Phenotypic analysis of bone biopsy.
\r\n\tThe development of the interpersonal model and the Kleinian school in the second half of the last century allowed the emergence of an original understanding of the unconscious mind. Within the intersubjective paradigm, the psychoanalytic situation is conceptualized as an interpersonal field to which both the analyst and the patient contribute substantially. We have shown elsewhere how the failure to give a full account of such an intersubjective dimension in both psychoanalytic theory and practice amounts to a core liability in contemporary psychoanalytic discourse.
\r\n\r\n\tThe present book will focus on a few areas where the insufficient development of our discipline is currently apparent: five wounds that mark the body of the psychoanalytic enterprise.
\r\n\r\n\tNew contributions are particularly needed in the following areas: Current conceptualization of the unconscious mind is mechanistic and not suited to incorporate the full network of interpersonal exchanges which unfolds in the analytic room; Furthermore, the development of interpersonal psychoanalysis and the theory of the object relations warrants a greater appreciation of the impact of extratranference relations (e.g., couple, family, peers) on the patient's inner life both within and without the psychoanalytic situation.
\r\n\r\n\tAn integration of theories and models from other psychological paradigms is clearly in order here; the book will also focus on Barangers’ theory of the bi-personal field that makes traditional unipersonal models of the psychoanalytic process untenable. Also, it will help in the understanding of the reciprocal interactions of the two partners in the psychoanalytic dyad in most psychoanalytic institutes the training format relies naively on models from the academic or the professional domains. This fosters rigidity, conformism, and a hierarchical organizational style in the institutional life; e) all over the long span of his creative life Freud showed consistent interest in the application of psychoanalysis to literature, the arts, religion, and politics. Contemporary psychoanalysis is getting more and shyer and is pressed at the margins of social and political debate. The psychoanalytic theory includes unique lore of knowledge about the conscious and unconscious mind. Without it, a comprehensive understanding of human reality will stay out of the reach of contemporary culture.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-882-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-881-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-883-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c6a104ee38fec8d9ba8aa139a33003ce",bookSignature:"Dr. Paolo Azzone",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11591.jpg",keywords:"Unconscious, Repression, Conformism, Intersubjective Paradigm, Interpersonal Psychoanalysis, Object Relation Theory, Couple Therapy, Family Therapy, Psychoanalytic Process, Transference Interpretation, Resistance, Controtransference",numberOfDownloads:12,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 31st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 3rd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Paolo Azzone, M.D., is a psychiatrist and a psychoanalyst with over 20 years of experience in mental health topics. He was a tutor for the course in Clinical Psychiatry at the Medical School of the University of Milan and now is responsible for the Forensic Psychiatric Outpatient Program at the ASST-Rhodense Hospital in Milan, Italy. Azzone contributed to the establishment of a psychotherapy research tradition in Italy and is a co-editor and author of multiple works that are linked to psychoanalysis.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"324882",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Azzone",slug:"paolo-azzone",fullName:"Paolo Azzone",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/324882/images/system/324882.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"ASST-Rhodense Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"82322",title:"A Psychoanalytic Approach to Identity Politics",slug:"a-psychoanalytic-approach-to-identity-politics",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453624",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Scerbe",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453624/images/20399_n.jpg",email:"martina.s@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61532",title:"Hydroxide Transport in Anion-Exchange Membranes for Alkaline Fuel Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77148",slug:"hydroxide-transport-in-anion-exchange-membranes-for-alkaline-fuel-cells",body:'A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy contained in a fuel directly and efficiently (between 60 and 80% at normal operating conditions) into electrical energy. This is achieved by the coupling of reduction/oxidation reactions between oxygen and fuel fed respectively to the cathode and anode of the cell, having as by-products water and CO2 in low amounts when a hydrocarbon (such as methanol or ethanol) is the fuel [1, 2].
The general scheme of an alkaline fuel cell (AFC) is shown in Figure 1. In this device, fuel is oxidized at the anode and combined with hydroxide ions transported from the cathode through the electrolyte to produce water. Part of water leaves the cell while the rest moves through the electrolyte to the cathode. There, it is combined with oxygen and electrons coming from the anode through an external circuit to produce hydroxide ions that are then transported through the electrolyte to the anode [3, 4, 5]. The electrochemical reactions involved if the fuel is hydrogen are:
General scheme of an AFC.
The most known types of AFCs use liquid solutions as electrolytes because of their high ionic conductivity [5, 6]. However, they have as disadvantage their short lifetime under normal operating conditions mainly due to the formation of carbonates (CO32−) between hydroxides of the electrolyte and CO2 [7, 8, 9, 10] and the permeation of liquid electrolyte to electrodes (weeping) [10]. In consequence, polymer-based membranes for AFCs are developed and implemented [11, 12] following the model of their counterparts, the proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). With this, the newly born AEMFCs were made suitable for their use in vehicles and batteries for mobile devices because of: (a) the conductive species of the electrolyte are integrated to a rigid polymeric matrix so reactivity and production of carbonates is reduced, (b) there is no weeping because the electrolyte is a solid whose segregation is minimum, and (c) the versatility of the fuel cell is better with respect to implementation and handling using the polymeric electrolyte [3, 6, 13].
Despite this, the polymeric materials used as electrolytes in AEMFCs currently show drawbacks susceptible of research and development in their ionic conductivity and chemical stability. Such characteristics limit the efficiency and durability of the fuel cell respectively; thus, their study is the main focus of research in this area. Most of studies are experimental and focused on the fabrication and characterization of polymeric materials with potential application in AEMFCs. The others are theoretical and seek to represent transport phenomena of hydroxide ions through anion-exchange membranes to understand their characteristics and propose how to improve them. Therefore, this chapter is developed as follows: first, it reviews and discusses the contributions and findings made to date about anion-exchange membranes for AEMFCs from both experimental (Section 2) and theoretical studies (Section 3). Then, it addresses the challenges and work required to consolidate the AEMFCs and make them a feasible energy production technology for the close-future.
The experimental research of anion-exchange membranes for AEMFCs has focused on the development of materials having: (a) good mechanical and thermal properties at the assembly and operation conditions of the fuel cell [14, 15, 16], (b) chemical stability especially against the attack of hydroxide ions to the cationic functional groups of the membrane [17, 18, 19], (c) high anionic conductivity (>100 mS/cm) [6, 20, 21], (d) electronic isolation [22], (e) appropriate thickness (between 50 and 80 μm) [3], (f) low permeability to fuel [9], and (g) low cost [23, 24]. In order to fulfill them, diverse anion-exchange membranes have been fabricated and studied. These membranes can be classified according to their structure as: (a) heterogeneous, subclassified according to the nature of their components, (b) interpenetrated polymer networks, and (c) homogeneous, subclassified according to their functionalization method [3]. This is schematically shown in Figure 2.
Classification of anion-exchange membranes according to their structure and functionalization method. Reprinted from
A heterogeneous membrane is an anion-exchange material embedded in an inert compound. According to their nature, these membranes are classified into:
They are composed of a polymeric matrix soluble in water that contains electronegative heteroatoms (such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfurs, chlorides or phosphates), a hydroxide (most of the time potassium hydroxide) and one or more plasticizers. The resultant material has the mechanic properties of the polymeric matrix and the electrochemical properties of the hydroxide [25, 26]. Among the materials used to fabricate ion solvating polymers, there are the polyethylene oxide (PEO), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), chitosan and polybenzimidazole (PBI). They have good mechanical properties but low ionic conductivity at contact with the fuel cell electrodes (between 0.1 and 1 mS/cm) [27] because they are usually very thick and have high electrical resistance. Moreover, their structure is usually not uniform and has areas of high and low concentrations of exchangeable ionic groups that cause an uneven ionic transport through the material. Additionally, the KOH used as a hydroxide is susceptible to leak out the membrane, resulting in continuous conductivity losses during the operation of the fuel cell [20].
They are composed of organic and inorganic segments. Organic segments provide the electrochemical properties and the inorganic (usually silica or siloxane), the mechanical properties. Examples of hybrid membranes are PEO, PVA and polyphenylene oxide (PPO) with silica (SiO2) and membranes based on PVA with titanium dioxide (TiO2). Although their mechanical properties are promising due to the incorporation of inorganic components, membranes of this category have the same nonuniformity problem of ion solvating polymers, thus their ionic conductivity are similar or even lower [15].
These membranes combine two polymeric materials by crosslinking without promoting the formation of covalent bonds in between. One of the polymers is hydrophobic and has good chemical, mechanical, and thermal properties, while the other is an ionic conductor. Main researches for membranes in this category are related with materials based on PVA, PPO, polyethylene, and polysulfone. They are easy to fabricate, and the range of polymers that can be used is wide. Additionally, they exhibit low electrical resistance and high mechanical strength, chemical stability, durability, and can be produced at a reasonable cost. However, since the constituent materials are not covalently bonded, the conductive polymer slowly diffuses out of the membrane with time, which causes progressive losses of conductivity and ion exchange capacity. Furthermore, although these membranes can reach ionic conductivities higher than heterogeneous membranes (2–5 mS/cm), they are still very low for their use in a fuel cell [3, 14].
They are polymers composed of one type of material that is modified to have ion exchange capacity. In these materials, the cationic functional groups (usually quaternary amines) are covalently attached to the polymer backbone to generate ionic sites with an associated mobile counterion [6, 28]. According to how they are functionalized, homogeneous membranes can be classified into:
Copolymerization is a process in which 2 or more monomers combine into a single polymeric chain. The most promising membranes produced by this method are based on chloromethylstyrene and divinylbenzene. However, they have as disadvantage the low availability of chloromethylstyrene and high cost of divinylbenzene [3, 28].
These membranes are conformed by a hydrophobic polymer backbone to which cationic functional groups are grafted by irradiation, UV, or plasma methods [3]. As the most important materials in this category are the poly(fluorinated ethylene-propylene) (FEP) and poly(ethylene-
These membranes are the most researched due to they can reach high ionic conductivities at a lower fabrication cost than membranes produced by copolymerization and radiation grafting. However, chemical modification methods are difficult to control and reproduce. In consequence, the resulting quality of the membranes is highly dependent on the rigor of the fabrication procedure. Some of the anion-exchange membranes of this category are based on polystyrene, PVA, PVB, epichlorohydrin, polyethylene glycol, ethers, aromatic esters, guanidine, polysulfone, and polypropylene [3, 6].
Homogeneous membranes are to date the most efficient and promising electrolytes for AEMFCs because of their superior ionic conductivity and durability with respect to the other membrane categories. However, yet there is no a consolidated material that fulfills the conditions required to achieve an optimal operation in an AEMFC, despite the fact that significant advances have been made in the last years with respect to the quality of their fabrication and properties. For that reason, it is essential not only to improve them from the experimental work, but also with theoretical studies to understand the characteristics of the transport mechanisms of hydroxide ions through anion-exchange membranes and how they influence their ionic conductivity and chemical stability as it is shown below.
As was introduced in previous sections, a good alternative to design efficient anion-exchange membranes is the implementation of theoretical models to identify, analyze, and complement the experimental findings about transport phenomena within them. However, studies of this type are few, and the characteristics of such transport phenomena are not well known and are still in discussion to date [29]. In order to identify them, studies for transport of hydronium ions (H3O+) in hydrated proton-exchange membranes have been taken as a starting point under the premise that the characteristics of ionic transport for both anionic and protonic membranes could be similar (which is not strictly true) [30, 31]. Thus, in Figure 3 are schematically shown the main transport mechanisms for hydroxide ions through anion-exchange membranes that have been proposed in the literature. These include diffusion, which consist of molecular or
Transport mechanisms proposed for hydroxide ions in anion-exchange membranes. Reprinted with permission from
It is defined as the transport of molecules due to a chemical potential gradient of one or more components in the absence of an electric field [32]. Within a hydrated anion-exchange membrane, hydroxide ions can diffuse by three modalities: the traditional
Electric circuit analogy of the transport mechanisms by which hydroxide ions can diffuse through anion exchange membranes. Reprinted with permission from
In which
Contributions of each mechanism to total diffusion are strongly influenced by the nanostructure and water content of the anion-exchange membrane [33, 34]. On the one hand, at low hydration levels, pores of the polymer are narrow and cationic side chains are very close to each other. In consequence, solvation of water molecules and interaction between them and hydroxide ions via hydrogen bonding are very low with respect to the electrostatic forces exerted by the cationic chains on the latters. Therefore, transport of hydroxide ions is more likely to take place on the surface of the polymeric chains by surface site hopping and molecular diffusion at low rates. In addition, ionic conductivity of the anion-exchange membrane will be very low. On the other hand, at high hydration levels, the pores of the polymer swell and give place to wide continuous channels where regions of bulk water can be formed. Cationic functional chains will be more separated, thus their influence on hydroxide ions is reduced and dissociation from solvation of water molecules will be more likely. Therefore, transport of hydroxide ions takes place mostly by charge defect transfer (Grotthuss mechanism) in the bulk water region at high rates: the ionic conductivity of the anion-exchange membrane under that condition will reach its highest values [34].
In order to gain deeper understanding of the mentioned diffusion mechanisms, a general description for each one and their implementation in mathematical models is given in the next subsections.
The molecular movement of hydroxide ions due to concentration (or activity) gradients can be described according to Fick’s law:
in which
in which
The first term of the right side of Eq. (6) corresponds to the interactions between water molecules and hydroxide ions and the other represents the frictional effects of the membrane. In addition, to account for Knudsen diffusion, binary diffusion coefficients can be expressed as a parallel resistance with the following form [32]:
The Knudsen diffusion coefficient (
in which
or by using the Bruggeman percolation model, initially used for hydronium ions in proton-exchange membranes but later extended to hydroxide ions in anion-exchange membranes [29]:
in which
Binary diffusion coefficients (
In order to obtain the flux and mole fraction profiles for hydroxide ions from Eq. (11), it must be solved simultaneously with the Stefan-Maxwell equation for water:
In addition, appropriate boundary conditions must be established. These can be obtained by coupling the transport model of Eqs. (11) and (12) with a global model for the AEMFC.
Also known as structural diffusion and proton hopping, it is a transport mechanism by which a protonic excess (hydronium (H3O+) for instance) or defect (hydroxide (OH−) for instance) of an ionic specie diffuses through the hydrogen bond network of water molecules by means of a reactive process caused by fluctuations in the coordination bonds between ions and water that involve the formation and cleavage of hydrogen bonds [36, 37, 38, 39].
Currently, the exact description of Grotthuss mechanism for hydroxide ions is still in discussion, and different theories have been proposed. Among them, the dynamic hypercoordination theory is considered the most accurate description to date. However, it is postulated for pure aqueous medium and has not been extended to consider the presence of an anion-exchange membrane.
The steps involved in the Grotthuss mechanism according to dynamic hypercoordination theory are shown in Figure 5. It is based on the presolvation concept, which establishes that species with charge defects must be first solvated by water molecules to perform the charge defect transfer [38, 40]. For just water, its molecules form tetrahedral hypercoordinated complexes with adjacent molecules by donating and receiving two hydrogen bonds, respectively [41, 42] as shown in Figure 6. According to the hypercoordination theory, when a hydroxide ion goes into the water network, it adopts a square-planar topology (Figure 5a) in which its oxygen atom accepts four hydrogen bonds from neighboring water molecules (forming the anion H9O5−). In addition, the hydrogen atom of the hydroxide ion is delocalized around the oxygen atom and stays without establishing coordination bonds. To carry out the charge defect transfer, hydroxide ion must first reduce its coordination number by breaking one of the hydrogen bonds received from a water molecule and then establishing bonding between its hydrogen atom and another nearby water molecule. This allows the ion to take the topology of a fully coordinated water molecule, promoting the transfer of the anionic defect to an adjacent molecule in a process in which the complex H3O2− is temporarily formed (Figure 5b). When the transfer is finished, the receiving molecule rearranges to take the preferential square-planar configuration of a hydroxide ion, thereby completing the transport process (Figure 5c) [36, 37, 38, 40].
Grotthuss mechanism for hydroxide ions in pure water is according to the dynamic hypercoordination theory. Colors code: oxygen of water molecules is in red, oxygen of molecules with charge defects is in yellow, and hydrogen is in gray. Reprinted by permission from Springer Customer Service Centre GmbH: Springer Nature, The nature and transport mechanism of hydrated hydroxide ions in aqueous solution, M.E. Tuckerman, D. Marx, Copyright 2002.
Left: connectivity of a water molecule with four adjacent water molecules. Electronic clouds are indicated in green. Right: tetrahedral representation of the water molecule indicating the donated (D) and accepted (A) hydrogen bonds. From D. Marx: Throwing Tetrahedral Dice. Science. 2004; 303: 634?636. Reprinted with permission from AAAS.
It is considered that Grotthuss mechanism has a predominant contribution to hydroxide mobility through hydrated membranes according to: (a) experimental studies about hydroxide mobility in pure aqueous medium [43, 44], (b) theoretical studies about hydroxide mobility in pure aqueous medium with
It involves the movement of hydroxide ions by means of successive hops from one side chain of the membrane to another due to strong electrostatic attractive forces exerted by the cationic functional groups on the ions [3, 29, 33]. This process takes place as follows: first, a hydroxide ion attached to a cationic functional group is solvated and dissociated by water molecules. After that, an adjacent side chain attracts the solvated ion to its surface, then the process repeats. This results in a net displacement of the hydroxide ion through the membrane equal to the distance between the two cationic side chains.
Although this mechanism is more likely at low water contents of the membrane, it is considered a secondary process because of the strong interactions between water molecules in the system and the hydrophilic cationic functional groups, which act as a barrier for the hydroxide ions to interact and reach the surface of the latters. This reduces the possibility of this mechanism to take place over the others [29].
Both Grotthuss mechanism and surface site hopping take place at atomic length and time scale and can only be effectively studied through quantum physic techniques like AIMD because of the nature of this phenomenon. At the macroscale, their contributions to total diffusion in mathematical models can be accounted in following way: Grotthuss mechanism, which takes place at the bulk of water molecules, can be accounted by extending the expression for the effective mass diffusion of hydroxide ions in water (Eq. (7)) as:
Surface site hopping can be accounted by applying empirical corrections to the influence of the membrane structure on hydroxide mobility (that is
in which
Convective transport can take place mainly due to a pressure gradient between the boundaries of the anode and cathode diffusion layers of the fuel cell and the membrane. It is also due to electro-osmotic drag, in which a flux of water molecules is induced by the motion of hydroxide ions in the absence of concentration gradients (i.e., by electric potential gradients) [3, 20, 29].
In electrochemical systems, a convection velocity can be defined by means of the Schogel’s equation [29]:
in which
If transport by convection and diffusion are taking place simultaneously, Eq. (15) can be combined with Eq. (5):
in which binary diffusion coefficient was replaced by effective diffusion coefficients to include the effect of membrane structure and all the possible diffusion mechanisms affecting specie
Transport by convection is especially important at high hydration levels in which porous structure of the membrane swells enough to give place to continuous channels that connect the anode with cathode, so an effective pressure gradient can be established. In addition, convection by electro-osmotic drag must be considered at high concentrations of hydroxide ions when electric potential gradients could be significant.
It is defined as the motion of charged species due to electric potential gradients resulting from the electrostatic interactions between them. Transport by migration can be described according to Ohm’s law:
in which
When either diffusion or convection takes place simultaneously with migration, the generalized Stefan-Maxwell equations (GSME) for a system of n-particles can be used [29]:
which is analogous to Eq. (16) but expressed in terms of electrochemical potential gradients:
Alternatively, the dilute-solution or concentrate-solution approaches can be applied. In the dilute-solution approximation, interactions between solute molecules are neglected, and the Nernst-Planck equation can be used [32]:
in which
However, Eqs. (23) and (24) apply rigorously just at infinite dilution (<0.01 mol/dm3 [49]), which most of the time is not the case for a membrane in an AEMFC. Therefore, concentrated-solution theory is preferred if enough information about the required parameters and transport properties is available [32]. Under this approach, the following set of equations for hydroxide ions and water can be obtained (see detailed derivation in Refs. [50, 51]):
in which
in which
Although PEMFCs are nowadays the main and most attractive fuel cell technology for mobile applications, AEMFCs have significant advantages over PEMFCs that give them a greater potential for massive production at low cost: (a) the oxygen reduction reaction is more favorable in alkaline medium. Therefore, catalysts as silver or nickel, which are less expensive than platinum (predominantly used in PEMFCs and their major drawback) can be used [52]. (b) Corrosion problems are reduced because metals and coal generally used in bipolar plates, current collectors and catalysts are chemically more stable in alkaline than in acid medium. This allows the use of less expensive components such as current collectors of nickel and thin metal bipolar plates [8]. (c) The oxidation of alcohols such as methanol and ethanol is more favorable in alkaline medium. This allows a more efficient alcohol oxidation, and the amount of platinum and ruthenium in catalysts can be reduced [53]. However, more intensive research is required.
Homogeneous membranes are currently the most efficient electrolytes for AEMFCs because of their high ionic conductivity and durability in comparison with heterogeneous membranes and interpenetrated polymer networks. However, they have strong drawbacks that need to be overcome. Membranes produced by copolymerization using chloromethylstyrene and divinylbenzene as their base materials have shown both high ionic conductivities and chemical stability at fuel cell conditions, but as was mentioned in Section 2, they are impractical because of the low availability of chloromethylstyrene and high cost of divinylbenzene. Conductive polymers functionalized by radiation grafting procedures have been extensively researched and have the highest ionic conductivities among the listed membrane types. In fact, most of the commercial membranes nowadays belong to this category. However, as membranes produced by coplymerization, they are very expensive and unfeasible for a large-scale production. Finally, homogeneous membranes functionalized by chemical modification can be produced at low cost and be as conductive and efficient as membranes produced by copolymerization and radiation grafting. Therefore, they are the most promising materials for a future mass production of AEMFCs. The main problem with these materials is the attachment process of the cationic functional groups and their chemical stability. First, fabrication procedures need to be improved and standardized so they can be effectively implement at large-scale production. Second, membranes of this category use trimethylammonium-based chains as the cationic functional groups, which are very reactive with hydroxide ions. In consequence, they have poor stability at operational conditions of the fuel cell and tend to degrade at early operation times.
Theoretical understanding of the transport mechanisms taking place within anion-exchange membranes is a straightforward way to design effective procedures to fabricate anion-exchange membranes with the required characteristics to operate efficiently and stably at the conditions of an AEMFC. Unfortunately, there are a lot of conceptual gaps and lack of information that currently limits strongly this possibility. It is required a better understanding and particularization of the transport theories behind those models to anion-exchange membranes. For instance, great part of the transport properties and parameters required by the most rigorous models (like GSME and concentrated-solution theory) have not been experimentally measured or mathematically defined for anion-exchange membranes, so they still are calculated from correlations and theories extensively studied and validated for proton-exchange membranes regardless their application could not be correct for alkaline medium. Moreover, the characteristics of some of the transport mechanisms involved in the mobility of hydroxide ions are not exactly known. This is, for example, the case of the mechanism considered to have the major contribution to the hydroxide mobility through hydrated anion-exchange membranes, that is, Grotthuss mechanism. Mobility studies for hydroxide ions in pure aqueous medium have approached the basic characteristics of the mechanism, but it has not been done yet an extension of those studies to anion-exchange membranes to take into account key aspects that could affect dramatically its development such as: (a) water content of the conductive polymer, which affects its morphology and distribution of its cationic functional groups and (b) the type of cationic functional group, which is responsible of the electrostatic forces exerted on the hydroxide ions and water, steric and frictional effects due to the structure and size of the cationic group and the electrical double layer effects due to the surface distribution of electrostatically attracted molecules [14, 33, 34, 45].
All the above mentioned approaches are nowadays active research areas of high interest. If successful alternatives to improve the current limitations of the existent polymeric systems could be obtained from the co-development of experimental and theoretical studies, AEMFCs could not only exceed in efficiency and economy the PEMFCs, but also become a competitive, feasible, and sustainable technology to other alternative power generation sources especially for portable and stationary applications at low temperature.
Special acknowledgment to Universidad Nacional de Colombia-Sede Medellín and the Curricular Area of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering for the financial support for the development and publication of this work.
Solitary plasmacytoma (SP) is an infrequent form of plasma cell neoplasm according to literature data, accounting for between 5 and 10% of all plasma cell neoplasms.
It is characterized by the presence of neoplastic monoclonal plasma cells that do not have systemic distribution but gather in limited locations even if there is no systemic proliferative plasma cell disease.
We can divide it into two groups: solitary bone plasmacytoma (SBP) and extra medullary plasmacytoma (EMP).
When the localization is prevalent in the bones of the axial skeleton, skull type, vertebrae, etc., we speak of solitary plasmacytoma of the bone (SBP), while EMP, as a localization, is frequent in the nasal cavities and in the nasopharynx.
The mean age of patients with SBP or EMP, with a male–female ratio of SP 2:1, is 55 years.
With advancing age, the incidence rate increases exponentially while maintaining a lower incidence compared to multiple myeloma (MM).
In the black population, the impact of the SP is about 30% higher than that in the white population [1].
A better definition of the tumor mass can be obtained with the fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) or positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) [2] that allows direct visualization of the tumor burden; combining the morphological images of the CT scan with a particular molecular process (depending on the radiopharmaceutical injected such as a glucose analogue, which is the most widely used) allows to evaluate the response to treatment and the prognosis of different cancers.
The limit of the skeletal X-ray investigation of the whole body (WBXR) is represented by showing only osteolysis related to the presence of MM cells, while the FDG-PET allows to view the tumor load.
Obviously, this investigation is not without limitations; one of which is the false -negative or false-positive result, which is possible if inflammatory or infectious processes are in progress or if subcentimetric lesions cannot be detected by FDG-PET.
Aid is provided by the combined CT component, which provides higher resolution bone images than those obtained with normal radiography.
Through a direct anatomical correlation of FDG uptake foci.
The systematic review reported by Van Lammeren-Venema et al. [3] also compared FDG-PET and FDG-PET/CT with WBXR and CT.
The detection rate of FDG-PET/CT, compared with WBXR, ranged from 1.27 to 1.45; specificity was low (29–50%) and sensitivity ranged from 67 to 100% when using WBXR as a reference test. Regelink et al. mentioned that FDG-PET underestimates rib lesions, as they could be detected by low-dose CT integrated into PET.
A limitation, to date not resolved, is the detection of cranial lesions that FDG-PET/CT does not detect due to the high absorption of FDG in the brain, while the identification of extramedullary disease was satisfactory with FDG-PET; this has been reported consistently in studies comparing FDG-PET/CT with WBXR.
In addition to FDG that is specific to glucose metabolism, other PET radiopharmaceuticals have been developed to visualize various biological processes; among these, we can mention 18F fluoride being reevaluated for skeletal imaging and the 11C-methionine amino acid analogue and 11C-choline, an analogue precursor of phosphatidylcholine, one of the main constituents of membrane lipids, which to date have only been evaluated in small series of patients with MM.
Multiple myeloma [4] is a clonal malignant plasma cell neoplasm that despite the development of new therapies that have improved the depth and duration of responses as well as survival, to date, remains incurable in most cases for many patients.
Understanding the biology of disease, technological advances, such as next-generation sequencing techniques, have shown that the disease is genetically extremely heterogeneous, and this has allowed us to stratify patients, based on risk, into different disease groups. This can significantly translate into the choice of therapy and clinical results.
Simultaneously with these new acquisitions, the therapeutic scenario has been completely revolutionized by the discovery of new therapeutic agents, including immunomodulatory drugs (IMiDs) such as lenalidomide and pomalidomide; proteasome inhibitors (PIs) including bortezomib, carfilzomib and ixazomib; monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) including daratumumab and elotuzumab; and histone deacetylase inhibitors such as panobinostat, which have helped improve the overall survival of patients with this disease.
The use of many new therapeutic agents, in addition to increasing therapeutic choices, has also changed our therapeutic reference models; in fact, over the years, the treatment of patients with this pathology has mainly been based on high-dose radiation, but today, in consideration of the new drugs available to us, studies are needed to evaluate their use and benefit also in this category of high-risk patients.
A 58-year-old woman was diagnosed asymptomatic Multiple Myeloma Ig G K, stage II (International staging system - ISS).
She first presented in March 2018 because about 15 days before she was admitted to the nephrology department for acute renal failure, macrohematuria, hydronephrosis, and renal colic.
For confirmation during hospitalization, the laboratory tests of the monoclonal component was sent to our clinic.
Physical examination was negative.
Blood chemistry tests revealed that protein electrophoresis showed a monoclonal spike (M spike) 1 g/dl: IgG tests 1000 mg/dl, IgM 34 mg/dl, IgA 44 mg/dl, serum kappa light chains 294 mg/dl, serum lambda light chains 24 mg/dl, urine kappa light chains 187 mg/L, urine lambda light chains <4.7 mg/dl, FLC ratio 58, beta 2 microglobulin: 4.3 mg/L, Hb 13 g/dl, normal creatinine and calcium, proteinuria 0.8 g/24 h, and microalbuminuria 68 mg/L.
At the evaluation of the bone biopsy, plasma cell clonality was equal to 10–40%. At the phenotypic analysis and morphological examination, plasma cell infiltrate was equal to 24% (Table 1).
Antigens studied: CD19, CD38, CD 138, CD 56, CD 45 Result Clonal myeloma plasma cells: CD 138+ CD 38++ CD19-CD56+ bright CD 45 neg = 24% |
Phenotypic analysis of bone biopsy.
The karyotype analysis was 46 XX normal karyotype, and the FISH study showed TP53 in 35% of the nuclei analyzed.
Whole-body MRI showed no bone lesions, and the total body CT was negative.
Therefore, we asked the patient to visit the clinic for periodic checks.
After one year from diagnosis, in May 2019, she reported back pain for which blood tests and instrumental tests TB CT and MRI were performed.
The total body CT showed the following: “In a context of widespread reduction in calcium content, suspicious osteostructural alterations due to secondary disease localization of the skeletal segments included in the study volume are not appreciated. Apex cuneiform deformation of the anterior trunk of D12, widespread spondyloarthrosis manifestations. No focal tomodensitometric alterations of current pathological significance affecting the lung parenchyma bilaterally. Non-ilo-mediastinal and laterocervical lymphadenomegaly. Non-pleural-pericardial effusion. No gross changes affecting the abdominal parenchymatous organs, distended bladder with regular walls, no adenomegaly at the level of the main abdominal-pelvic lymph node stations, no free abdominal fluid.”
Unlike the CT, the MRI of the abdomen showed the following: “collapse of D12 and pathological tissue with a paravertebral site with abdominal tissue formation that concentrically englobes the aorta and pleural effusion.”
The MRI of dorsal and lumbar spine showed the following: “at the level of the interbody space D11–D12, presence of posterior median disc protrusion, at the level of the interbody space D12–L1, presence of protrusion of the annulus fibrosus with posterior median expression.”
The spinal cord presents regular morphology and no pathological signal.
At the level of the interbody space L3-L4 and L5-S1, there was the presence of disc protrusion.
The body of D12 appears crushed and deformed into a wedge; the vertebral body itself exhibits a hypointense signal in the images in T1 as from the presence of spongiosa edema in vertebral distress, probably of a recently established post traumatic type; also, at the dorsal level, it is possible to document the presence of a sleeve that seems to envelop the vertebral structures, in the front and in the antero-lateral position bilaterally, and that extends from D12 to D5.
From the blood tests, the following data were gathered: lipase increase 995 U/L, monoclonal component: 2.6 gr/dl, creatinine 1 mg/dl, calcium 9.8 mg/dl, LDH 172 U/l, HB 12.49 g/dl, protein in the urine: 1, 4 g/24/h, urine kappa light chains 604 mg/L, beta 2 microglobulin 5.2 mg/dl, creatinine clearance 68 mm/h, serum K light chains 570 mg/dl, creatinine clearance 63 ml/min, microalbuminuria 98 mg/L, immunoglobulins IgG 1950 mg/dl, IgA immunoglobulins 20 mg/dL, IgM immunoglobulins 22 mg/dL.
The radiotherapy evaluation did not indicate treatment and she was treated with VTD (bortezomib 1.3 mg/m2 days 1, 4, 8, 11, thalidomide 100 mg/day, and dexamethasone 40 mg days 1, 4, 8, 11) for six cycles, obtaining only temporary biochemical partial response but extramedullary progression with increased pleural effusion.
The total body PET/CT that was performed (3.12.19) highlighted the following: “presence of a very large area of net and inhomogeneous pathological hyperaccumulation of radio glucose coinciding with dense tissue on the co-registration CT, which is extended, in front of the rachis, from the first dorsal metamers (D3/D4) to the upper limiting of the soma of L5, displacing and, at times, partially incorporating the posterior mediastinal structures (esophagus) along its course, and, more completely, the large thoraco-abdominal vessels up to the aorto-iliac “carrefour,” with SUV max up to 9.7.”
A circumscribed and apparently more isolated area of pathological hyperaccumulation is observed at the height of the right lung apex, in the paravertebral, at the level of D2.
Isolated pathological hyperaccumulations of radioglucose are found in the anterior mediastinum, coinciding with pleuro-pericardial pseudonodulation, at the height of the posterior aspect of the xiphoid, in the right parasternal in the context of the chest wall, in the form of two circumscribed areas of which the most voluminous with standardized uptake value max up to 7.0 and the other smaller max up to 5.7.
On an ancillary basis, the coregistration CT images include extensive pleural effusion on the right and relatively more modest on the left (Table 2).
Image of PET.
We also decided to perform the phenotypic analysis on peripheral blood that showed plasma cell equal to 1.6%* (Table 3).
Antigens studied: CD19, CD 20, CD 138, CD38, CD 56, CD 45, intracytoplasmatic chains kappa and lambda Result Mature lymphocytes = 8,6% Clonal myeloma plasma cells: CD 138+ CD 38++CD19-CD56+ bright, CD 45 low with kappa clonal restriction = 1.6% |
Phenotypic analysis on peripheral blood.
She repeated bone marrow biopsy that showed plasma cell infiltration on morphological examination equal to 70%, while the phenotypic analysis on bone marrow blood showed plasma cell CD138+ CD38++ CD19- CD56+ bright CD45 low with clonal kappa restriction of intracytoplasmic = 13%* (Table 4).
Antigens studied: CD19, CD 138, CD38, CD 56, chains kappa and lambda Result Mature lymphocytes = 20% Clonal myeloma plasma cells: CD 138+ CD 38++CD19-CD56+ bright, CD 45 low with kappa clonal restriction = 13% |
Phenotypic analysis on bone marrow blood.
Therefore, we decided to subject the patient to therapy with cyclophosphamide (1.5 gr/die, day 1 and day 3) for debulking plus evacuative thoracentesis; unfortunately, we did not perform phenotypic study of the pleural fluid, and subsequently, we started therapy with daratumumab, lenalidomide, and dexamethasone (daratumumab was initiated at the standard dose of 16 mg/kg for week IV for 4 infusions plus lenalidomide 25 mg daily for 21 of 28 days, and dexamethasone 40 mg on week (Dara Rd).
The treatment was well tolerated and no pulmonary or hematological adverse events occurred.
After one cycle of Dara Rd. therapy, for new reappearance of pleural effusion, the patient underwent thoracentesis, this time by performing the phenotypic analysis (Table 5).
Antigens studied: CD3, CD3/4, CD 3/CD8, CD19, CD16–56, CD117, CD 138, CD38, CD45, intracytoplasmatic chains kappa and lambda Result Mature lymphocytes = 60% Clonal myeloma plasma cells: CD 138+ CD 38-, CD56+, CD 45 + heterogeneous, cy kappa + = 10% |
Phenotypic analysis of pleural effusion.
While the plasma cells are absent for the reevaluation of the phenotypic study on peripheral blood, we continued the treatment until the fourth cycle.
After four cycles of therapy, we repeated PET/CT that was unfortunately compatible with persistence of disease.
The PET/CT showed persistence of a large area of hyperaccumulation of the tracer in coincidence of pathological tissue from D3 to L5 that incorporates the posterior mediastinal structures in its course.
Persistence of pathological accumulation in the anterior mediastinum, in the pleuro-pericardial region in increase compared to the previous examination, extending from the xiphoid to the anterior costophrenic recess, area of hyperaccumulation in the right parasternal and at the level of the mediastinal pleura close to the ascending aorta.
Despite the progression of disease, the CD38 negativity remained to the phenotypic reevaluation of the pleural fluid (Table 6).
Antigens studied: CD 19, CD 56, CD 138, CD38, CD45, cyVS38c. RESULT Mature lymphocytes = 40% Clonal myeloma plasma cells: CD 138+ CD 38-*, CD56 + bright, cyvs38c+, CD 19- = 7.5% *Therapy with Daratumumab |
Phenotypic analysis of pleural effusion.
CD38 [5] is a transmembrane glycoprotein that is highly expressed on multiple myeloma cells and on normal lymphoid and myeloid cells albeit at low levels.
The mechanism of action is that of an ectoenzyme involved in the regulation of the intracytoplasmic concentration of calcium and of the catabolism of extracellular nucleotides.
The anti-CD38 fully human IgG1-k monoclonal antibody, daratumumab, carries out its cytotoxic effect through a series of mechanisms following binding to CD38, including antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC), complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), antibody-dependent cell-mediated phagocytosis (ADCP), and direct induction of apoptosis, which are its main mechanisms of action.
Another effect of daratumumab recently described is its immunomodulatory action.
A phase I/II dose escalation study in 104 patients with relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma evaluated the safety of daratumumab.
The most common adverse events were grade 3 or 4 pneumonia and thrombocytopenia.
Two phase [5] III studies are evaluating patients with relapsed or refractory disease; one of these studies is comparing daratumumab plus bortezomib and dexamethasone versus bortezomib and dexamethasone and the other is comparing daratumumab plus lenalidomide and dexamethasone versus lenalidomide and dexamethasone.
Pending the final results of these studies, however, we want to underline how the CASTOR study (Velcade/dex vs. Dara/Velcade/dex) was interrupted early because at an interim analysis the study reached its final point with a ratio of very impressive risk of 0.39 in favor of the daratumumab arm. The POLLUX study (Rev/dex vs. Dara/Rev/dex) also showed similarly impressive results with a hazard ratio of 0.37 in favor of the Dara arm. Two further phase III studies are ongoing in patients with previously untreated multiple myeloma; one is comparing daratumumab plus bortezomib, melphalan, and prednisone with bortezomib, melphalan, and prednisone), and the other is evaluating daratumumab plus lenalidomide and dexamethasone with lenalidomide and dexamethasone.
We wanted to report this clinical case only to hypothesize a possible role of daratumumab in the treatment of extramedullary recurrences and above all its possible overcoming of the pleural barrier.
The selection of resistant clones is known in the course of myeloma recurrence, but the negativity/masking of CD 38 in the pleural fluid could demonstrate the overcoming of the pleural barrier by daratumumab.
Obviously we have no previous data, but the phenotypic analysis of the marrow and peripheral blood is the same for the other antigens evaluated.
Most likely, we should have performed a PET/CT at the onset of staging for a better evaluation of any extramedullary localization and perhaps choose different or more aggressive therapeutic treatments.
Molecular biology studies certainly in the near future will help us better understand which forms are most at risk and perhaps will guide us better in therapeutic choices.
But to date, the treatment of extramedullary plasmacytoma remains a therapeutic challenge even in the era of new drugs.
Despite significant progress in the treatment of multiple myeloma, the disease remains incurable in a vast majority of patients.
The approval of promising new agents will undoubtedly improve outcomes for myeloma patients.
Daratumumab is a monoclonal antibody that is now approved for treatment of multiple myeloma patients and has shown significant response in the real-world setting.
Our case illustrates the potential to overcome the pleural membrane and therefore a possible role also in the treatment of extramedullary localizations of multiple myeloma.
We thank the nursing staff of the Department of Hematology, Hospital San Giuseppe Moscati, Taranto, Italy, who collaborated in the production of this work and especially:
Luciana Angela Talo for the patient management and Elisabetta Leggieri and Tamburrano Addolorata for the therapy management.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"87",type:"subseries",title:"Economics",keywords:"Globalization, Economic Integration, Growth and Development, International Trade, Environmental Development, Developed Countries, Developing Countries, Technical Innovation, Knowledge Management, Political Economy Analysis, Banking and Financial Markets",scope:"
\r\n\tThe topic on Economics is designed to disseminate knowledge around broad global economic issues. Original submissions will be accepted in English for applied and theoretical articles, case studies and reviews about the specific challenges and opportunities faced by the economies and markets around the world. The authors are encouraged to apply rigorous economic analysis with significant policy implications for developed and developing countries. Examples of subjects of interest will include, but are not limited to globalization, economic integration, growth and development, international trade, environmental development, country specific comparative analysis, technical innovation and knowledge management, political economy analysis, and banking and financial markets.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11971,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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