement, illustration, and clarification of the results from one method with the results from the other method.
Development seeks to use the results from one method to help develop or inform the other method, where interpretation includes sampling and implementation, as well as measurement decisions.
Initiation seeks the discovery of paradox and contradiction, new perspectives of frameworks, and the recasting of questions or results from one method with questions or results from the other method.
Expansion seeks to extend the breadth and range of inquiry by using different methods for different inquiry components [4, 5].
Next to the five purposes MMR has five essential characteristics: (1) the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data, (2) the use of rigorous procedures in conducting quantitative and qualitative research, (3) the integration of the findings, (4) the use of mixed method designs and (5) the use of a conceptual framework [6]. By “Integration”, we mean integrating quantitative and qualitative research through our research teams, philosophies, research process, and research methods.
A mixed methods research project provides more insight than qualitative or quantitative data alone by greater mining data depth. The different perspectives from linking enable the databases to “talk” to each other. We can compare the two database results and follow up quantitative results with qualitative data collection.
2.1 Core designs
There are three different core designs: convergent design, explanatory sequential design, and exploratory sequential design. A plan’s importance is: identifying a theoretical framework, writing a mixed methods question, and writing a mixed method study aim, composing the study using a writing structure that matches the design, developing a joint display for integration, identifying the methodological/validity issues in design, drawing a diagram of configuration, identifying the type of mixed methods design and creating a title for the project.
The convergent design qualitative interviews, analysis, quantitative survey, and analysis stand alone in the first phase. Then they are merged and an interpretation follows. You should choose a convergent design when your mixed method project intends to compare results, develop broader products, validate data, and build cases. It can be helpful when you need rapid data collection. It is also beneficial when you have equal emphasis on both quantitative and qualitative data (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
The convergent design [6].
The explanatory sequential design has three phases. In the first phase, the quantitative survey and analysis of the qualitative interviews and comments will be explained in the second phase. In the third, an interpretation follows (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
The explanatory sequential design [6].
The explanatory sequential design starts with collecting quantitative data through a cross-sectional web-based survey, which delivers numeric data. It follows an analysis of the data through data screening, providing descriptive statistics and factor loadings. In the case selection, an interview protocol will be developed, participant dorm will be selected and interviewed.
The collection of qualitative data happens through documents and telephone interviews. It makes up the text and image data. Lastly, the qualitative data analysis follows a cross-thematic study and delivers a cross-thematic matrix and a visual model of multiple case analyses.
You should choose an explanatory sequential design when your mixed method project intends to explain surprising, contradictory, outlier results or results that do not match theory or form groups/cases for further analysis. Other reasons could be when you have time to conduct your study in phases or emphasize starting a project from a quantitative perspective.
The third core design is the exploratory sequential design.
As illustrated in Figure 3 this design has three phases. In the first phase, interviews, observations, and other qualitative methods are conducted and analyses are made. The analysis of qualitative data leads to the development of a quantitative device.
Figure 3.
Exploratory sequential design [6].
The second phase is the quantitative phase, which includes an instrument design or intervention design. Then follows a quantitative test of an instrument or intervention in phase 3, which leads to an interpretation. “We can first explore qualitatively, and then test out the ideas quantitatively” [6]. Afterward, quantitative data will be collected and analyzed and an interpretation follows.
An exploratory sequential design should be chosen when your mixed methods project intends to build and test an intervention, instrument, survey, app or website, or new variables. Other reasons could be when you emphasize starting your project qualitatively or when you have time to collect in phases over time.
Lastly, a short comment about complex designs. Typically, complex applications are used when researchers have multiple research phases, multiyear research projects, large funded projects, multiple researchers, or the inclusion of mixed methods core designs within different phases of research [7].
3. Three examples of mixed methods research
3.1 Mixed methods research in our Marte Meo project1
Marte Meo is a video-based counseling method founded by Maria Aarts in the Netherlands and is now in worldwide use [8]. Marte Meo has been adopted and put into practice by a large and diverse network of trained and certified counselors worldwide.
With the help of a model of beneficial interaction behavior, Marte Meo aims to support personal development. In this respect, it stands in tradition with the humanistic approach. It was founded with the aim of reducing symptomatology. However, we found that in practice, more Marte Meo counselors aim for personal growth. The focus is on relationships that exhibit “complementarity”. This is mostly given in a dyad relationship, where one person is responsible, supports, cares educates, etc. (e.g., parents, educators, teachers, careers), and another person needs this support (e.g., infant, child, adolescent, sick, disabled, dementia sufferer [8, 9].
In our research, we choose an integrated exploratory sequential design [6], which seems to be best suited to our purposes. It enabled us to discover in detail how a selected group of experts and parents applied for the Marte Meo program, and we then tested out the ideas culled from that process quantitatively with a large convenience sample.
The exploratory sequential design of the Marte Meo project has five phases as illustrated in Figure 4. A systematic literature review is carried out in the first phase, which builds into qualitative interviews and analysis in the second phase. The third phase builds an analysis of videotaped observations. A fourth quantitative phase with an online survey follows and in the last step, the fifth phase follows an interpretation.
Figure 4.
Exploratory sequential Design of the Marte Meo Project.
The staged qualitative research consisted of designing, conducting, and analyzing semi-structured interviews with parents and Marte Meo Counselors and then using that analysis to inform the design, the conduct, and analysis of videotaped observations of everyday situations for example in day-care centers to examine the process and effects of Marte Meo interaction elements on children.
Combining these qualitative analyses then became the basis for developing an online questionnaire that could enable us to collect quantitative data on the current use of Marte Meo in practice by experts. As a result of this design, four phases of analysis will be carried out: after the two qualitative phases, after the quantitative phase, and during the integration phase, which will connect the data strands and expand the initial qualitative exploratory results.
With the aim of obtaining more meaningful results on the application of Marte Meo in counseling and therapy, it would be desirable to collect an international and generally more heterogeneous sample that includes various groups of people (clients, other affected persons, or experts in other methods, etc.).
In response to the question “What further development does the method need?”, the experts’ statements strongly pointed to the desire for a scientific foundation for the Marte Meo method. The respondents hoped that increased scientific research on the effectiveness of the method in various fields of application would lead to greater acceptance and consequently to the method being financed by public bodies. The fitting of the effect factors according to Grawe [10] to the basic principles of Marte Meo suggests further follow-up studies are needed to make statements about the effectiveness of Marte Meo. For example, it would be interesting to correlate the experts’ self-declarations of the benefits of Marte Meo with objective behavioral data of the clients and to secure them by means of inference statistics. A concrete criterion for this could be the increased rate of observable Marte Meo elements (beneficial interaction) applied visibly and audibly in video recordings over several counseling sessions [11]. Marte Meo seems to fit different approaches. Possible moderators for the effectiveness of Marte Meo could therefore be the experience, knowledge, or skills of the expert. More than one-fifth of respondents stated that they had children themselves. This factor, too, could be a moderator for the effect of the Marte Meo consultancy services used. Overall, although Marte Meo is often used in combination with other methods in a wide variety of contexts, there seems to be little research on the effect of combined use. Here, it would be interesting to get context-specific information about which combinations of methods are effective for which concerns and contexts.
At the time of research, no study could be found that describes the current status of the nationwide application of Marte Meo in practice, counseling and therapy. The results indicate a high degree of diversity in the use of Marte Meo with a high overall satisfaction among experts. Almost one-third of Marte Meo usage takes place in everyday teaching, followed by counseling, exchange with colleagues, teaching, supervision, and therapy. Marte Meo is often combined with the systemic approach, among other things, because it is flexible enough and allows the experts a lot of leeway in their approach, depending on their individual personalities.
The results of the work show that Marte Meo is perceived as beneficial by its implementers. The experts reported more joy and success in their work. In particular, in the pedagogical context, the daily, resource-oriented “Marte Meo view”, which has been sharpened by the training, seems to be essential, as it allows for an awareness of the needs of the interaction partners and the beneficial interaction elements. Moreover, for some respondents, the use of Marte Meo seems not to be limited to professional practice but is expressed in a general humanistic attitude towards interpersonal relationships of all kinds.
Regarding various application contexts and concrete advisory procedures, well-founded insights into the benefits and effectiveness of Marte Meo could be found in the future, thus ensuring increasing quality assurance or control and the institutional establishment of the method. In order to consider the diversity in the application of Marte Meo, future research can make use of the results of the qualitative and quantitative studies and derive specific questions. It was discussed that a potential benefit of Marte Meo could be based on the fact that central premises or principles of Marte Meo can be applied to the four impact factors according to Grawe [10]. Thus, in order to advance the application of Marte Meo in the future, scientific studies on this point seem promising.
There are still questions about how competently Marte Meo is performed in practice; that is, how much is supervision prescribed so that there is more reason to infer fidelity to the method than with most other interventions. If fidelity is not something that the Marte Meo process itself effectively ensures (especially when it is integrated into other methods that are part of the systemic approach), then implementation studies should be built into outcome/impact studies, so that one can distinguish whether objective results vary depending on the level of fidelity of different practitioners. Implementation studies utilizing the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) might be highly worthwhile.
In our reflections, our decision to utilize an exploratory sequential design was a useful one. In particular, the enhancements of including the systematic literature research (phase 1) and two different qualitative methods (interviews (phase 2) and observations (phase 3) seemed to be a good choice—and might be a recommendation for other similar research projects.
3.2 Mixed methods research in our genograms project
The second project is one concerning genograms. Genograms are an integral part of therapy and counseling (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Example genogram created with the InGeno app.
The study investigated the meaning and functions of genograms in the professional practice of counselors.
The article of Rohr et al. [12] presents partial results of the research project InGeno, in which—on the basis of the “actual” use of genograms to be researched—a user-friendly software for genogram creation is being developed. 108 counselors participated in the quantitative online questionnaire study. The data were analyzed descriptively and summarized together with the qualitative results of Rohr’s [13] preliminary study. The results show: Genograms are of central importance for those counselors who use them in their counseling practice: they are an integral part of their counseling work, are used in a variety of counseling situations together with the clients, and are further used and processed throughout the counseling process. In this context, genogram work fulfills a variety of functions, such as gaining information about the clients, recognizing transgenerational patterns and relationship dynamics, strengthening the identity of the clients, and uncovering their resources. The advantages and disadvantages of standardization and creativity are discussed.
Overall, the present study confirmed and extended the results of Rohr [13] to a large extent.
“Genograms are visualizations of the bio-psycho-social situation of the family and enable clients to recognize patterns of behavior—and thus to get to know themselves better” [13]. They consist of objective data (analogous to the family tree) and subjective meanings. “The task in genogram work in the context of counseling and therapy is to work out the structures of the social matrix (the social field).” Further, Hildenbrand [14], a pioneer in the use of genograms in German-speaking countries, writes: “Instead, I separate between the given and the given-up in human action [15] and find the actor in the distance between the two: The latter becomes an actor by making the given into the given up, i.e., by shaping his or her life”.
The article does not describe normatively and ideally how genograms ‘should’ be created. There is no single case study described, as this would not be helpful for our research questions. Our questions are discussed based on an elaborate research design. Based on the results we describe in this article descriptively: How do experienced counselors and therapists actually work with genograms, what advantages and disadvantages, limits, and possibilities (modes of action) do they find?
The questionnaire used here was created, among other things, based on the evaluation of twenty qualitative expert interviews. It is part of the interdisciplinary research project “InGeno”. A research team from the Department of counseling Research at the University of Cologne is developing a software (app) to create genograms with Computer Science Professor Dr. Mario Winter, B.Sc. Sven Kullack from the Cologne University of Applied Sciences (Figure 6) [13, 15].
Figure 6.
Exploratory sequential design of the Genogram Project.
Based on a systematic literature review [16] our project provides a comprehensive overview of genograms’ current research literature. In addition to a detailed account of developed extensions of the standard genogram for specific target groups and counseling settings, research findings on the utility of genograms in training and supervision and the need for discussing psychometric testing of genograms. The presented systematic literature review method aims to invite researchers to “underpin” their future counseling and therapy research with this approach. In this case, it will inspire counselors and therapists to test different extensions of genogram work depending on the target group and setting in practice.
The systematic literature search done on 05/09/2018 returned 348 hits. Thirty publications from other sources supplemented these. After removing duplicates, we checked the remaining 277 publications for thematic fit based on the titles or abstracts. Here, 112 publications were excluded as they did not fit in terms of content or were not available in English, German, or Spanish. The remaining 165 publications were checked for their suitability in the full text. In this step, a further sixty publications were excluded because they did not contribute to the genograms’ role in counseling practice.
The date of publication was not an exclusion criterion; also included were publications before 1990. A total of 105 publications were included in the systematic literature review and were analyzed concerning their empirical content.
Against the background of the quantitative results presented in this article, the systematic literature research [12], and the preceding qualitative interviews with experts the question of the significance and function of genograms in counseling practice can be answered as follows: For those counselors who use genograms in their counseling practice, they are of central importance and an integral part of the counseling process. They are very likely to be used in a large number of counseling situations, whereby most of the time this is done together with the clients. The genogram work is not a one-time activity, but the genogram is used and processed again and again during the counseling process. This leads to the conclusion that for many counselors the genogram fulfills the function of a common thread that runs through the counseling process and can be referred to again and again. The willingness to supplement central and well-known basic functions with further elements that make sense for individual counseling practice is great so that a great heterogeneity in the presentation of the genograms is to be expected. The goals of genogram work are to gain information about the clients, to recognize transgenerational patterns and relationship dynamics, to strengthen the clients’ identity—or their own appreciative understanding—and to uncover their resources. According to this, the genogram fulfills a variety of important functions in the counseling process—as well as within training and supervision: almost all respondents experienced the creation of their own genogram as very or mostly helpful.
The counseling and therapeutic work with genograms are very diverse. This is evident from both the systematic literature review (Phase 1) presented in the previous article [12] as well as from the results presented in this article. This is followed by open, fundamental questions: Are we even talking about the same “thing” when we use the term genogram—or genogram work? Bruno Hildenbrand [14] propagates to call “genogram work” only what aims at case reconstruction based on objective data. This could be called an extreme pole of answers to the question: “How are genograms used?”
For us, genograms are semi-standardized “visualizations of the family’s bio-psycho-social situation and enable clients* to recognize patterns of behavior—and thus to get to know themselves better” [13]; “semi-standardized” because it became clear in the study presented that the use of the symbols proposed by McGoldrick et al. [17] varied significantly in practice. Despite the advantages of standardization, e.g., the majority use of one and the same software, we believe that the focus should be on the common process of genogram use—and not on the genogram as a means of pure information retrieval.
Maybe the question of standardization or creativity is not relevant for individual counselors and therapists, but undoubtedly for the “scientific community”: If professional communication is to be done or if genograms are integrated into therapy applications, standardization is helpful for transparent communication. And if this communication will be digital in the near future (keyword “digital file”), a digitalization of genograms (beyond photos of paper-and-pencil drawings) will be necessary. And yet working with genograms is always an idiographic procedure, i.e., case-oriented, not standard, and developing or progressing from hour to hour. Especially “relationship lines” with double or jagged lines are not “set in stone” from a constructivist-systemic understanding, should not be the basis for “hard diagnostics” (said Tom Levold in the second phase of our project, the qualitative data collection). They are perspectives, circular, they may be experienced quite differently after a few weeks and serve only as hypotheses.
3.3 European qualifications framework (EQF) for lifelong learning—a current MMR project in Germany
In conclusion, this chapter presents an outlook on an elaborate research project which I have started on behalf of the DGfB, the German National Association for Counseling (member of EAC and IAC). Together with Marc Weinhardt (Universität Trier), Cornelia Maier-Gutheil (Evangelische Hochschule Darmstadt), Tim Stanik (Hochschule der Bundesagentur für Arbeit, Schwerin) and Marc Höcker (Universität zu Köln und Universität Mainz) I work on the development of a German qualifications framework for Counseling—in the context of the European Qualifications Framework (EQF).
It is a particular challenge due to the specific conditions in non-formal learning. It requires a well-considered, staged, and explorative approach because it is impossible to fall back on already established procedures for the allocation and reference competencies of the DQR (The German Qualifications Framework) from other fields. The DQR is a mixture of Mixed Methods Program Evaluation Design and Mixed Methods Participatory Design.
In a first step, a multi method approach triangulates a systematic literature review with a quantitative expert survey.
Here, the competencies and competence facets defined in the academic discourse and the competencies and competence facets depicted in counseling curricula are recorded to secure and further explore these in a Delphi study with one hundred experts’ participation. The experts were selected in close consultation with the client to adequately reflect the counseling landscape’s diversity and consider a cross-school perspective.
The Delphi study (100 experts will fill in the questionnaire) aims to check and supplement the literature review results and weighting concerning the Qualifications Framework for Counseling. It is to ensure that a methodically supported and intersubjectively comprehensible consensus is found within the member associations.
At the same time, we will analyze procedures and instruments for competence assessment, examinations, and certification procedures of the DGfB member associations with regard to their outcome and competence orientation in order to systematize their adaptation possibilities for the project context. Evaluating both partial studies’ results (qualification framework for counseling and synopsis of competence assessment procedures). In the course of qualitative group discussions with representatives of the DGfB member associations, proposals for certification criteria and practices will be derived and, in the course of the project, acceptance for the project results will be created in the DGfB member associations. The entire application’s orientation follows a research concept oriented towards impact factors. It is thus natively connectable to competence-oriented discourses and aims at theoretical and empirical modeling of successful counseling actions.
This project is a so-called complex design—an intersection of core designs with complex applications (see Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Process model embedding mixed methods into complex designs [6].
They are used when researchers have multiple research phases, multiyear research projects, large funded projects, multiple researchers, and inclusion of mixed methods core designs within different phases of research [6]. In this case, it is a mix of a “Mixed Methods Program Evaluation Design” (see Figure 8) and a “Mixed Methods Participatory Design” which is used when you want to involve stakeholders or participants in your design, when you want to bring about change and when you understand participatory approaches [6].
Figure 8.
Mixed methods program evaluation design [6].
4. Conclusion
In general, this article can be understood as a plea for mixed methods research. We agree with Teddlie and Tashakkori [18]: “We believe that divergent thought will always be a part of MMR (…), but that it is now time for greater convergence on some basic characteristics and principles” and with Symonds and Gorard [19]: “Death of mixed methods?: Or the rebirth of research as a craft”. Considering the limitations of the quantitative and qualitative paradigms and current definitions of mixed methods, we advocate the development of a research community where ‘all methods have a role, and a key place in the full research cycle from the generation of ideas to the rigorous testing of theories for amelioration’ and do not believe in “oppositional components of paradigms” [20].
This text is a “plea for mixed methods research in the field of counseling” by explaining three empirical examples. Timothy C. Guetterman did a meta-analysis together with my mentor Charles Deutsch from the Harvard School of Public Health and other colleagues [3]. Their goal was to understand how reviewers evaluate mixed methods research by analyzing reviewer comments for grant applications that were submitted primarily to the National Institutes of Health. They asked Mixed Methods Research Training Program (MMRTP) health sciences researchers and consultants to send them summary comments on their mixed methods grant applications and received 40 summary comments on funded (40%) and unfunded (60%) mixed methods grant applications [3]. They conducted a document analysis with a coding rubric based on NIH Best Practices for Mixed Methods Research in the Health Sciences and allowed inductive codes to emerge. Reviewers positively evaluated mixed methods applications that demonstrated coherence between goals and research design elements, detailed methods, plans for integrating mixed methods, and use of theoretical models. Reviewers identified weaknesses in mixed methods applications that lacked methodological detail or rationale, had a high participant load, and did not delineate investor roles. Successful mixed methods applications convey assumptions behind the methods chosen to achieve specific goals and clearly describe the procedures to be followed. Investigators planning to use mixed methods should remember that reviewers are looking for both points of view [3].
Mixed methods approaches are well suited to achieving the goals of health and implementation research. Nonetheless, applicants should be careful to explain the proposed methods based on underlying assumptions so that referees trained in the former methods from disciplines such as epidemiology and statistics will be able to understand the connection between the specific goals and the mixed methods. The reviewers pay attention to details about the samples, the plans for data collection and analysis, and the data integration procedures. Applicants should anticipate and dispel the concerns of the evaluators about possible disadvantages of mixed methods in terms of participants, time and resource expenditure, and generalizability of results [3]. The study of Guetterman et al. provides some empirical evidence for researchers keen to take full advantage of mixed methods to address pressing clinical and health care issues [3]. Therefore, it fits perfectly into this “plea for mixed methods research in the field of counseling”.
\n',keywords:"counseling, mixed methods research, mental health research, triangulation, convergent designs, exploratory sequential designs, explanatory sequential designs",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81634.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81634.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81634",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81634",totalDownloads:21,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 4th 2022",dateReviewed:"April 1st 2022",datePrePublished:"May 4th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 4th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"We need more research in counseling if we want to strengthen counseling as a profession and if we want to implement counseling in mental health systems. Thus, the research should be multiple dimensional. This chapter is a plea for mixed-methods research (MMR) designs in the field of counseling. Even if MMR is very elaborate, it is worth doing. By way of example, I would like to briefly outline three of my projects, using MMR. The first one is a mixed methods research study on the video-based counseling method Marte Meo. The second project is one concerning genograms. Genograms are an integral part of therapy and counseling. The third MMR project is an elaborate research project which we carry out on behalf of the “Deutsche Gesellschaft für Beratung”, the German National Association for Counseling (Member of the European Association for Counseling, EAC, and the International Association for Counseling, IAC) to develop a German qualifications framework for Counseling—in the context of the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). Finally, I refer to Guetterman et al. who provide some empirical evidence for researchers who wish to take full advantage of mixed methods to address pressing clinical and public health issues.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81634",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81634",signatures:"Dirk Rohr",book:{id:"11305",type:"book",title:"Counseling and Therapy - Recent Developments in Theories and Concepts",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Counseling and Therapy - Recent Developments in Theories and Concepts",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kenjiro Fukao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11305.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-574-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-573-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-575-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"32519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenjiro",middleName:null,surname:"Fukao",slug:"kenjiro-fukao",fullName:"Kenjiro Fukao"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. What is mixed methods research (MMR)?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Core designs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Three examples of mixed methods research",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1 Mixed methods research in our Marte Meo project1",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2 Mixed methods research in our genograms project",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.3 European qualifications framework (EQF) for lifelong learning—a current MMR project in Germany",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Schubert F-C, Rohr D, Zwicker-Pelzer R. Beratung: Grundlagen– Konzepte – Anwendungsfelder. Wiesbaden: Springer; 2019. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-658-20844-8'},{id:"B2",body:'Bager-Charleson S, McBeath A. Enjoying Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed-methods Research. 2020. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-55127-8'},{id:"B3",body:'Guetterman TC, Fetters MD, Creswell JW. Integrating quantitative and qualitative results in health science mixed methods research through joint displays. Annals of Family Medicine. 2015;13(6):554-561. DOI: 10.1370/afm.1865. PMID: 26553895; PMCID: PMC4639381'},{id:"B4",body:'Greene JC, Caracelli VJF, Graham W. Toward a conceptual framework for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis. 1989;11(3):255-74. DOI: 10.2307/1163620'},{id:"B5",body:'Greene JC. Mixed Methods in Social Inquiry. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass; 2007. pp. 1-37'},{id:"B6",body:'Cresswell JW, Deutsch C. Applying core and complex designs. Webinar, MMRTP. May 5, 2017'},{id:"B7",body:'Nastasi BK, Hitchcock J, Sarkar S, Burkholder G, Varjas K, Jayasena A. Mixed methods in intervention research: Theory to adaptation. Journal of Mixed Methods Research; 2007;1(2):164-182. DOI: 10.1177/1558689806298181'},{id:"B8",body:'Aarts M. Marte Meo basic manual. Revised. 2nd ed. Aarts Production; 2008'},{id:"B9",body:'Bünder P. Enhancing development of children at risk and their parents by video counselling according to the marte meo method. Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie. 2011;60(5):333-350'},{id:"B10",body:'Grawe K. Grundriss einer allgemeinen Psychotherapie. Psychotherapeut. 1995;40(3):130-145'},{id:"B11",body:'Bünder P. Entwicklungsförderung von Risikokindern und ihren Eltern mit Hilfe von Videoberatung nach der Marte-Meo-Methode [Enhancing development of children at risk and their parents by video counselling according to the Marte Meo method]. Praxis Der Kinderpsychologie Und Kinderpsychiatrie; 2011;60(5):333-350. DOI: 13109/prkk.2011.60.5.333'},{id:"B12",body:'Rohr D, Spath K, Aschermann E. Genogramme in Beratung und Therapie: Übersicht über die aktuelle Forschung. In: Zeitschrift Familiendynamik – Systemische Praxis und Forschung 1/2022. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta;'},{id:"B13",body:'Rohr D. Über die Arbeit mit Genogrammen: Auswertung von ExpertInneninterviews zur Genogrammerstellung. Heidelberg: Carl-Auer Verlag; 2022 (angenommen). 2017'},{id:"B14",body:'Hildenbrand B. Genogrammarbeit für Fortgeschrittene. Vom Vorgegebenen zum Aufgegebenen. Heidelberg: Carl-Auer-Verlag; 2018'},{id:"B15",body:'Rohr D, Winter M, Kullack S, Schulz T, Lütters T, Geldermann N. Forschendes Lernen im interdisziplinären Teamteaching – Eigenverantwortliches, kooperatives und problembasiertes Lernen am Beispiel der Entwicklung einer Software für Genogrammarbeiten. In: Berendt B, editor. Neues Handbuch Hochschullehre. Berlin: Raabe; 2015'},{id:"B16",body:'Cooper HM. Research synthesis and meta-analysis: A step-by-step approach. In: Applied Social Research Methods Series. 5th ed. Vol. 2. SAGE: Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, Washington DC; 2017'},{id:"B17",body:'McGoldrick G, Gerson R, Petry S. Genogramme in der Familienberatung. Verlag Hans Huber: Bern; 2009'},{id:"B18",body:'Teddlie C, Tashakkori A. Foundations of Mixed Methods Research. Los Angeles: Sage; 2009'},{id:"B19",body:'Symonds J, Gorard S. The Death of Mixed Methods: Research Labels and their Casualties. 2009'},{id:"B20",body:'Gage N. The paradigm wars and their aftermath: A historical sketch of research on teaching since 1989. In Hammersley M, editor. Educational Research and Evidence- based Practice. London: Sage; 2007. pp. 151-166'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"I thank my mentor Charles Deutsch, Harvard University, the Marte Meo Research Group, Kathrin Meiners and Sophia Nettersheim. (This chapter is an excerpt from Rohr et al. 2020)."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Dirk Rohr",address:"dirk.rohr@uni-koeln.de",affiliation:'
University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3479e76c6ac538aac76409c9efb7e41",slug:"neuroimaging-neurobiology-multimodal-and-network-applications",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8938",title:"Inhibitory Control Training",subtitle:"A Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd82354f3bba4af5421337cd42052f86",slug:"inhibitory-control-training-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo and Massimo Bartoli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8938.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:66,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2592,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5907,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9707,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7183,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1455,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192987,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4596,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3523,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3609,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1349,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82319",title:"Traumatic Optic Neuropathy",slug:"traumatic-optic-neuropathy",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104731",abstract:"Traumatic optic neuropathy (TON) is a specific neurological sequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI). It has a different mechanism than other most neurologic complications of head trauma and its consequences can be devastating. The damage can be from direct penetrating trauma or bone fracture injuring the optic nerve directly or secondary to indirect blunt trauma (usually causing traction). The diagnosis of TON is based on the clinical history and examination findings indicative of optic neuropathy, especially the presence of defective pupillary light response. TON can cause only mild vision loss but, in some cases, severe vision loss is present. Imaging findings can support the diagnosis, and provide information on the mechanism as well as treatment options. The treatment options include observation alone, systemic steroids, erythropoietin, surgical decompression of the optic canal, or combination. The evidence base for these various treatment options is controversial and each treatment has its side effects and risks. Poor prognostic factors include poor visual acuity at presentation, loss of consciousness, no improvement in vision in the first 48 hours, and evidence of optic canal fractures on neuroimaging.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Ainat Klein and Wahbi Wahbi"},{id:"82203",title:"Resting-State Brain Network Analysis Methods and Applications",slug:"resting-state-brain-network-analysis-methods-and-applications",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104827",abstract:"Resting-state fMRI has been widely applied in clinical research. Brain networks constructed by functional connectivity can reveal alterations related to disease and treatment. One of the major concerns of brain network application under clinical situations is how to analyze groups of data to find the potential biomarkers that can aid in diagnosis. In this paper, we briefly review common methods to construct brain networks from resting-state fMRI data, including different ways of the node definition and edge calculation. We focus on using a brain atlas to define nodes and estimate edges by static and dynamic functional connectivity. The directed connectivity method is also mentioned. We then discuss the challenges and pitfalls when analyzing groups of brain networks, including functional connectivity alterations, graph theory attributes analysis, and network-based statistics. Finally, we review the clinical application of resting-state fMRI in neurorehabilitation of spinal cord injury patients and stroke patients, the research on the mechanism and early diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases, such as multiple system atrophy, as well as the research on brain functional network alteration of glioma patients.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Yunxiang Ge and Weibei Dou"},{id:"82099",title:"Recent Advances in the Development of Biofluid-Based Prognostic Biomarkers of Diffuse Axonal Injury",slug:"recent-advances-in-the-development-of-biofluid-based-prognostic-biomarkers-of-diffuse-axonal-injury",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104933",abstract:"Even though head injury is a silent pandemic of the century producing immense social and economic impact, predictive models have not been established to develop strategies promoting the development of reliable diagnostic tools and effective therapeutics capable of improving the prognosis. Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is a type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) that results from a blunt injury to the brain. Discovering biomarkers for DAI have been a matter of debate and research. A number of studies have reported biomarkers that are correlated with severity of TBI but no conclusive and reproducible clinical evidence regarding the same has been put forward till now. Additionally, many DAI biomarkers have limitations so that they cannot be generalized for universal applications. The properties of these biomarkers should be extensively researched along with the development of novel biomarkers to aid important clinical decisions for the benefit of the society. This chapter summarizes the existing biofluid-based biomarkers, critically examines their limitations and highlights the possibilities of a few novel biomolecules as prognostic biomarkers of DAI.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Vinu V. Gopal, Rinku Raj Mullasseril and Goutam Chandra"},{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. 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She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"1",type:"subseries",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral health, Dental care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic imaging, Early diagnosis, Oral cancer, Conservative treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive dental care, Complementary therapies, Holistic health",scope:"
\r\n This topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). 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