\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5160",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications",title:"Bioinformatics",subtitle:"Updated Features and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"An interdisciplinary bioinformatics science aims to develop methodology and analysis tools to explore large-volume of biological data using conventional and modern computer science, statistics, and mathematics, as well as pattern recognition, reconstruction, machine learning, simulation and iterative approaches, molecular modeling, folding, networking, and artificial intelligence. Written by international team of life scientists, this Bioinformatics book provides some updates on bioinformatics methods, resources, approaches, and genome analysis tools useful for molecular sciences, medicine and drug designs, as well as plant sciences and agriculture. I trust chapters of this book should provide advanced knowledge for university students, life science researchers, and interested readers on some latest developments in the bioinformatics field.",isbn:"978-953-51-2547-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2546-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4192-1",doi:"10.5772/61421",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",numberOfPages:268,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"885e548bddcf26081fdaf0d9f08c600c",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",publishedDate:"July 27th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5160.jpg",numberOfDownloads:27920,numberOfWosCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitations:22,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:33,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:80,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 5th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 26th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 30th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 29th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 29th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213344/images/system/213344.jpg",biography:'Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov received a BS in Biotechnology from the National University, California, in 1997, an MS in Plant Breeding from Texas A&M University in 2001, and a Ph.D. in Molecular Genetics, DSc in Genetics, and a full professorship in Molecular Genetics and Molecular Biotechnology from the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan in 2002, 2009, and 2011, respectively. He founded the Center of Genomics and Bioinformatics of Uzbekistan in 2012. He received the 2010 prize from The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) and \\"ICAC Cotton Researcher of the Year 2013\\" for his outstanding contribution to cotton genomics and biotechnology. He was elected as a fellow to TWAS in 2014 and as a member of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan in 2017. In the same year, he was appointed Minister of Innovative Development of Uzbekistan.',institutionString:"Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"13",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"13",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"384",title:"Chemical Biology",slug:"chemical-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"50934",title:"Bioinformatics: Basics, Development, and Future",doi:"10.5772/63817",slug:"bioinformatics-basics-development-and-future",totalDownloads:5515,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary scientific field of life sciences. Bioinformatics research and application include the analysis of molecular sequence and genomics data; genome annotation, gene/protein prediction, and expression profiling; molecular folding, modeling, and design; building biological networks; development of databases and data management systems; development of software and analysis tools; bioinformatics services and workflow; mining of biomedical literature and text; and bioinformatics education and training. Astronomical accumulation of genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics data as well as a need for their storage, analysis, annotation, organization, systematization, and integration into biological networks and database systems were the main driving forces for the emergence and development of bioinformatics. Current critical needs for bioinformatics among others highlighted in this chapter, however, are to understand basics and specifics of bioinformatics as well as to prepare new generation scientists and specialists with integrated, interdisciplinary, and multilingual knowledge who can use modern bioinformatics resources powered with sophisticated operating systems, software, and database/networking technologies. In this introductory chapter, I aim to give an overall picture on basics and developments of the bioinformatics field for readers with some future perspectives, highlighting chapters published in this book.",signatures:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50934",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50934",authors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],corrections:null},{id:"50605",title:"A Bioinformatics Method for the Production of Antibody-Drug Conjugates Through Site-Specific Cysteine Conjugation",doi:"10.5772/62747",slug:"a-bioinformatics-method-for-the-production-of-antibody-drug-conjugates-through-site-specific-cystein",totalDownloads:1832,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) have emerged as a promising class of targeted anticancer therapy, and it is distinguished from traditional chemotherapeutic approaches by its potential to kill cancer cells with limited side effects. Site-specific conjugation is one of the current challenges in ADC development because it allows for controlled conjugation and production of homogeneous ADCs. This chapter describes a computational method for the generation of antibody-drug conjugates as PDB files through site-specific cysteine conjugation, given the PDB files of a drug, a linker, and an antibody. The drug and linker are reconfigured using the rotation and translation functions of an affine transformation, which is brought in appropriate positions for the bonds to occur between the three molecules. The hydrogen and disulfide bonds are employed to connect the linker and drug as well as the linker with the antibody, respectively. Examples of conjugates produced with the presented method have been demonstrated.",signatures:"Arianna Filntisi, Dimitrios Vlachakis and George K. Matsopoulos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50605",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50605",authors:[{id:"2912",title:"Ass. Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Matsopoulos",slug:"george-matsopoulos",fullName:"George Matsopoulos"},{id:"179110",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",surname:"Vlachakis",slug:"dimitrios-vlachakis",fullName:"Dimitrios Vlachakis"},{id:"185008",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Arianna",surname:"Filntisi",slug:"arianna-filntisi",fullName:"Arianna Filntisi"}],corrections:null},{id:"51082",title:"Databases and Algorithms in Allergen Informatics",doi:"10.5772/63083",slug:"databases-and-algorithms-in-allergen-informatics",totalDownloads:1999,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Allergic diseases are considered as one of the major health problems worldwide due to their increasing prevalence. Advancements in genomic, proteomic, and analytical techniques have resulted in considerable progress in the field of allergology, which has led to accumulation of huge amount of data. Allergen bioinformatics comprises allergen-related data resources and computational methods/tools, which deal with an efficient archival, management, and analysis of allergological data. Significant work has been done in the area of allergen bioinformatics that has proven pivotal for the development and progress of this field. In this chapter, we describe the current status of databases and algorithms, encompassing the field of allergen bioinformatics by examining work carried out thus far with respect to features such as allergens and allergenicity, allergen databases, algorithms/tools for allergen/allergenicity prediction, allergen epitope prediction, and allergenic cross-reactivity assessment. This chapter illustrates concepts and algorithms in allergen bioinformatics, as well as it outlines the key areas for potential development in allergology field.",signatures:"Kiran Kadam, Sangeeta Sawant, V.K. Jayaraman and Urmila\nKulkarni-Kale",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51082",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51082",authors:[{id:"37914",title:"Dr.",name:"Urmila",surname:"Kulkarni-Kale",slug:"urmila-kulkarni-kale",fullName:"Urmila Kulkarni-Kale"},{id:"185630",title:"Mr.",name:"Kiran",surname:"Kadam",slug:"kiran-kadam",fullName:"Kiran Kadam"},{id:"185631",title:"Dr.",name:"Sangeeta",surname:"Sawant",slug:"sangeeta-sawant",fullName:"Sangeeta Sawant"},{id:"185632",title:"Dr.",name:"V. K.",surname:"Jayaraman",slug:"v.-k.-jayaraman",fullName:"V. K. Jayaraman"}],corrections:null},{id:"50206",title:"Bioinformatics for Membrane Lipid Simulations: Models, Computational Methods, and Web Server Tools",doi:"10.5772/62576",slug:"bioinformatics-for-membrane-lipid-simulations-models-computational-methods-and-web-server-tools",totalDownloads:2402,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biological membranes are complex environments consisting of different types of lipids and membrane proteins. The structure of a lipid bilayer is typically difficult to study because the membrane liquid crystalline state is made up of multiple disordered lipid molecules. This complicates the description of the lipid membrane properties by the conformation of any single lipid molecule. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have been used extensively to investigate properties of membrane lipids, lipid vesicles, and membrane protein systems. All-atom membrane models can elucidate detailed contacts between membrane proteins and its surrounding lipids, while united-atom and coarse-grained description have allowed larger models and longer timescales up to microsecond mark to be probed. Additionally, membrane models with mixed phospholipids and lipopolysaccharide content have made it possible to model improved views of biological membranes. Here, we present an overview of commonly used lipid force fields by the biosimulation community, useful tools for membrane MD simulations, and recent advances in membrane simulations.",signatures:"S. W. Leong, T. S. Lim and Y. S. Choong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50206",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50206",authors:[{id:"176655",title:"Dr.",name:"Theam Soon",surname:"Lim",slug:"theam-soon-lim",fullName:"Theam Soon Lim"},{id:"179481",title:"Dr.",name:"Yee Siew",surname:"Choong",slug:"yee-siew-choong",fullName:"Yee Siew Choong"},{id:"184793",title:"Ms.",name:"Siew Wen",surname:"Leong",slug:"siew-wen-leong",fullName:"Siew Wen Leong"}],corrections:null},{id:"51736",title:"Bioinformatics Approaches for Predicting Kinase–Substrate Relationships",doi:"10.5772/63761",slug:"bioinformatics-approaches-for-predicting-kinase-substrate-relationships",totalDownloads:1890,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Protein phosphorylation, catalyzed by protein kinases, is the main posttranslational modification in eukaryotes, regulating essential aspects of cellular function. Using mass spectrometry techniques, a profound knowledge has been achieved in the localization of phosphorylated residues at proteomic scale. Although it is still largely unknown, the protein kinases are responsible for such modifications. To fill this gap, many computational algorithms have been developed, which are capable to predict kinase–substrate relationships. The greatest difficulty for these approaches is to model the complex nature that determines kinase–substrate specificity. The vast majority of predictors is based on the linear primary sequence pattern that surrounds phosphorylation sites. However, in the intracellular environment the protein kinase specificity is influenced by contextual factors, such as protein–protein interactions, substrates co-expression patterns, and subcellular localization. Only recently, the development of phosphorylation predictors has begun to incorporate these variables, significantly improving specificity of these methods. An accurate modeling of kinase–substrate relationships could be the greatest contribution of bioinformatics to understand physiological cell signaling and its pathological impairment.",signatures:"Daniel A. Bórquez and Christian González-Billault",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51736",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51736",authors:[{id:"155594",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Gonzalez-Billault",slug:"christian-gonzalez-billault",fullName:"Christian Gonzalez-Billault"}],corrections:null},{id:"50574",title:"Bioinformatics for RNA‐Seq Data Analysis",doi:"10.5772/63267",slug:"bioinformatics-for-rna-seq-data-analysis",totalDownloads:5943,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"While RNA sequencing (RNA‐seq) has become increasingly popular for transcriptome profiling, the analysis of the massive amount of data generated by large‐scale RNA‐seq still remains a challenge. RNA‐seq data analyses typically consist of (1) accurate mapping of millions of short sequencing reads to a reference genome, including the identification of splicing events; (2) quantifying expression levels of genes, transcripts, and exons; (3) differential analysis of gene expression among different biological conditions; and (4) biological interpretation of differentially expressed genes. Despite the fact that multiple algorithms pertinent to basic analyses have been developed, there are still a variety of unresolved questions. In this chapter, we review the main tools and algorithms currently available for RNA‐seq data analyses, and our goal is to help RNA‐seq data analysts to make an informed choice of tools in practical RNA‐seq data analysis. In the meantime, RNA‐seq is evolving rapidly, and newer sequencing technologies are briefly introduced, including stranded RNA‐seq, targeted RNA‐seq, and single‐cell RNA‐seq.",signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Baohong Zhang, Ying Zhang, William Gordon,\nSarah Du, Theresa Paradis, Michael Vincent and David von Schack",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50574",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50574",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}],corrections:null},{id:"51084",title:"Application of Bioinformatics Methodologies in the Fields of Skin Biology and Dermatology",doi:"10.5772/63799",slug:"application-of-bioinformatics-methodologies-in-the-fields-of-skin-biology-and-dermatology",totalDownloads:1808,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bioinformatics is a research field that uses computer‐based tools to investigate life sciences questions employing “big data” results from large‐scale DNA sequencing, whole genomes, transcriptomes, metabolomes, populations, and biological systems, which can only be comprehensively viewed in silico. The epidermis was among the earliest targets of bioinformatics studies because it represents one of the most accessible targets for research. An additional advantage of working with the epidermis is that the sample can even be recovered using tape stripping, an easy, noninvasive protocol. Consequently, bioinformatics methods in the fields of skin biology and dermatology generated a fairly large volume of bioinformatics data, which led us to originate the term “skinomics.” Skinomics data are directed toward epidermal differentiation, malignancies, inflammation, allergens, and irritants, the effects of ultraviolet (UV) light, wound healing, the microbiome, stem cells, etc. Cultures of cutaneous cell types, keratinocytes, fibroblasts, melanocytes, etc., as well as skin from human volunteers and from animal models, have been extensively experimented on. Here, we review the development of the skinomics, its methodology, current achievements, and future potentials.",signatures:"Sidra Younis, Valeriia Shnayder and Miroslav Blumenberg",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51084",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51084",authors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"},{id:"184789",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",surname:"Younis",slug:"sidra-younis",fullName:"Sidra Younis"},{id:"184790",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeriia",surname:"Shnayder",slug:"valeriia-shnayder",fullName:"Valeriia Shnayder"}],corrections:null},{id:"50624",title:"The Study of Hepatitis B Virus Using Bioinformatics",doi:"10.5772/63076",slug:"the-study-of-hepatitis-b-virus-using-bioinformatics",totalDownloads:2587,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Hepatitis refers to the inflammation of the liver. A major cause of hepatitis is the hepatotropic virus, hepatitis B virus (HBV). Annually, more than 786,000 people die as a result of the clinical manifestations of HBV infection, which include cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Sequence heterogeneity is a feature of HBV, because the viral-encoded polymerase lacks proof-reading ability. HBV has been classified into nine genotypes, A to I, with a putative 10th genotype, “J,” isolated from a single individual. Comparative analysis of HBV strains from various geographic regions of the world and from different eras can shed light on the origin, evolution, transmission and response to anti-HBV preventative, and treatment measures. Bioinformatics tools and databases have been used to better understand HBV mutations and how they develop, especially in response to antiviral therapy and vaccination. Despite its small genome size of ~3.2 kb, HBV presents several bioinformatic challenges, which include the circular genome, the overlapping open reading frames, and the different genome lengths of the genotypes. Thus, bioinformatics tools and databases have been developed to facilitate the study of HBV.",signatures:"Trevor Graham Bell and Anna Kramvis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50624",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50624",authors:[{id:"180681",title:"Dr.",name:"Trevor",surname:"Bell",slug:"trevor-bell",fullName:"Trevor Bell"},{id:"181939",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"Kramvis",slug:"anna-kramvis",fullName:"Anna Kramvis"}],corrections:null},{id:"51698",title:"Bioinformatics: A Way Forward to Explore “Plant Omics”",doi:"10.5772/64043",slug:"bioinformatics-a-way-forward-to-explore-plant-omics-",totalDownloads:1995,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bioinformatics, a computer-assisted science aiming at managing a huge volume of genomic data, is an emerging discipline that combines the power of computers, mathematical algorithms, and statistical concepts to solve multiple genetic/biological puzzles. This science has progressed parallel to the evolution of genome-sequencing tools, for example, the next-generation sequencing technologies, that resulted in arranging and analyzing the genome-sequencing information of large genomes. Synergism of “plant omics” and bioinformatics set a firm foundation for deducing ancestral karyotype of multiple plant families, predicting genes, etc. Second, the huge genomic data can be assembled to acquire maximum information from a voluminous “omics” data. The science of bioinformatics is handicapped due to lack of appropriate computational procedures in assembling sequencing reads of the homologs occurring in complex genomes like cotton (2n = 4x = 52), wheat (2n = 6x = 42), etc., and shortage of multidisciplinary-oriented trained manpower. In addition, the rapid expansion of sequencing data restricts the potential of acquisitioning, storing, distributing, and analyzing the genomic information. In future, inventions of high-tech computational tools and skills together with improved biological expertise would provide better insight into the genomes, and this information would be helpful in sustaining crop productivities on this planet.",signatures:"Mehboob-ur- Rahman, Tayyaba Shaheen, Mahmood-ur- Rahman,\nMuhammad Atif Iqbal and Yusuf Zafar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51698",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51698",authors:[{id:"103521",title:"Dr.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Zafar",slug:"yusuf-zafar",fullName:"Yusuf Zafar"},{id:"169707",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehboob-Ur-",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mehboob-ur-rahman",fullName:"Mehboob-Ur- Rahman"},{id:"183690",title:"Dr.",name:"M Atif",surname:"Iqbal",slug:"m-atif-iqbal",fullName:"M Atif Iqbal"},{id:"185474",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyaba",surname:"Shaheen",slug:"tayyaba-shaheen",fullName:"Tayyaba Shaheen"},{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],corrections:null},{id:"51541",title:"Bioinformatics Tools and Genomic Resources Available in Understanding the Structure and Function of Gossypium",doi:"10.5772/64325",slug:"bioinformatics-tools-and-genomic-resources-available-in-understanding-the-structure-and-function-of-",totalDownloads:1952,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cotton is economically and evolutionarily important crop for its fiber. In order to improve fiber quality and yield, and to exploit the natural genetic potential inherent in genotypes, understanding genome structure and function of cultivated cotton is important. In order to achieve this, a functional understanding of bioinformatics resources such as databases, software solutions, and analysis tools is required. But currently, there are very few unified reports on bioinformatics tools and even fewer repositories to access cotton genomic information. Also, resourceful developers and bioinformatics scientists actively addressing complex genomic challenges in cotton genomes are much in need. The primary goal of this chapter is to provide a review of such tools and resources for analyzing the structure and function of the cotton genome with preferential emphasis on this complex and economically important plant species. This discourse begins with a description of concurrent advances in high‐throughput genome sequencing and bioinformatics analyses and focuses on four major sections covering bioinformatics tools and resources for analysis of: (1) genomes; (2) transcriptomes; (3) small RNAs; and (4) epigenomes. In each section, recent advances in cotton have been discussed. Cotton genome sequencing and annotation efforts are outlined within these sections. This review discusses the availability of genome information of both diploid and tetraploid species that have impelled cotton genome research into the post‐genomics era, opening new avenues for exploring regulatory mechanisms associated with fine‐tuning of gene expression of fiber‐related genes. Finally, the potential impacts of these rapid advances, especially the challenges in handling and analyzing the large datasets are discussed.",signatures:"Venkateswara R. Sripathi, Ramesh Buyyarapu, Siva P. Kumpatla,\nAbreeotta J. Williams, Seloame T. Nyaku, Yonathan Tilahun, Venu\nKalavacharla and Govind C. Sharma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51541",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51541",authors:[{id:"112738",title:"Dr.",name:"Venu",surname:"Kalavacharla",slug:"venu-kalavacharla",fullName:"Venu Kalavacharla"},{id:"112839",title:"Dr.",name:"Siva Prasad",surname:"Kumpatla",slug:"siva-prasad-kumpatla",fullName:"Siva Prasad Kumpatla"},{id:"124832",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramesh",surname:"Buyyarapu",slug:"ramesh-buyyarapu",fullName:"Ramesh Buyyarapu"},{id:"180652",title:"Dr.",name:"Venkateswara",surname:"Sripathi",slug:"venkateswara-sripathi",fullName:"Venkateswara Sripathi"},{id:"180653",title:"Dr.",name:"Govind",surname:"Sharma",slug:"govind-sharma",fullName:"Govind Sharma"},{id:"185613",title:"Dr.",name:"Abreotta",surname:"Williams",slug:"abreotta-williams",fullName:"Abreotta Williams"},{id:"185614",title:"Dr.",name:"Seloame",surname:"Nyaku",slug:"seloame-nyaku",fullName:"Seloame Nyaku"},{id:"185615",title:"Dr.",name:"Yonathan",surname:"Tilahun",slug:"yonathan-tilahun",fullName:"Yonathan Tilahun"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"880",title:"Plant Breeding",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"00fb30196097697f0e1211ce27ba426d",slug:"plant-breeding",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. 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\r\n\tMetamaterials (the name originating from the Greek word μετά (meta) = "beyond" and the Latin word materia = "matter" or "material") are the class of materials designed to possess various properties not found in naturally occurring materials. Metamaterials are constructed from assemblies of multiple elements designed from versatile composite materials. These assemblies are usually arranged in repeating patterns, which have dimension scales smaller than the wavelengths of the phenomena these materials are designed to influence.
\r\n\tThe properties of metamaterials are designed not from the properties of their base materials, but rather from the metamaterial's newly designed structures. The precise shapes, geometries, sizes, orientations, and arrangements of metamaterial composing elements render metamaterials versatile ‘smart’ properties related to manipulating electromagnetic waves, by blocking, absorbing, enhancing, or bending waves of specific wavelengths. This allows achieving benefits extending far beyond what could be achieved by employing conventional materials.
\r\n\tMetamaterials have broad and diverse potential applications including optical filters, medical devices, remote aerospace devices and materials, sensors, infrastructure monitoring, highly effective management of solar power, high-frequency battlefield communication, lenses for high-gain antennas, shielding structures to prevent earthquake damage, acoustic materials, etc. Metamaterial research area is highly interdisciplinary: it involves electrical engineering, electromagnetics, classical optics, studies in the solid-state physics field, antenna engineering, optoelectronics, material science, nanoscience and nanotechnology, semiconductor design, and even can involve computational chemistry.
The PID (Proportional Integral Differential) algorithm is the most popular feedback controller used within the process industries. It has been successfully used for over 50 years. It is a robust easily understood algorithm that can provide excellent control performance despite the varied dynamic characteristics of process plant. It is designed to generate an output that causes some corrective effort to be applied to a process so as to drive a measurable process variable towards a desired value, known as the set point. The concept is based (as shown in Figure 1) on the re-input of the system own output according to certain laws (hence the name “feedback”). It is desired for the system output to follow the set point. All feedback controllers determine their output by observing the difference, called error, between the set point and the actual process variable measurement. The PID looks at (a) the current value of the error, (b) the integral of the error over a recent time interval, and (c) the current derivative of the error signal to determine not only how much of a correction to apply, but for how long. Each of those three quantities are multiplied by a (tuning constant) and added together. Thus the PID output is a weighted sum. Depending on the application one may want a faster convergence speed or a lower overshoot. By adjusting the weighting constants, Kp, Ki, and Kd, the PID is set to give the most desired performance.
Typical closed loop control system.
As a result of enormous development in microcomputer technology, analog controllers have been replaced by digital controllers either in small or large industry. It is now a common practice to implement PID controllers in its digital version, which means that they operate in discrete time domain and deal with analog signals quantized in a limited number of levels. The trend toward digital rather than analog control is mainly due to: (1) versatility where programs can be easily modified or completely changed, (2) sophistication where advanced control laws could be implemented, (3) cost effectiveness where microcontrollers are available at very low costs compared to PLCs, industrial computers, RTUs or DCS. A typical digital feedback control system is shown in Figure 2. In digital feedback systems, the controller input and output are digital (sampled) rather than continuous signals. Thus, the continuous signal from the measurement device (sensor/transmitter) is sampled and converted periodically to a digital signal by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). A digital control algorithm is then used to calculate the controller output as a digital signal. Because most final control elements are analog devices, the digital output signal is usually converted to a corresponding analog signal by a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
Digital closed loop based on a microcontroller.
In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the error signal to zero where
where
The three-term PID controller.
where
A straightforward way of deriving a digital version of the parallel form of the PID controller is to replace the integral and derivative terms by finite difference approximations,
where
There are two alternative forms of the digital PID control equation, the position form and the velocity form. Substituting Eqs. (3) and (4) into (2) gives the
where
In the
Note that the summation still begins at
In this study, velocity form is chosen because of the following advantages:
It does not need initialization. The position form requires the initial value of the controller output
It is protected against integral windup. The integral mode of a controller causes its output to continue changing as long as there is a nonzero error. Often the errors cannot be eliminated quickly enough and given enough time they produce larger and larger values for the integral term, which in turn keeps increasing the control action until it is “saturated” (e.g., the valve completely opens or closes). This condition is called
It protects the process against computer failure. With the velocity algorithm one can send out a signal which is used to drive an integrating amplifier or a stepper motor. These devices will retain the last calculated position of the control valve (or other final control element) in case the computer fails, thus avoiding total loss of control of the process.
As mentioned earlier, the implementation is based on a Microchip PIC18F452 microcontroller, where the controller plays the role of the brain of the control system [5]. The right choice of the microcontroller is essential, as it will be the core of the final design. The PIC18F452 from Microchip has been chosen for the following advantages:
Speed: with its maximum internal clock rate of 20 MHz and its 16-bit-wide instruction bus, the CPU can execute most of its instructions at a single machine cycle of four clocks which is equivalent to a 0.2 μs.
Math support: unlike classical microprocessors, the controller in hand has got a hardware multiplier and divider for multiple-bytes, fixed-point numbers and for floating-point numbers so multiplication is carried out in a single instruction.
Flexible timer resources: four independent timers modules support timing measurements and output interval control with a timing resolution as fine as 0.1 μs. Those timers could be used to produce up to three pulse width modulations which could be used for electrical motor control.
Free software tools: Microchip’s Development Package MPLAB® (consisting of assembler, simulator, and user interface) as well as all manuals and application notes are available at no cost from their Web site (www.microchip.com).
Development tool versatility: it supports in-circuit debugger which permits the loading and execution of a user program as well as the use of breakpoints, memory/ register modification, and single stepping.
Build-in ADCs: it has analogue-to-digital converters with 10 bits resolution.
Built-in serial peripheral interface: it has a variety of serial bus interfaces like USART, I2C & SPI.
C programmable: it could be programmed using C language with the use of a variety of built in C libraries developed by microchip.
The PIC18F452 microcontroller is a 40 or 44-pin depending on the package, where in the 40 pins configuration, a dual inline package is used; whereas in the 44 pins configuration, either thin quad flat package or dual flat no leads package is used. Its design is based on Harvard technology where the program and data have different buses. This type of microcontrollers is very cheap, small in size, and could be customized. It could be easily programmed on-line using either assembly language, BASIC or C language. In fact, it is ideal for small application such as the one in hand. The controller has a 24 kbytes of flash memory and 2048 bytes of SDRAM. It also has a 8 × 10 bits analog to digital channels. It also has 5 bidirectional digital ports with 33 inputs/outputs, configured as follows: 3 × 8 digital I/O ports (PORTB, PORTC and PORTD), one six digital I/O port (PORTA) and one three digital I/O port (PORTE). Unfortunately, one of the drawbacks of microcontrollers, it is very seldom to find one with a digital to analog converter. Luckily, they are few manufacturers around including microchip, which make serial DACs which could be programmed through Serial Port Interface (SPI) using only three wires. The PIC18F452 has four timer/counters which could be programmed either as 8 or 16 bit timers/counters. It also has two ports which could be configured either as capture, compare or pulse width modulation (PWM). It has two serial peripheral interfaces: (SPI) and an inter-integrated circuit (I2C). An asynchronous port (USART) is also provided. For the microcontroller to output analogue data, an MCP4921 device is used. The device is a 12-bit buffered single voltage output Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC). The device operates from a single 2.7 V to 5.5 V supply with an SPI compatible Serial Peripheral Interface. The user can configure the full-scale range of the device to be VREF or 2*VREF by setting the gain selection option bit (gain of 1 of 2). The user can shut down the device by setting the Configuration Register bit. In Shutdown mode, most of the internal circuits are turned off for power savings, and the output amplifier is configured to present a known high resistance output load (500 kΩ, typical). The device includes double-buffered registers, allowing synchronous updates of the DAC output using the LDAC pin. The device also incorporates a Power-on Reset (POR) circuit to ensure reliable powerup. The device utilizes a resistive string architecture, with its inherent advantages of low Differential Non-Linearity (DNL) error and fast settling time. The device is specified over the extended temperature range (+125°C). It provides high accuracy and low noise performance for consumer and industrial applications where calibration or compensation of signals (such as temperature, pressure and humidity) is required. The MCP4921 device is available in the PDIP, SOIC, MSOP and DFN packages. Figure 4 shows the chip pin configuration. The MCP4921 device is designed to interface directly with the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) port, which is available on the PIC18F452 microcontroller and supports Mode 0,0 and Mode 1,1. Commands and data are sent to the device via the SDI pin, with data being clocked-in on the rising edge of SCK. The communication is unidirectional; this means the data cannot be read out of the MCP4921. The CS (chip select active low) pin must be held low for the duration of a write command. The write command consists of 16 bits and is used to configure the DAC’s control and data latches. Register shown in Figure 5, details the write command which is loaded into the input register that is used to configure and load the DAC register [6].
MCP4921 pin configuration.
Write command register for MCP4921 (12-bit DAC).
The write command is initiated by driving the CS pin low, followed by clocking the four Configuration bits and the 12 data bits into the SDI pin on the rising edge of SCK. The CS pin is then raised, causing the data to be latched into the DAC’s input register. The MCP4921 utilizes a double-buffered latch structure to allow the analog output to be synchronized with the LDAC pin, if desired. By bringing the LDAC pin down to a low state, the content stored in the DAC’s input register is transferred into the DAC’s output register (VOUT), and VOUT is updated. The write to the MCP4921 device is 16-bit words. Any clocks past the 16th clock will be ignored. The Most Significant 4 bits are Configuration bits. The remaining 12 bits are data bits. No data can be transferred into the device with CS high. This transfer will only occur if 16 clocks have been transferred into the device. If the rising edge of CS occurs prior to that, shifting of data into the input register will be aborted. The most four significant bits are defined as follows:
bit 15 0 = Write to DAC register
1 = Ignore this command
bit 14 BUF: VREF Input Buffer Control bit
1 = Buffered
0 = Unbuffered
bit 13
1 = 1x (VOUT = VREF * D/4096)
0 = 2x (VOUT = 2 * VREF * D/4096)
bit 12
1= Active mode operation. VOUT is available.
0 = Shutdown the device. Analog output is not available.
VOUT pin is connected to 500 kΩ (typical).
This module is designed to display the value of the temperature detected by the temperature sensor and to guide the user in changing the parameters of the controller. The LCD is a 16 × 2 alphanumeric display with the built-in Hitachi 44780 controller and LED backlighting. It works with an 8-bit data bus, which means it will require a total of 11 data lines. Three control lines (connected to port E) plus the 8 lines for the data bus (connected to port D) [7].
The system is design around a stand-alone PIC18F452 controller, where the measured variable (MV) is read through channel0 (pin 2). The MV is subtracted from the set point automatically by the controller. The error is treated by the PIC PID and produces a digital control variable. This control variable is outputted through PIC serial data output pin (SDO pin 24) together with serial clock pin (SCK pin 18) to synchronize the conversion process. For the conversion to take place, the serial DAC chip select (CS) has to be pulled low. The CS is connected to pin RC0. The positive reference voltage is connected to +5 V (pin 6) and the negative reference voltage (pin 7) is tied to zero volt. The analog output is read through pin8 (Vout). This voltage is small to drive an electric motor. This voltage is pulled up to +12 V through the non-inverting operational amplifier (LM358). The Darlington transistor 2SD1409 is used to bust the current. The motor is connected to the emitter follower so that the driving current is sufficient enough to drive the motor. Needless to say that the diode 1N4148 is used to protect the Darlington transistor against any spike due to the change of current. Figure 6 shows the schematic of the system. The LCD is used to display the measured temperature. To manipulate the setting of different parameters, six push buttons are used as follows:
System schematic circuit showing all the connection to the microcontroller, as well as the liquid crystal display and the final control element.
Six push buttons were used in the project to allow the user to change the setting and the controller parameters. Their functions are as follows:
Reset: To reset the microcontroller.
Stop: interrupt the program to allow the user to change the controller settings
Run: To run the program
Mode: To allow the user to change between setting modes.
Increment: To increment the controller variables by 1 or 0.1.
Decrement: To decrement the controller variables by 1 or 0.1.
These switches are connected to PIC PORTB to allow the user to use the internal build-in pull up resistors to prevent floating instead of using external pull-down resistors. The reset has got a separate button connected to MCLR pin. A buzzer is used as an alarm to indicate that the temperature is more than what the user specifies. Three LEDs were used to show the user the status of the microcontroller program. The three colors green, yellow, and orange were used as follows:
Green: means that the PID controller is working properly.
Yellow: means that the program is interrupted by (STOP) push button.
Red: means that the alarm is triggered.
To implement the control program, three major routines are used; the main routine along with the timer and external interrupts. The program starts with the main routine which contains all the configurations of the external pins whether outputs or inputs. It also contains the configurations of timer and external interrupts, so when one of these interrupts is triggered, the microcontroller will stop its current execution and perform another action. The trigger will be caused by either an overflow in timer register or a change on an external pin (RB0/INT0).
Because the time is a crucial element in digital control, the PID algorithm is controlled through a timer interrupt. This choice allows the user the ability to calculate the sampling time accurately. On the other hand, an external interrupt (INT0) is used to interrupt the program in order to allow the user a chance to modify the controller parameters. In the following we discuss in some details about the functions of each routine.
This routine, as mentioned earlier, is dedicated to configure the direction of external pins as well as interrupt sources. It also allows the user to choose the measured variable (temperature, flow, level or others). The flow chart of this routine is shown in Figure 7.
Main routine.
First PORTA (pin RA0) is configured as an analog input channel0 and PORTB as input digital port which is connected to the push button switches; while all other pins are configured as outputs.
The configuration of the LCD was performed by separate software from Microchip called Application Maestro [8]. With the aid of this software, a configuration code was produced after modifying the module parameters. It was then incorporated into the project. Once incorporated, the LCD is configured and ready to work. One feature of using Application Maestro is its ability to use the prewritten code that this software provides to initialize or to write to the LCD.
Timer0 can operate as a timer or as a counter. In Timer mode, the Timer0 module will increment with every instruction cycle (without prescaler). It is configured by setting a special function register called T0CON (timer0 control byte). This register is a readable and writable register that controls all the aspects of Timer0, including the prescale selection. In the design in hand, T0CON register is set to 0x85 (0b10000101) as shown below [9, 10].
This value will configure the timer0 as follows:
● | TMR0ON | = 1 | : Timer0 is enabled | ||
● | T08BIT | = 0 | : Timer0 is configured as a 16-bit timer | ||
● | T0CS | = 0 | : Internal instruction cycle clock | ||
● | T0SE | = 0 | : This bit is used only with external clock | ||
● | PSA | = 0 | : Timer0 prescaler is assigned | ||
● | T0PS2 | = 1 | : Bit2: T0PS2 =1: | } | 1:64 prescaler value |
● | T0PS1 | = 0 | : Bit1: T0PS1 =0: | ||
● | T0PS0 | = 1 | : Bit0: T0PS0 =1: |
There are ten registers which are used to control internal and external interrupt operations to accommodate a variety of interrupts [11]. In the project in hand, only two interrupts are required INT0 and timer0 interrupt. To do so, only three control registers are required. These registers are INTCON, INTCON2, and RCON. INTCON register contains various enable bits as well as several interrupt flags. RCON is the Reset Control register which contains flag bits that allow differentiation between the sources RESET. Timer0 interrupt is enabled by setting TMR0IE bit (<5>) while external interrupt is enabled by setting INT0IE (INTCON<4>). Note that the interrupt flags are reset before enabling the interrupt in order to avoid unwanted interruptions.
To start the interrupt, the global interrupt bit GIE/GIEH (INTCON<7>) must be set. If set, it enables all unmasked interrupts, so if more than one interrupt source is used (as in our case) the Interrupt Priority Enable bit IPEN (RCON<7>) must be set and the interrupt sources should be specified either as high or low priority interrupt. The interrupt priority bit TMR0IP (INTCON2<2>) is used to specify the interrupt priority for Timer0. This bit is reset so timer0 interrupt is set to low priority. On the other hand, no need to specify the priority of the external interrupt (INT0), because it is already set to high priority by default.
After configuring the interrupts, the program will enter an infinite loop until one of the interrupt sources is triggered.
The main purpose of this routine is to calculate the controller output and send it to the DAC serially through the synchronous SPI module [12]. Figure 8 shows the routine function.
Timer interrupt routine.
Because of the importance of time in calculating the timed controller output, timer0 is used as an accurate hardware timer. The source clock of the timer is the crystal oscillator which is fed to the clock pin of Timer0 internally. The clock used is a 20 MHz derived from a stable crystal oscillator. This frequency is automatically divided by 4 because the controller machine cycle is 4 clocks to give a 5 MHz which is fed to the timer. The timer is exactly clocked every 0.2 μs and takes 13107.2 μs (16-bit mode) to count from zero to zero again. However, by loading the timer with a suitable value, a smaller time interval could be obtained. For example, by loading the timer with the value 4095 (0xFFF), the overflow would occur after 12288.2 μs. Alternatively, the time period can be extended by using a prescaler as was done in the main routine. If a divide by 64 prescaler is selected, timer0 only overflows after 838.848 ms. This is obtained as follows:
This time period is less than one second, while a one second sampling time is required for the design in hand. To obtain a one second sampling time, the timer should count 78,125 pulses.
Because timer0 register is only 16 bit wide, it is only limited to count up to 65,535 pulses. The interruption is trigged several times to obtain one second timing, after which the controller computes the control action and sends it to the DAC. By using MPLAP simulator, it was found that 5362 cycles are required to calculate the controller output and send it to the DAC besides 51 extra cycles needed to reload the timer with time constant. If the interruption is required to repeat itself five times before calculating the controller output, one needs 5362 + 51 × 5 = 5617 cycles (1.1234 ms). Thus, in order to get exactly one second sampling time, the timer register (TMR0) has to be reloaded with a value that interrupts the program every 998.8766 ms (1 s–1.1234 ms). The following shows how this value is obtained:
By using a timer with 64 prescaler:
When we repeat the interrupt for 5 times:
But because the timer counts in ascending order (from 0x0000 to 0xFFFF):
However, the timer register accepts only integer numbers, thus the final value that should be added to the timer register is 49918. Because we omitted the numbers after the decimal point, our error will be ± 1 count which is equal to 64 cycles. Therefore, our error in calculating the sampling time will be:
This calculation is for getting 1 s sampling time. To expand the calculation in order to enable the user to change the sampling time, one defines two integer variables (repeat and cycle). The first variable repeat is to determine how many times we need to repeat the interrupt, while the second one cycle is the final value that should be added to the timer register. The following pseudo code shows the general formula used to reload the timer register.
The ADC module normally operates at 10-bits resolution, giving output digital values 0–1024 [13]. It needs a reference voltage to set the maximum and minimum values for the input conversion. This reference can be provided internally as Vdd and Vss (supply values) or externally through Vref+ and Vref− pins. To configure this module, OpenADC function from Microchip C library is used. This function performs a bitwise AND operation (“&”) between its arguments which are defined in the file adc.h. The parameters of this function along with their meaning of each argument are discussed below [1]
ADC_FOSC_32: FOSC/32.
A clock divider to allow the minimum specified conversion time (about 20 μs). A 32 prescaler was chosen because the clock source is 20 MHz
ADC_RIGHT_JUST: Right justified.
Because the ADRES register pair (where the converted values are loaded) is 16-bit wide. But the ADC is only 10bit wide. The ADC module could either be configured as right or left justified. In this project, right justified is chosen as shown in Figure 9. This sets the 6 most significant bits of register ADRES to zeros.
ADC_8ANA_0REF: VREF+ = VDD, VREF− = VSS
The supply values are chosen as the voltage references to the ADC.
ADC_CH0: Channel0 (AN0) is selected
ADC_INT_OFF: Interrupts of ADC interrupts are disabled.
Once the A/D conversion is completed, the result is stored in an integer variable called result. After reading the analog value by the ADC module, the result will be compared with the variable alarm-trigger which was previously specified. If the result is greater than this value, the microcontroller triggers the buzzer and lights the red LED.
Choosing right justified for data input.
Due to the limitation in the microcontroller’s memory, the PID equation is divided into three terms (term_1, term_2, and term_3) and after calculating each term separately, they are added together along with the previous output to give the controller output which will be sent to the DAC. The following code shows how to calculate the controller output
To send the control variable to the final control element, the serial DAC, which is interfaced to the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) port, is used. The SPI is initiated using Microchip C library called OpenSPI. This function also performs a bitwise AND operation between its arguments which are defined in the file SPI.h according to the following formula.
SPI_FOSC_16: Master mode and the clock = FOSC/16
MODE_00: Mode 0,0 (change takes place on the rising edge)
SMPEND: Input data sample at end of data out
After configuring the module, it is time to write a command to the DAC in order to convert it into analog signal. The write command is initiated by driving the CS pin low, followed by clocking the four configuration bits and the 12 data bits into the SDI pin on the rising edge of SCK. The CS pin is then raised, causing the data to be latched into the DAC’s input registers and when the LDAC pin is pulled down through RC1, the values held in the DAC’s input registers are transferred into the DAC’s output registers to provide the analog signal. It is important to mention here that we wrote the write command in two steps (as shown in the following code) because the SPI module send only 8 bit at a time.
To write characters to the LCD, required prewritten functions are provided by Application Maestro. Some of These functions are listed in following table:
It is used to initialize the LCD module according to the Application Maestro options | |
It sends the clocking signal and data to be displayed to the LCD | |
Points to the first address location of line one of the LCD | |
Points to the first address location of line two of the LCD | |
Clears the DDRAM content of the LCD and points to the 00 address location | |
Displays String in Program memory | |
Displays String in Data memory | |
It sends clocking signal and instructions to the LCD |
For numbers to be displayed, they are first converted into strings (characters) before being sent to the LCD, since the latter only accepts strings. To do so a C function called sprintf is called upon. This function saves the number in an array after converting it into string. The subroutine to do so is shown below [4]:
The main function of this routine is to allow the user to change the controller parameters. The routine is initiated by pressing the push button (STOP) which is connected to the external interrupt pin (RB0/INT0). Once initiated, the user is able to change all the parameters of the controller (KC, τI, τD, sampling time, alarm trigger and sensitivity) by using three push buttons (MODE, INCREMENT and DECREMENT [11].
To determine which action the microcontroller should take if any push button is pressed, we defined two integer variables (present_button and present_mode) to be used as statuses. That is, each bit of them has specific meaning as described below:
present_button
Np | ____ | ____ | ____ | ____ | ____ | ____ | ____ | ____ | ____ | ____ | ____ | ____ | dec | inc | Mod |
bit15 | bit0 |
● | |
● | Unimplemented |
● | |
● | |
● |
present_mode
____ | Srt | Spt | KC | TI | TD | Stm | Sen | Alm | Tun | Dp | Tp | Kp | ____ | ____ | ____ |
bit15 | bit0 |
● | Unimplemented |
● | |
● | |
● | |
● | |
● | |
● | |
● | |
● | |
● | |
● | |
● | |
● | |
● | Unimplemented |
Initially, before pressing any push button, present_button variable is loaded with 0x8000 (no push button pressed), and present_mode with 0x2000 (starting mode).Then if any push button is pressed, the corresponding bit of that push button will be set, giving a specific value of present_button which indicates the push button that was pressed by the user. So by performing a bitwise OR operation between the two variables (present_button and present_mode) we will come up with a number indicates the push button pressed and the present mode and based on that number we can decide the proper action to be taken by the microcontroller. The following code shows how to perform the OR operation after checking which of the push buttons was pressed. Beside changing the controller variables, this routine has another feature, it gives the user preliminary values of the controller parameters after entering the process variables. The result is derived based on Cohen-Koon tuning method. However, this feature is impractical if the sampling time is big [14].
To test the system, a first order system given by the equation below was used. To run the control action, the system was converted into a difference equation given by Eq. (10).
The process transfer function is first order, thus the discrete transfer function obtained using Zero-Order Hold will be:
where:
If
Therefore the difference equation of the output is:
After getting the difference equation, the control scheme was tested and the output of Figure 10 was obtained with the parameters set to:
Controller response with Kc = 0.2, Ti = 4.0 and Td = 0.
Controller response with Kc = 0.1, Ti = 3.0 and Td = 0.2.
By referring to the previous graphs, it could be concluded that the response tracks the set point as expected. In addition, the increase in controller gain (
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\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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The Gram-positive pathogen is armed with battery of virulence factors that facilitate to establish infections in the hosts. The organism is well known for its ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotic classes. The emergence and spread of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains which are often multi-drug resistant in hospitals and subsequently in community resulted in significant mortality and morbidity. The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. However, being notorious for developing antibiotic resistance, there is a continuous need for exploring novel anti-MRSA agents from various sources including plants and evaluation of non-antibiotic approaches.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"53782",doi:"10.5772/66645",title:"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Food- Producing and Companion Animals and Food Products",slug:"methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-in-food-producing-and-companion-animals-and-food-pr",totalDownloads:2743,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become a growing concern in companion and food-producing animals. The presence of multidrug-resistance with a wide range of extracellular enterotoxin genes, virulence factors, and Panton-Valentine leukocidin (pvl) cytotoxin genes confer life-threatening traits on MRSA and makes them highly pathogenic and difficult to treat. Clonal complex 398 (CC398), a predominant clonal lineage of livestock-associated-MRSA in domestic animals and retail meat, is capable of infecting humans. In order to monitor and prevent MRSA contamination, it is critical to understand its source and transmission dynamics. In this review, we describe MRSA in food-producing animals (pig, cattle, chicken), horses, pet animals (dogs, cats), and food products (pork, beef, chicken, milk, and fish).",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Jungwhan Chon, Kidon Sung and Saeed Khan",authors:[{id:"189634",title:"Dr.",name:"Kidon",middleName:null,surname:"Sung",slug:"kidon-sung",fullName:"Kidon Sung"},{id:"190400",title:"Dr.",name:"Jungwhan",middleName:null,surname:"Chon",slug:"jungwhan-chon",fullName:"Jungwhan Chon"},{id:"190401",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"saeed-khan",fullName:"Saeed Khan"}]},{id:"52755",doi:"10.5772/65978",title:"Bee Products and Essential Oils as Alternative Agents for Treatment of Infections Caused by S. aureus",slug:"bee-products-and-essential-oils-as-alternative-agents-for-treatment-of-infections-caused-by-s-aureus",totalDownloads:1916,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Bacteria of the genus Staphylococcus are important human and veterinary pathogens. A crucial characteristic for this group of bacteria is that they can easily acquire mechanisms of antibiotic resistance for a plethora of antibiotics currently in use for human and animal therapies. Therefore, there is a great need to find novel, non-antibiotic chemotherapeutics with marked antistaphylococcal activity. Promising but still underestimated group of potential antistaphylococcal chemotherapeutics constitute bee products: honey, pollen, royal jelly, fermented pollen and especially propolis. Another group of natural products that exhibit promising antibacterial activity is essential oils. Usefulness of bee products and essential oils in the treatment of infections caused by S. aureus has been confirmed by results of many investigations carried out by researches in different regions of the world. In this chapter, we have presented the review of publication in this area as well as perspectives and limitations of future applications of these two groups of natural products.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Piotr Szweda and Barbara Kot",authors:[{id:"117528",title:"Dr.",name:"Szweda",middleName:null,surname:"Piotr",slug:"szweda-piotr",fullName:"Szweda Piotr"},{id:"189685",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Kot",slug:"barbara-kot",fullName:"Barbara Kot"},{id:"195004",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Kot",slug:"barbara-kot",fullName:"Barbara Kot"}]},{id:"52875",doi:"10.5772/65761",title:"Bacteriophage Therapy: An Alternative for the Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus Infections in Animals and Animal Models",slug:"bacteriophage-therapy-an-alternative-for-the-treatment-of-staphylococcus-aureus-infections-in-animal",totalDownloads:1987,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus causes hospital-acquired (HA), community-acquired (CA) and companion animal and livestock-associated (LA) infections. Molecular epidemiology studies suggest that although host specificity may be associated with specific genetic lineages, recent human-to-animal and animal-to-human transmissions related to mobile genetic elements have been described. Gene transfers include virulence and antibiotic resistance genes, thus making it difficult to control multidrug resistance S. aureus infections. Bacteriophages (phages) and endolysins, the enzymes responsible for bacterial lysis by phages, are alternatives to the use of antibiotics for the control of S. aureus infections. In this work, we review current advances in the development of phage therapy and the study and design of recombinant endolysins to treat S. aureus infections. Preliminary results of bacteriophage isolation based on molecular epidemiology knowledge show that bacteriophages are specific of genetic lineages and that this strategy may be used as an approach to isolate and evaluate new bacteriophages for therapy.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Claudia I. Barrera-Rivas, Norma A. Valle-Hurtado, Graciela M.\nGonzález-Lugo, Víctor M. Baizabal-Aguirre, Alejandro Bravo-Patiño,\nMarcos Cajero-Juárez and Juan J. Valdez-Alarcón",authors:[{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón"},{id:"195005",title:"Mrs.",name:"Claudia Ibeth",middleName:null,surname:"Barrera-Rivas",slug:"claudia-ibeth-barrera-rivas",fullName:"Claudia Ibeth Barrera-Rivas"},{id:"195006",title:"MSc.",name:"Norma Anahí",middleName:null,surname:"Valle-Hurtado",slug:"norma-anahi-valle-hurtado",fullName:"Norma Anahí Valle-Hurtado"},{id:"195007",title:"MSc.",name:"Graciela M.",middleName:null,surname:"González-Lugo",slug:"graciela-m.-gonzalez-lugo",fullName:"Graciela M. González-Lugo"},{id:"195008",title:"Dr.",name:"Víctor Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Baizabal-Aguirre",slug:"victor-manuel-baizabal-aguirre",fullName:"Víctor Manuel Baizabal-Aguirre"},{id:"195009",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Bravo-Patiño",slug:"alejandro-bravo-patino",fullName:"Alejandro Bravo-Patiño"},{id:"195010",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Cajero-Juárez",slug:"marcos-cajero-juarez",fullName:"Marcos Cajero-Juárez"}]},{id:"53377",doi:"10.5772/66225",title:"Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia in Adults",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-bacteremia-in-adults",totalDownloads:2097,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an important cause of bacteremia, and S. aureus bacteremia constitutes a serious condition with high morbidity and mortality, secondary to multiple complications including infective endocarditis and embolization. The incidence of bacteremia with S. aureus is increasing with more frequent use of medications that lower immune system response, and with the utilization of more invasive medical procedures. In addition, the emergence of resistant S. aureus isolates is becoming more common and can negatively affect the outcome of an individual if not diagnosed and managed properly. Health care workers encounter S. aureus bloodstream infections on a routine basis, and in certain situations, it becomes a very challenging infection to control. Because of the impact this entity has on health care costs and the increased use of resources, it is necessary to highlight the causes, clinical presentation, associated complications, and treatment measures. In this chapter, we will cover each of these points, with somewhat more emphasis on methicillin‐resistant S. aureus that is prevalent in both community and hospital settings and is more commonly associated with worsening prognosis and higher mortality.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Dima Youssef and Kate Molony",authors:[{id:"190397",title:"Dr.",name:"Dima",middleName:null,surname:"Youssef",slug:"dima-youssef",fullName:"Dima Youssef"},{id:"195814",title:"Dr.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Molony",slug:"kate-molony",fullName:"Kate Molony"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54154",title:"Staphylococcus aureus: Overview of Bacteriology, Clinical Diseases, Epidemiology, Antibiotic Resistance and Therapeutic Approach",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-overview-of-bacteriology-clinical-diseases-epidemiology-antibiotic-resistance-",totalDownloads:7155,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen that causes wide range of infectious conditions both in nosocomial and community settings. The Gram-positive pathogen is armed with battery of virulence factors that facilitate to establish infections in the hosts. The organism is well known for its ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotic classes. The emergence and spread of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains which are often multi-drug resistant in hospitals and subsequently in community resulted in significant mortality and morbidity. The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. However, being notorious for developing antibiotic resistance, there is a continuous need for exploring novel anti-MRSA agents from various sources including plants and evaluation of non-antibiotic approaches.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Arumugam Gnanamani, Periasamy Hariharan and Maneesh Paul-\nSatyaseela",authors:[{id:"192829",title:"Dr.",name:"Arumugam",middleName:null,surname:"Gnanamani",slug:"arumugam-gnanamani",fullName:"Arumugam Gnanamani"},{id:"204388",title:"Dr.",name:"Periasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Hariharan",slug:"periasamy-hariharan",fullName:"Periasamy Hariharan"},{id:"204389",title:"Dr.",name:"Maneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Paul-Satyaseela",slug:"maneesh-paul-satyaseela",fullName:"Maneesh Paul-Satyaseela"}]},{id:"53377",title:"Staphylococcus aureus Bacteremia in Adults",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-bacteremia-in-adults",totalDownloads:2097,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Staphylococcus aureus is an important cause of bacteremia, and S. aureus bacteremia constitutes a serious condition with high morbidity and mortality, secondary to multiple complications including infective endocarditis and embolization. The incidence of bacteremia with S. aureus is increasing with more frequent use of medications that lower immune system response, and with the utilization of more invasive medical procedures. In addition, the emergence of resistant S. aureus isolates is becoming more common and can negatively affect the outcome of an individual if not diagnosed and managed properly. Health care workers encounter S. aureus bloodstream infections on a routine basis, and in certain situations, it becomes a very challenging infection to control. Because of the impact this entity has on health care costs and the increased use of resources, it is necessary to highlight the causes, clinical presentation, associated complications, and treatment measures. In this chapter, we will cover each of these points, with somewhat more emphasis on methicillin‐resistant S. aureus that is prevalent in both community and hospital settings and is more commonly associated with worsening prognosis and higher mortality.",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Dima Youssef and Kate Molony",authors:[{id:"190397",title:"Dr.",name:"Dima",middleName:null,surname:"Youssef",slug:"dima-youssef",fullName:"Dima Youssef"},{id:"195814",title:"Dr.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Molony",slug:"kate-molony",fullName:"Kate Molony"}]},{id:"55253",title:"Clostridium difficile Infection Diagnosis by Biological Molecular Methods",slug:"clostridium-difficile-infection-diagnosis-by-biological-molecular-methods",totalDownloads:1978,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In the past 15 years, the incidence of Clostridium difficile infection has emerged especially because of the new highly virulent strains. The classical diagnosis methods used to diagnose C. difficile infection take time and the enzyme immunoassay (EIA) test has demonstrated the lack of sensitivity. Even though new modern molecular methods have become available, the diagnosis of C. difficile in patients or healthy carriers remains a big challenge for both clinicians and laboratory staff. In the present chapter, we will list the main genotyping methods, stressing their advantages and disadvantages, as well. A brief presentation of the most useful kit (principle, sensitivity, specificity, benefits and disadvantages) to assess the impact of molecular methods in comparison with classical methods will offer support for future research in the present context of an increasing prevalence of C. difficile infection that represents worldwide, a real public health problem. To improve the patients’ quality of life, to limit hospital transmission, and to save money, we have tried to identify the best diagnosis algorithm as tool in C. difficile diagnosis and surveillance. This algorithm may differ depending on the capacities of the laboratories and on the socioeconomic level of the countries in question.",book:{id:"5831",slug:"clostridium-difficile-a-comprehensive-overview",title:"Clostridium Difficile",fullTitle:"Clostridium Difficile - A Comprehensive Overview"},signatures:"Luminiţa Smaranda Iancu, Andrei Florin Cârlan and Ramona\nGabriela Ursu",authors:[{id:"197809",title:"Prof.",name:"Luminiţa Smaranda",middleName:null,surname:"Iancu",slug:"luminita-smaranda-iancu",fullName:"Luminiţa Smaranda Iancu"},{id:"205531",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Cârlan",slug:"andrei-carlan",fullName:"Andrei Cârlan"},{id:"205532",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramona Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Ursu",slug:"ramona-gabriela-ursu",fullName:"Ramona Gabriela Ursu"}]},{id:"53782",title:"Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Food- Producing and Companion Animals and Food Products",slug:"methicillin-resistant-staphylococcus-aureus-mrsa-in-food-producing-and-companion-animals-and-food-pr",totalDownloads:2743,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become a growing concern in companion and food-producing animals. The presence of multidrug-resistance with a wide range of extracellular enterotoxin genes, virulence factors, and Panton-Valentine leukocidin (pvl) cytotoxin genes confer life-threatening traits on MRSA and makes them highly pathogenic and difficult to treat. Clonal complex 398 (CC398), a predominant clonal lineage of livestock-associated-MRSA in domestic animals and retail meat, is capable of infecting humans. In order to monitor and prevent MRSA contamination, it is critical to understand its source and transmission dynamics. In this review, we describe MRSA in food-producing animals (pig, cattle, chicken), horses, pet animals (dogs, cats), and food products (pork, beef, chicken, milk, and fish).",book:{id:"5471",slug:"frontiers-in-i-staphylococcus-aureus-i-",title:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Jungwhan Chon, Kidon Sung and Saeed Khan",authors:[{id:"189634",title:"Dr.",name:"Kidon",middleName:null,surname:"Sung",slug:"kidon-sung",fullName:"Kidon Sung"},{id:"190400",title:"Dr.",name:"Jungwhan",middleName:null,surname:"Chon",slug:"jungwhan-chon",fullName:"Jungwhan Chon"},{id:"190401",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"saeed-khan",fullName:"Saeed Khan"}]},{id:"55751",title:"Overview of Clostridium difficile Infection: Life Cycle, Epidemiology, Antimicrobial Resistance and Treatment",slug:"overview-of-clostridium-difficile-infection-life-cycle-epidemiology-antimicrobial-resistance-and-tre",totalDownloads:2735,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The use of antimicrobial agents and acquired resistances explains in part the emergence and spreading of epidemic strains of Clostridium difficile. Continued use of antimicrobial therapy still represents an acute danger in triggering the emergence and spreading of new resistant and multiresistant strains including against first-line antibiotics. We examine the pathway of peptidoglycan synthesis in this organism and associated resistances, as well as resistance to other classes of antibiotics. The life cycle of C. difficile involves growth, spore formation and germination. Spores endow the organism with a formidable capacity of persistence in the environment and in the host, resistance, dissemination and infectious potential. Highly resistant spores produced by antibiotic-resistant/multiresistant strains may be one of the most serious challenges we face in what concerns the containment of C. difficile. Finally, we review recent developments in the treatment and prevention of C. difficile infection.",book:{id:"5831",slug:"clostridium-difficile-a-comprehensive-overview",title:"Clostridium Difficile",fullTitle:"Clostridium Difficile - A Comprehensive Overview"},signatures:"Joana Isidro, Aristides L. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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