\r\n\t• Role of technological innovation and corporate risk management \r\n\t• Challenges for corporate governance while launching corporate environmental management among emerging economies \r\n\t• Demonstrating the relationship between environmental risk management and sustainable management \r\n\t• Contemplating strategic corporate environmental responsibility under the influence of cultural barriers \r\n\t• Risk management in different countries – the international management dimension \r\n\t• Global Standardization vs local adaptation of corporate environmental risk management in multinational corporations. \r\n\t• Is there a transnational approach to environmental risk management? \r\n\t• Approaches towards Risk management strategies in the short-term and long-term.
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1. Introduction
The insufficiency and high price of land have dramatically increased apartment living and as well as people’s willingness [1, 2] to settle in residential units over recent decades [3]. The gradual conversion of courtyard houses to apartments and residential units has led to changes in the function or removal of spaces embedded in Iranian lives [3], illustrated in Figure 1. The vacuum created by the incompatibility of new housing—a significant part of which includes residential complexes and buildings—has caused unfavorable changes in human life [4, 5]. The land price is a major issue that limits individuals’ choices, forcing them to buy units of a small size. Due to land prices, builders and designers prefer to eliminate open and semi-open spaces to increase and replace indoor spaces [3, 6, 7]. Thus, spaces such as indoor and outdoor communication spaces (e.g., balconies) are rarely seen, and the removal of such important spaces from human life is more prevalent nowadays. This modern norm overlooks the necessity of developing housing that conforms to the lifestyle of its residents. What’s more, the number of houses that can satisfy all the needs of Iranian families is too restricted. Thus, this research aims to investigate the removal or negligence of private open spaces that would ordinarily bring enjoyment to residents. Furthermore, this study seeks to share insights that will improve the quality of people’s life environments and ultimately help them benefit more from their home spaces. The research background indicates a gap on how to design balconies that satisfy the residents of residential buildings. A scientific study into this area could be utilized in future projects to help enhance the quality of such home environments (Figures 1–5).
Figure 1.
Gradual transformation of Iranian traditional courtyard houses to new apartments.
Figure 2.
Samples of Iranian traditional courtyard houses: (a) Abbasi House, Kashan, (b) Tabatabaei House, Kashan, (c) Pirnia House, Yazd, (d) Navab Vakil House, Yazd, (e) Borujerdis House, Kashan, and (f) Ameri House, Kashan; adopted from [8], analyzed by authors.
Figure 3.
The second generation of Iranian houses with yard, adopted from [9], analyzed by authors.
Figure 4.
Old apartments designed with terraces or balconies as private open spaces [ref: photos are taken and analyzed by researchers, 2019].
Figure 5.
Younger than 5-year-old apartments designed with balconies as private open spaces [ref: photos are taken and analyzed by researchers, 2019].
For example, Einifar and Ghazizadeh [10] showed that designing outdoor spaces is less dealt with by designers; rather, their main focus being the interior space of the building, without paying enough attention to the spaces between the outdoor and indoor space. The authors discuss the necessity and importance of designing the lost and forgotten space of buildings like open space, and recommend that designers of residential complexes pay more attention to such spaces.
Extant studies on private open spaces consider a range of views on residential building spaces including behavioral, environmental, physical, perceptual, semantic, and esthetics. What sets the current research apart from past studies into this subject is its seeking which one of these factors is more influential in this statistical population.
Designers are obliged to see all the approaches in designing open spaces while at the same time pay close attention to the aspects regarded as important by the residents. One article [11] examined the three categories of perceptual-semantic, functional-behavioral and physical-environmental factors in a social-cultural context, with the balcony selected as a private open space between the residential unit and the residential area. The main question of this research was what factors affect the quality of the balcony as an intermediate space and what do people expect from its function in different socio-cultural backgrounds? Based on interview, they examined three residential complexes and presented a model containing six factors. The authors concluded that attention to the secondary functions and the multi-purpose nature of intermediate spaces should be among the primary concerns of planning and designing to enhance the quality of life in apartment housing.
Badeie [12], on the other hand, expressed her research findings from a philosophical point of view: wall space-separators are not necessarily the only effective separation and limitation, but the space instruction of walls is characterized by inferential definition of connectivity. Privacy creates protection, security, and confidentiality in the design of appropriate space frame of artifact environment on one hand and fortifies the dynamic and diverse capabilities of space components for coherence on the other hand. The research focused on enhancing the capabilities of walls in creating links and distance; the capabilities resulting from the concepts of privacy and connection enriched the walls’ functionality area in the construction of space (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Use of walls as space separators, by which links and distances can be made, adopted from [9] and analyzed by authors.
Another research [13] emphasizes the need for intermediate spaces, asserting that joint spaces like balconies play the roles of both interior and exterior spaces and are regarded as the distance between outside and inside space. Also, Mir Shahzadeh [14] examined the role of the linking boundary space, such as balcony and porch, etc., in producing meaning.
Christopher Alexander reported a British study in the Architects Magazine (1957) concerning the balconies of apartments and small houses. He stated that two-thirds of people, for their own reasons, have never used balconies that lack privacy. And in “a pattern language” [15], a model is presented for balconies according to physical characteristics; yet only the quantitative aspect is considered in the book—for example, a minimum depth of 180 cm is considered for such spaces.
Pierre Bourdieu, a well-known French sociologist and anthropologist, also acknowledges that different lifestyles will create a distinction in the living space; the higher the social hierarchy, the higher the esthetic properties of space than its functional responses will be. Therefore, we will have distinct spaces based on necessity-favored need or luxury-favored need, an issue that can be reviewed in the balconies, but not in the present article [16].
Research by Mazandarani [17] investigating housing developments from past to present represents the foundations and status of the intermediate space. The importance of the spaces discussed in the article is underlined by the authors, and general rulings on the points that should be considered by the designers are presented. Unfortunately, there is no comprehensive discussion on balconies as discussed in article [17].
Among other international books in this field is the Book of Life between Buildings, which deals with the concepts of public open spaces, and the initial principles that can be used for intermediate spaces [18]. In the book Esthetics in Architecture [19], regarding the interactive spaces of interior and exterior, the author divides such spaces into three categories: (1) architecture without interaction with outside; (2) architecture with interaction with outside; and (3) modern architecture and border distortions.
In another study, in the chapter on zones and thresholds, the importance of focusing on the scopes that provide a correct definition of outside and inside space for the user of environment is presented. It is argued that humans create limits to understand that we belong within this environment and that we are safe. Furthermore, thresholds and passage spaces are places where the environment manifests itself. Stairs, the edges of roofs, gates, doors, balconies, windows, etc. are all regulators of this manifestation and control the penetrability of these borders. These design factors approve the space separation while at the same time create the possibility of physical and visual passages for people. Hence, the author expresses the necessity and importance of addressing such spaces, and expresses the role of such spaces in three parts: (1) use-oriented role (functional); (2) protective role, or a controlled space, through which the perspective can be seen. This role can be divided into two parts, social and physical; (3) the semantic role, being that the signs of each place, according to the common conventions and social traditions, have a special behavior in each corner and within the desired range. About the balconies, the author says: “Balconies are not practically considered as privacy zone and play the role of seeing and being seen more than the terrace and porches” [20].
Another book on this subject is the work of Rudolf Arnheim, which states: no spatial issue is as much an inherent characteristic of an architect’s work given that they should consider the inside and outside spaces as related concepts. That is, indoor and outdoor areas should be considered as components of one concept [21].
To summarize, Table 1 includes all the related literature.
Residential neighborhood greenery and children’s cognitive development
The whole study puts an emphasis on the contribution of surrounding open space greenery of residential buildings on the cognitive development on the children, who were raised in such places.
Effect of housing layout and open space morphology on residential environments—applying new density indices for evaluation of residential areas case study: Tehran, Iran
Putting an emphasis on the vitality of presence of private or public open spaces and the importance of considering them in the construction laws.
Explaining the concept of outside-inside in in-between spaces of apartment housing “the case study of balcony in three types of Tehran residential complexes
Considering the secondary functions and multi-purpose nature, the intermediate spaces are among the planning, and design needs to improve the quality of life in apartment housing
It addresses the issue of realm and perceptual mechanisms in space
Behavioral, meaning
Table 1.
Selected papers referring to open spaces and relevant measures.
Researchers looked at these spaces from different perspectives. But, as it is clear to every researcher, architecture is not meaningful outside of its context and should be designed and developed on the basis of its main context and social, cultural, and physical conditions.
Therefore, this study tries to help architects to define and explode a specific context in order to have optimal design of open spaces in residential buildings of a neighborhood. By using factors that have been previously investigated and extracted by previous studies, this research uses the case study the Kuye Nasr neighborhood to examine the lifestyle of the residents of the residential buildings. It considers the physical conditions of the buildings, the instructions and rules for improving their design quality, and the desirability of open spaces within residential buildings (balconies). The abovementioned factors will be then evaluated and the results will be available to designers as executable and functional factors.
It should be noted that during the research process, it was found out that the residents of residential buildings in Kuye Nasr were more concerned about the functional aspect of balconies. Hence, this component has been emphasized more than several other factors influencing the usefulness of balconies. The main questions that this research tackles are what factors can satisfy the residents of the Kuye Nasr residential buildings regarding their balconies, and what is the association between the influential factors in the desirability of private open spaces?
To achieve this, the concerns, needs, and opinions of the residents of Kuye Nasr were determined through a field study and interviews, based on which a number of factors were extracted. The validity of such factors was then examined by means of a questionnaire; those factors with a higher statistical weight were presented as features that should be applied by designers of balconies.
2. Theoretical framework
2.1 The connection between interior and exterior space
The interior of each place is distinguished from the exterior and the surrounding environment by various spatial elements. People have always lived in both outside and inside environments and must be active between these two poles. Consequently, both of these currents cannot be separated, but it is possible that the impact of one of them outweighs the impact of the other. In fact, the kind of governing relationship between the external and internal environment is determined by the spatial relationships between these elements. The structuring and arrangement of these relationships (relations between inside and outside) result from the contradiction between them; that is to say, the separation of a protective shelter from the surrounding area on one hand, and the establishment of the relationship between the two locations on the other hand, are essential for human life. This contradiction is revealed only when the characteristics of the inside and outside location are compared. In spite of these contradictions, there are relations between the inside and outside. According to Christian Norberg Schulz, the relations and conditions governing these two create the art of architecture [19].
Many activities take place around low-rise residential buildings with direct access to the outside. What’s more, there is a flow between the inside and the outside; for instance, in order to know what is going on outside, residents can quickly step out or drink a cup of coffee on the stairs. While multi-story buildings, have less inhibiting them from stepping outside and being among their residential community [18].
Therefore, the role and influence of the intermediaries of the outer and inner space (such as the balcony) are not only undeniable, but also quite significant. Hence, by eliminating or ignoring each of them, the interfacing of the inner and outer spaces is disturbed and the quality of spatial sequencing is declined. Therefore, maintaining the identity of such spaces and optimizing their architectural design is of great importance today.
2.2 Private open spaces
The border between the closed space and the surrounding open space can be understood as the interface of two worlds. The set of elements—the main function of which is to keep the open space from being enclosed— is called a building and plays a significant mobilizing role in the integration of the interior and exterior space. The best example of such spaces is in traditional Iranian architecture. Semi-open spaces have played an important role in traditional architectural spacing in the past and in the Iranian traditional architecture. The appearance and geometry of these spaces get their models from the features of their own surroundings, and these areas have hosted a range of individual and social activities. This character has been constructed simultaneously in the building in past architecture; modern semi-open spaces do not invite such human interactions and past times as they did in the past and generally lack architectural value. Today, semi-open spaces can be a good way to link human life with nature [1].
In Iranian homes, there is always a space between open and closed spaces. Indoor spaces between closed and open spaces are spaces that provide a variety of facilities for activities of the home and the community; such a presence offers a new connection with nature, light, and climate. Indoor spaces in Iranian homes have varied sizes and functions and are as important as open and closed spaces [27, 28]. Having said that, the presence of indoor spaces in the space organization of contemporary houses has dropped significantly. In some cases, the presence of a porch toward the yard creates a usable connector space between the open and closed space. In the upper floors, the covered terraces and balconies are the covered spaces. These spaces usually are not used completely, and in many cases they are presented as an abandoned floor. Although the balconies and terraces today are located along closed spaces, people prefer not to occupy them due to an undesirable view. Rather, residents typically use balconies as a storage. Nevertheless, these balconies can provide both the perspective and light from the northern and southern fronts for closed areas of contemporary houses [17] (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Areas that are located between the inner and the outer spaces of Iranian houses are highlighted in the images, adopted from [9], analyzed by authors.
2.3 Designing private open space (balcony)
Many resources that provide designers with information on how to design spaces also include a series of criteria and components about the design of balconies; for example, Neufert et al. stated that balconies are effective factors in increasing the attractiveness of residential units. Balconies also create a space for some activities, such as outdoor play area for kids that can be easily monitored [29]. Furthermore, balconies can be used to rest, sunbathe, study, eat, etc. In addition to the bio-functional aspects required, a space for the flower box in each part of the balcony is needed [30].
According to the Housing Design Handbook on Balconies Under Regulation and Principles, balconies should cater to the following uses: children’s play space, a space for drying clothes, a space for sitting, gardening and planting, keeping pets, etc. [31].
Time Savers Standards for Building Types presents residents’ opinions on what a balcony is ideally used for: people who have discussed much about the balconies and their positive role have emphasized the pleasure of using and sitting outside. In addition, they emphasize the visual expansion of life space and the opportunity to grow plants and use the balconies to store equipment [32].”
Therefore, the following uses are extracted from the studies on the design of balconies: “children playing, relaxing, sunbathing, studying, eating, keeping flowers and plants, drying clothes, sitting, keeping animals, and warehousing equipment.” However, the factors mentioned are very general and it cannot be said that it is definitely welcomed by the residents in the specified neighborhood in which the research is carried out. Therefore, it is necessary to obtain an estimation of these factors and the factors extracted from the interview section, evaluate them quantitatively in the statistical population, and assess their external validity.
2.4 Description of theoretical model
2.4.1 Influential components in designing private open areas in residential buildings
The collection method of influential factors in the design of private open areas was discussed in the previous section (interviewing the residents of Kuye Nasr residential buildings and surveying balcony design studies). All collected factors are categorized into six groups as dependent variables, which can affect the quality of a space like a balcony. The components are classified based on a theoretical framework shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8.
Influential components in increasing the desirability of private open spaces.
2.4.1.1 Esthetic aspects
This is a system based on balance and harmony. Regularity, balance, and fit are perceived and viewed automatically by the viewer and recognized for its beauty [19]. The beauty factors of balcony and the presence of greenery on the balcony belong to this category.
2.4.1.2 Behavioral aspects
These aspects include the hierarchical ordering and functional domains, access hierarchy, spatial hierarchy, and the hierarchy of various functions forming the communication between inside and outside spaces [33]. The functional structure of space affects the occurrence of behaviors in the environment and is simultaneously affected by the behaviors and anticipation of their occurrence [11]. Hanging clothes, sitting in the open air, cooking or barbecuing, smoking, using tools, entertaining children, enjoying a safe space, and escaping people are in this category.
2.4.1.3 Environmental aspects
The environment and behavior are so intertwined that it is difficult to separate them. Therefore, human behavior should be defined in an environmental context. In the past, the environment was considered as an independent variable that affected behavior, shaped it, and created it. Consequently, one of the implications of this traditional approach is that human authority over the environment must be limited and the environment must be coordinated with people in a constant and unchanging form. Recently, however, research has been emphasized to have flexible and variable designs for the environments. In fact, people are now the cause of environmental change and are not limited to environmental influences [34]. Climate factors, tranquility and comfort of the balcony, and balcony orientation fall into this category.
2.4.1.4 Physical aspects
Physical factors include physical and visual order, balance in open and closed environments, walls, and physical bordering structure [35]. Proportional factors and the area of the balcony are included in this category.
2.4.2 Perceptual-semantic aspects
The most common approach to human psychology is one that considers several inner processes: perceptual reactions to the environment (how people understand and organize environmental stimuli and react to them), emotional and motivational states associated with environmental stimuli (psychological pressure and negative or positive emotions), and cognitive reactions to the environment (estimates of affluence, complexity, and meanings of the environment). This component considers humans as beings that have internal processors and deals more with mental and psychological processes than with obvious behavioral responses [34]. This factor is related to the human mental perception of the living environment. Visual communication, scale, and proportions, creating the sense place attachment and the sense of separation from space, visibility, and perspective from outside to inside and from inside to outside belong to this category of communication. The perception of sky, earth, buildings, surrounding spaces and, in general, the surroundings and relationship with them actually develop through giving meaning to the environment. This component is completely subjective before becoming an objective one [11]. Factors such as the security of the balcony space and the connection of the balcony to the sky fall into this category.
Therefore, based on the title of this article, “Effective factors on desirability of private open spaces in residential buildings”—independent components in a six-class categorization, in line with the following model in Figure 9— have a linear effect on the desirability of private open spaces as a dependent variable.
Figure 9.
Theoretical model of desirability of private open areas including five main aspects including physical, behavioral, environmental, perceptual semantic, and esthetic aspects.
The next section investigates the role of the abovementioned components as influential independent factors in the design of a desirable balcony and introduces the methods and statistical patterns used to explore it, a summary of which is shown in Table 2.
Statistical methods and tests
Application
Type of statistical method
Frequency and rate of frequency
Describing demographic variables, describing main questions and variables
Descriptive statistics
Spearman correlation, chi-square test, one sample chi-square, Friedman rankings
Testing hypotheses
Inferential statistics
Table 2.
Statistical methods.
2.5 Case study details
Kuye Nasr is the name of one of the northwestern neighborhoods of Tehran located in district 2. The main street of Kuye Nasr (Gisha), stretching approximately 1.5 km, directly connects two main highways to each other. Kuye Nasr has well-organized even and odd streets with English architecture and a complete grid-system urban structure with a total of 41 streets.
The reason for choosing this neighborhood as the case study of the research is the systematic grid texture of the district, which caused the lands in this area to be segmented north-south (regular northern and southern streets). Hence, the research and presentation of this proposal is more targeted and systematic compared to situations where buildings are studied in organic texture or other urban structures. Therefore, by distributing the questionnaire in a homogeneous statistical society, the final result will be generalizable and will have a greater external validity in the statistical population (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
Aerial map of the neighborhood, adopted from [9], detailed by authors.
3. Methodology
3.1 Type of research
The present research is categorized as applied research using quantitative method [36] and, using the results of the study, seeks to help improve and optimize the behaviors, products, structures, and patterns used by human societies.
3.2 Research method
The researcher photographed residential buildings in the intended texture to primarily extract the design factors of buildings. Next, using the interview method, the researcher collected the views and opinions of the residents of the residential buildings (the statistical population) regarding balconies; the optimal design factors for such spaces were collected by default. In order to ensure and assess the validity of the default factors, statistical studies (quantitative research method through the questionnaire tool and analysis of these data through SPSS 23) were implemented.
3.3 Research tools
This quantitative research method was adopted, in the form of a questionnaire distributed among people over the age of 20 who were living in the area. After the required data was collected, the principles, methods, and results of statistical analysis were used to study the validity and generalizability of hypotheses in the neighborhood.
3.4 Statistical population
The statistical population of the study includes the building residents in the Kuye Nasr neighborhood. The reason for choosing Kuye Nasr as the statistical population is the systematic grid texture of the neighborhood, which has led the lands to be segregated as northern and southern (regular northern and southern streets); therefore, the research and presentation of this proposal are more targeted and systematic compared to situations where buildings are studied in organic textures or other urban structures. Therefore, by distributing the questionnaire in a more homogeneous statistical society, the final result will be more generalizable and will have a greater external validity in the statistical population.
3.5 Statistical sample and sampling method
The research sampling method was a simple random sampling method. That is, from 20 alleys with even numbers and 20 alleys with odd numbers, two or three residents were selected randomly. After introducing the researcher and purpose of the study, the questionnaires were distributed. In total, 100 questionnaires were completed and analyzed.
3.6 Validity and reliability of the questionnaire
3.6.1 Validity
The validity of the questionnaire was tested by a non-statistical method; specifically, through confirmation by a number of experts. Experienced professors and PhD students in the field of architecture reviewed and approved each item on the questionnaire.
3.6.2 Reliability
Cronbach’s alpha was used for the three-item questions. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used to assess the reliability of the questionnaire. The most commonly used method for calculating reliability is the Cronbach alpha, which is called the alpha coefficient. The general rule is that the Cronbach alpha value of a scale should be at least 0.7 [37]. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the questionnaire is indicated in Table 3.
Variables
Cronbach’s alpha
Reliability
0.78
Table 3.
Reliability through internal consistency method (Cronbach’s alpha).
As can be seen, Cronbach’s alpha value of the questionnaire is higher than the criterion 0.7, which confirms the reliability of the questionnaire.
4. Analysis and results
4.1 Analysis of the results obtained from field observations
A field study of the current balconies in the apartments or houses available in the site (Figures 11, 12) indicates that a large percentage of balconies on the first floors, which have easier access to the street or alley, are changed due to security concerns. That is, the balconies have lost their original form, creating a special irregularity in the facade (as indicated in the figures below). The residents, for example, have fenced the balconies or have covered the open sides, so that they are safer and cannot be seen when they are on the balcony. Therefore, it can be concluded that it is best to design the balconies of the first floors in such a way that security is considered as a significant point in the design. It should be designed such that it does not require future changes by residents.
Figure 11.
(a) Northern apartment. (b) Southern apartment.
Figure 12.
(a) Southern apartment. (b) Northern apartment.
4.2 Analyzing the results of interviews
During their interviews, building residents were asked to identify their primary concerns regarding the balconies so that the researcher can start designing the questionnaire with an appropriate initial perception.
4.2.1 A list of primary requirements of residents regarding balconies is given below
The following requirements of residents in terms of using balconies are as follow: hanging clothes, planting flowers, cooking, having a spare section for putting kitchen appliances that are better kept in the open air, children’s playing, having a view to beautiful landscapes, ventilation, and connecting balconies with kitchen (Figure 13).
Figure 13.
Sample plan of a balcony connected to the kitchen, drawn by authors.
4.2.2 Connection between balcony and kitchen
The connection between kitchen and balcony is one of the main suggestions and requests made by Nuye Kasr building residents. During the interview process, the following reasons were extracted:
The connection of the open space (balconies are almost the only open space available to the units) and cooking allows easier access to foodstuff and dining when barbecuing, as well as better ventilation of the kitchen while cooking.
A space for sitting and drinking tea, having food, etc.; such a place is better to be connected to the kitchen.
Access to kitchen appliances that are best protected in the open air.
Proximity and easy access of the kitchen to the balcony to irrigate the plants on the balcony.
A place for hanging clothes in the open air and easy access to the kitchen; nowadays, washing machines are embedded in this space.
All of the abovementioned arguments indicate that balconies are better placed and more efficient when connected to the kitchen. Thus, it can be concluded that in the intended neighborhood, the functional dimension of the balcony is highly regarded.
4.3 Analysis of the results
Analysis of questions related to the main research hypothesis indicates that the presence of spaces, such as balconies, is essential in modern residential housing. A total of 99 out of 100 people who answered to the questionnaire agreed with the necessity of a balcony presence in their residential units. The results in Table 4 also illustrate that the significance level of chi-square is less than the assumed value of 0.1, thereby confirming the hypothesis.
Analysis of the demographic part of the questionnaire shows that tenants and homeowners do not differ in their need for a balcony, indicating the importance of designing balcony for residential houses of both types of economic situations. As shown in Table 5, the significance level of the chi-square independent test is 0.507 and is more than the assumed value of 0.10. This means that there is no significant relationship between the status of the residents of being tenant or owner and the need for a balcony.
The activities performed on balconies nowadays are ranked in Table 6.
Type of relationship
Chi-square value
Degree of freedom
Significance level
Necessity of balcony
87.36
1
<0.001
Table 4.
Chi-square test: investigating the necessity of balcony presence.
Type of relationship
Chi-square value
Degree of freedom
Significance level
Between owner or tenant and necessity of balcony
1.356
2
0.507
Table 5.
Chi-square test: investigating the necessity of balcony from owner or tenant point of view.
Rank
Dimensions
Average score
1
Plants
5.5
2
Hanging clothes
5.43
3
Sitting in the open air
5.27
4
Enjoying view
5.12
5
Cooking and barbecue
4.80
6
Smoking
3.49
7
Storage
3.25
8
Children’s activities
3.09
Table 6.
Friedman test: ranking of activities carried out on the balcony.
The comparison of the average ratings (Table 6) shows that the highest average rating for flowering and planting activity is at 5.55, which means that this is the most common activity on balconies. The activity of hanging clothes with an average of 5.43 and sitting in the open air with an average rating of 5.27 are the next highest ranking activities. The lowest average rating (3.09) is for children’s activity, which indicates that children playing on the balcony have the lowest activity.
5. Satisfaction measures for designing private open spaces and future studies
It should be noted that considerations such as balcony dimension and area, the presence of greenery on the balcony, the connection of the balcony with the sky, comfort and tranquility of the balcony area, balcony space security, not being observable on the balcony, functionality of the balcony, and the beauty of balcony are the influential factors in the satisfaction of residents of buildings of their desirable private open area.
This topic of desirability and sustainability of private open areas can be extended further based on the following directions:
Implementing new digital technologies including the Internet of things (IoT) [38] and geographic information system (GIS) [39, 40, 41] for monitoring and evaluating the space quality;
Adoption of open space desirability measures in different types of buildings in dense urban areas [42];
Challenges and opportunities for sustainable development of private open spaces to sustainable development of societies [43, 44];
Investigating the process, factors, barriers, drivers, and decision makers using NVivo for analyzing the desirability of open spaces [45, 46];
Analyzing the trend of private open spaces toward sustainable smart cities [46];
Promoting more integrative strategies between stakeholders to improve the quality of private open spaces [47, 48].
6. Conclusion
This study tries to find ways to optimize the private open spaces of residential buildings; to this end, the required results were obtained through the analysis of the data and with the help of quantitative methods. The results are presented in the form of logical propositions. Firstly, this study recommends that the designers of the Kuye Nasr residential buildings consider security issues so that first-floor residents can use such spaces without the need for changes or extensions to the building’s facade. Secondly, the functional features of balconies are of great importance to residents, and thus, its desirability factors should be paid close attention. Thirdly, the kitchen is the best and most welcoming space to be connected to the balcony. The kitchen offers the most suitable space connection in the buildings, in line with the functional aspect of the balcony. Fourthly, neighborhood building residents advocate for desirable factors including the presence of greenery on the balcony, the connection of the balcony with the sky, the tranquility and comfort of the balcony space, the security of the balcony, not being observable on the balcony, the functionality of the balcony, and beauty of the balcony. Finally, the present study ends with this question for future researchers: to what extent will the desirability of different parts of Iranian homes, which have been forgotten today or lack suitable quality, help improve the quality of their living spaces.
\n',keywords:"desirability factors, private open area, balcony, residential building, Kuye Nasr neighborhood",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69251.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69251.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69251",totalDownloads:315,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 11th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 25th 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 13th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The gradual transformation of courtyard houses to apartments has contributed to the omission of certain spaces. The ill-matching of modern housing, with people’s lifestyles, has caused undesirable changes to their quality of life, health and well-being. Providing houses that suit individuals’ lifestyles plays an important role in the building social sustainability as well as economic and environmental aspects; this article will investigate, alongside, ways to improve private open areas in apartments. Two- to six-floor residential buildings in Kuye Nasr neighborhood were chosen to find factors that can improve the desirability of private open areas. First, a number of factors were collected by taking photos and conducting field studies. Next, several residents were randomly asked to share their opinions about such areas. Finally, a questionnaire examined the reliability of factors, which was then distributed to 100 residents. The final data was analyzed utilizing SPSS23. This study reveals that the functional aspect of a balcony is the most important item among semantic, perceptual, functional, physical, environmental, and beauty aspects. The following factors can contribute to residents’ satisfaction with balconies: dimensions; use of plants; connection with sky; peace and comfort; safety; function; and beauty. Findings additionally suggests the connection of balcony with kitchen.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69251",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69251",book:{slug:"smart-cities-and-construction-technologies"},signatures:"Reyhaneh Karimi, Behnaz Avazpour and Samad M.E. Sepasgozar",authors:[{id:"221172",title:"Dr.",name:"Samad M.E.",middleName:null,surname:"Sepasgozar",fullName:"Samad M.E. Sepasgozar",slug:"samad-m.e.-sepasgozar",email:"samad.sepasgozar@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"308025",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reyhaneh",middleName:null,surname:"Karimi",fullName:"Reyhaneh Karimi",slug:"reyhaneh-karimi",email:"reyhanehkarimi1992@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"310530",title:"Ms.",name:"Behnaz",middleName:null,surname:"Avazpour",fullName:"Behnaz Avazpour",slug:"behnaz-avazpour",email:"b.avazpour@unsw.edu.au",position:null,institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theoretical framework",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The connection between interior and exterior space",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Private open spaces",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Designing private open space (balcony)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Description of theoretical model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.4.1 Influential components in designing private open areas in residential buildings",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"2.4.1.1 Esthetic aspects",level:"4"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"2.4.1.2 Behavioral aspects",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"2.4.1.3 Environmental aspects",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"2.4.1.4 Physical aspects",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.5 Case study details",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"3. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.1 Type of research",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.2 Research method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.3 Research tools",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.4 Statistical population",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.5 Statistical sample and sampling method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"3.6 Validity and reliability of the questionnaire",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"3.6.1 Validity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23",title:"4. Analysis and results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"4.1 Analysis of the results obtained from field observations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"4.2 Analyzing the results of interviews",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"4.2.1 A list of primary requirements of residents regarding balconies is given below",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"4.2.2 Connection between balcony and kitchen",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"4.3 Analysis of the results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29",title:"5. Satisfaction measures for designing private open spaces and future studies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Aliniay Motlagh, A., The connection between inner and outer space in new residential buildings, in faculty of fine arts. Tehran Univesrity. 2013'},{id:"B2",body:'Milanović D, Vasilevska L. Influence of private open spaces on the quality of living in low-rise high density housing. 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Construction Management and Property, Construction Project Management, University of New South Wales, Australia
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1. Introduction
The building sector in Europe is responsible for 40% of energy consumption and 36% of CO2 emissions. Due to the high estimated energy saving potential of the building sector, the European Union (EU) set up a policy framework focused on reducing the energy of buildings which consists of policy actions, i.e., Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) [1], Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) [2], EcoDesign Directive [3], Energy Labelling Regulation [4], and the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) [5]. The EED was prepared with the goal to achieve a 20% energy consumption reduction target across the EU. It establishes a number of important provisions to be implemented by the EU Member States, including the requirement to establish obligatory national energy efficiency targets, national building energy efficiency strategies, a requirement to renovate 3% of public sector buildings annually, the need to establish energy efficiency obligation schemes, and provisions for auditing and metering.
The evaluation of energy consumption, reduction, or efficiency on the building level is somehow problematic since different technical systems use various forms of energy to operate. Therefore, energy consumption and efficiency should be evaluated on a common basis. A single metric for combining different sources or types of energy is primary energy (PE). As the name indicates, PE evaluates different forms of energy based on the conversion of primary energy to useful energy. However, the concept does not differentiate between different energy forms. Therefore, exergy could be incorporated into the concept as it reflects the energy “quality” in terms of its capacity to do work. Although there are currently no requests, for such an approach, from energy practitioners, exergy analysis could gain significantly on importance in light of future resource scarcity to, for example, penalize the use of exergy-rich energy vectors for low-temperature applications.
The task of measuring energy efficiency may seem straightforward, contingent only on the choice of indicators for the input and output. In reality, however, both can be measured in numerous ways, and choosing one approach over another always leads to trade-offs [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Based on the input and output characteristics, three main indicator groups can be distinguished:
Thermodynamic indicators—inputs and outputs represented in terms of thermodynamic quantities (e.g., the thermal efficiency of a heating system)
Physical-thermodynamic indicators—energy inputs represented by thermodynamic quantities, outputs represented with physical units (e.g., building energy use intensity)
Economic-thermodynamic indicators—products or services represented by market prices, energy represented by means of thermodynamic quantities (e.g., GDP energy intensity)
Each of these approaches has its advantages and disadvantages and should, thus, be defined with regard to the area of application, while considering environmental, social, economic, or other aspects of energy efficiency.
PE has become an important policy metric in the EU. Namely, the EPBD prescribes that the energy performance of a building shall also include a numeric indicator of PE, based on primary energy factors (PEF) per energy carrier, which may be based on national or regional annual weighted averages or a specific value for onsite production. A PEF connects primary and final energy. It indicates how much primary energy is used to generate a unit of electricity or a unit of useable thermal energy. The PEF describes the efficiency of converting energy from primary sources (e.g., coal, crude oil) to a secondary energy carrier (e.g., electricity, natural gas) that provides energy services delivered to end users. In the EU, the Member States can freely define its value. Consequently, this has become a political decision, with a direct impact on the actual energy consumption of a building.
Similar concept of analysis of the impact of building and appliance energy consumption is used in the USA. Compared to the more legislative-constrained EU approach the US approach is more market oriented. Full-fuel-cycle (FFC) metrics are used in building codes and appliance standards to evaluate the energy and environmental impact of consumer fuels and appliances [12].
To translate PE into final energy use, the PEF is applied in several EU legislative documents. In the EED and EPBD, the PEF is used to convert final energy consumption into PE consumption to monitor progress against targets. The EPB Directive aims at reducing the PE demand for buildings. Since technologies applied in the building and improvements in the building envelope lead to savings in final energy, the PEF is applied to convert these savings into primary energy.
The latest version of the EPB Directive [13] claims that “the energy performance of a building shall be expressed by a numeric indicator of PE use for the purpose of both energy performance certification and compliance with minimum energy performance requirements.” In addition, Member States may define additional numeric indicators of total nonrenewable and renewable primary energy use and of greenhouse gas emission. Member States have some flexibility in defining these metrics.
EED requires energy targets expressed in both primary and final energy form. PEFs are applied for conversion of final energy savings into primary energy savings. EPBD and EED both allow the Member States the option of choosing their own PEF values. Within the EcoDesign Directive and Energy Labelling Directive, the PEF value of 2.5 for electricity is prescribed to allow a comparison.
From the foregoing, it is evident that the PEF is defined on two different boundary conditions within the EU legislation. For instance, the boundary condition for energy-consuming appliances is defined at the appliance level. The next level of boundary is the building (or part of it), defined as a sum of all energy used by different appliances considering different energy sources. This boundary condition is important when on-site-produced renewable energy is used by building appliances.
The method for calculating the PE for fossil fuels is quite straightforward and consistent, while the calculation of PEFs for electricity or heat generated from renewable energies or grid-supplied electricity is more complex. First of all, the PEF for fossil fuels (also for combustible renewable fuels) does not change significantly over time. For electricity, especially grid supplied, the calculation of PEF involves different energy sources as well as different electricity generation technologies. The combination of various PE sources forms a so-called power generation mix, which is the share of different energy sources used to generate electricity. The share of energy sources changes over time depending on the availability of energy sources and the level of demand. However, evaluating this is a challenge especially in renewable energy sources and nuclear energy.
2. Methodology
PE sources are usually defined as inputs into energy systems (or conversion processes) which convert them into secondary energy carriers such as electricity, oil products, heat, or mechanical work. The EPBD [13] defines primary energy as the energy that has not been subjected to any (human induced) conversion or transformation process.
As mentioned before, PEF connects primary and final energy. It indicates how much primary energy is used to generate a unit of electricity or a unit of useable thermal energy, according to Eq. (1):
PEF=primaryenergyfinalenergyE1
PE is divided into renewable and nonrenewable energy [14]. The sum of renewable and nonrenewable energy is total energy. Energy extracted from sources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale is called renewable energy. The definition of renewable energy also includes some forms of energy carrier such as biomass and energy recovered from waste. For nonrenewable energy sources, the extraction rate is higher than refill rate. Energy obtained from nonrenewable energy sources is called nonrenewable energy. This approach enables the determination of three primary energy factors for each energy carrier [14, 15]:
Energy sources can be further divided into combustible and noncombustible. Where primary energy is used to characterize fossil fuels, the embodied energy of the fuel is available as thermal energy, and typically around 70% is lost in conversion to electrical or mechanical energy.
In accordance with the laws of thermodynamics, the renewable PEF can be derived from the relevant energy conversion efficiency. For example, the electricity from a PV system with an overall efficiency of 20% can be considered to have a renewable PEF of 5. There is a similar 60–80% conversion loss when wind energy is converted to electricity. This also applies to nuclear energy, where only around 10% of the fuel’s energy content is converted to electricity.
Although primary energy factors are thermodynamically universal, many different calculation methods exist. Moreover, there are also national variations. In order to calculate the PEFs, two approaches are mainly used, namely the partial substitution method and the physical energy method. They differ in the way how to calculate the PEFs from nuclear power plants and renewable energy sources such as hydroelectric power plants, solar energy, geothermal energy, etc.
The partial substitution method solves the aforementioned problem by concentrating on the theoretical energy content in traditional fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas). The PEF for a mixture of electricity is calculated from these sources by dividing the energy content of the fuel as the input energy with the generated electricity. In the case of renewable energy and nuclear energy, this means calculating how much primary energy would be needed for such an amount of electricity if it were produced from fossil fuels.
The physical energy method differs from the partial substitution method in that it uses a different approach for the evaluation of primary energy in the production of electricity from hydro, wind, and nuclear power plants. The calculation of the PEF for the production of electricity from nuclear and geothermal energy is based on the thermal energy of the steam boiler that drives the turbine of the power plant. The efficiency of nuclear power plants is estimated at 33 and 10% for geothermal. For other renewable energy sources, such as hydro, wind, and solar energy, this is equal to gross electricity production.
The calculation of the PEF can also be made using the method described in the standard SIST EN 15603:2008 [15]. The standard describes two alternative approaches for calculating the factor, namely, the total and nonrenewable PEF. The difference between these factors is that the latter does not include the use of renewable energy. In addition, the national PEF for the electricity mix is based either on the average electricity mix or on the marginal electricity production. The standard defines the default PEFs for different energy sources, including electricity. The values of the factors are given in Table 1.
We made a calculation of the PEF for the electricity mix in Slovenia, based on the three previously described methods, and conducted a temporal comparison. Statistical data on the generation of electricity from individual sources were obtained from the Statistical Office of Slovenia [16]. Table 2 shows the produced electricity by years from various sources of energy.
The electricity mix in Slovenia is mainly composed of five sources of primary energy, namely nuclear, fossil, hydro, wind, and solar energy. Since Slovenia is a member of the EU, the directives stipulate that, by 2020, as much as 20% of the energy used is to be recovered from renewable energy sources as far as electricity is concerned. Therefore, in addition to calculating the factor for previous years, we have also tried to predict the generation of energy from individual sources, using linear regression, and then determine the resulting PEF for the electricity mix and the share of renewable sources. Figure 1 presents the sources of energy, the share of energy sources in the production of electricity, and the share of energy from renewable sources.
Figure 1.
Electricity mix in Slovenia.
Figure 1 shows that electricity generation from fossil fuels is somewhat lower, while production from solar energy and hydro resources is increasing. Generally speaking, the share of renewable resources is increasing. Wind energy represents a very small share; therefore, increasing the share is not noticeable from the figure, but if we look at Table 1, we see that production is slowly increasing from 2013 onward.
2.1 Calculation of primary energy factor by partial substitution method
In this method, the PE equivalent of the sources of electricity generation represents the amount of energy that would be necessary to generate an identical amount of electricity with conventional thermal power plants [17]. The PE equivalent is calculated using an average generating efficiency of these plants. This method has several shortcomings including the difficulty of choosing an appropriate energy conversion efficiency to determine the energy value of renewable energy and nuclear energy. For example, it may not be possible to quantify the energy content in the wind or the sun that serves as a fuel for wind and solar power plants. In conventional nuclear power plants, only 10% of the theoretical energy content in the fuel is converted to electricity. The partial substitution solves this challenge by focusing on the theoretical energy content of traditional fossil fuels (coal, gas, and oil). PEF for electricity produced from these sources is calculated by dividing the energy content of the fuel with the electricity production. For renewable and nuclear power, the partial substitution method calculates how much PE would be required if the electricity was generated from fossil fuels. Therefore, a conversion efficiency of 40% is assumed for these types of energy [18]. Also the efficiency of fossil fuel production is 40%. By means of these set values, we obtained for 2017 the results shown in Table 3.
PEF
Nonrenewable
Total
Fuel oil
1.35
1.35
Gas
1.36
1.36
Biomass
0.07
1.07
Hydro power plant (electricity)
0.5
1.5
Nuclear power plant (electricity)
2.8
2.8
Coal power plant (electricity)
4.05
4.05
Table 1.
Primary energy factors according to the Standard EN 15603:2008.
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Nuclear
5528
5207
5459
5884
5548
5695
6273
5739
5657
6215
5528
5300
6370
5648
5715
6285
Fossil
5759
5657
5718
5772
5975
6082
6107
5945
6067
6073
5958
5661
4440
5081
5718
5610
Hydro
3313
2957
4095
3461
3591
3266
4018
4715
4703
3706
4087
4923
6366
4091
4782
4141
Wind
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
4
6
6
6
Solar
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
13
66
163
215
257
274
267
283
Table 2.
Yearly historical data on the electricity production in Slovenia (values in GWh) [16].
Production [GWh]
Efficiency
Primary energy [GWh]
Nuclear
6285
40%
14,288
Fossil
5610
40%
14,295
Hydro
4141
40%
11,955
Wind
6
40%
15
Solar
283
40%
668
Total
16,325
40,813
Table 3.
Calculation of PE by partial substitution method for the production of electricity in Slovenia in 2017.
As mentioned above, PE was obtained by dividing the energy produced by the production efficiency. This gave us the amount of PE needed to produce a certain amount of electricity. PE does not take into account the network losses; therefore, we calculated how much the losses are and what is our consumption. From this data we could then directly calculate the PEF for the electricity mix. We assumed that the amount of losses was 10% of the energy produced [18]. If by this method the factors are calculated for all the years, we can see that the factors do not change, which is because we have assumed that the efficiency is always the same, so the ratio between the energy used and the electricity produced is constant.
2.2 Calculation of primary energy factor by physical energy content method
The energy content method distinguishes itself in the approach for evaluating renewable sources and nuclear power plants production [19, 20]. PE in this method is considered as the first practically utilizable energy flow. In the case of directly combustible energy carriers (e.g., coal, natural gas, oil, biogas, bio liquids, solid biomass, combustible municipal/industrial waste), PE is defined as the heat generated in the combustion process. For non-directly combustible energy sources, PE can be expressed with the produced heat (e.g., nuclear, geothermal and solar thermal) or produced electricity (e.g., solar photovoltaic, wind, hydro, tide, wave, and ocean).
A PEF value of 1 is assumed for fuels. For noncombustible renewables a conversion efficiency of 100% is assumed. In contrast, a conversion efficiency of 33% is assumed for nuclear power stations. For combustible renewables such as biomass, the conversion efficiency is calculated from [15]. The resulting PEF for electricity from the various sources are 1 for hydro, wind, and solar PV; 3–4 for biomass; and 3 for solar thermal and nuclear. The results for 2017 are shown in Table 4.
Production [GWh]
Efficiency
Primary energy [GWh]
Nuclear
6285
33%
19,045
Fossil
5610
40%
14,025
Hydro
4141
100%
4141
Wind
6
100%
6
Solar (PV)
283
100%
283
Total
16,325
37,500
Table 4.
Calculation of PE by physical energy content method for the electricity production in Slovenia in 2017.
Just like at the partial substitution method, we took into account 10% losses in the network to obtain the PE shown in Table 5.
Production [GWh]
Network loss [GWh]
Useful energy [GWh]
Primary energy [GWh]
PEF
Total
16,325
1632.5
14,692
37,500
2.55
Table 5.
Calculation of PEF by physical energy content method for the electricity production in Slovenia in 2017.
The calculated PEF for the electricity mix using the physical energy method for 2017 is 2.55. For this year, this value is similar to the value assumed for Slovenia, i.e., 2.5. In order to observe the temporal variation of PEF, the same calculations were also carried out for previous years, based on statistical data for Slovenia. The results are illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
PEFs for the electricity mix in Slovenia using the physical energy method for the years 2000–2018.
Figure 2 shows that the factor is constantly changing, but we can notice that from 2011 onward the factor has fallen slightly. The likely reason for this is that the share of renewable resources began to increase markedly in the meantime. Since this method assumes 100% conversion efficiency for electricity produced from renewable sources, the primary energy for production is the same as production itself.
2.3 Calculation of the primary energy factor according to the Standard EN 15603:2008
The last calculation was carried out by using the default PEFs prescribed by the standard SIST EN 15603 [15]. This methodology evaluates separately the nonrenewable part and the total part of PE. Solar energy (PV) was evaluated in the same way as water and wind energy. Therefore, the default factors are the same in this case. In this method, we used the fractions of individual energies which comprise the mixture of electricity from Table 1. The full calculation for 2017 is shown in Table 6.
2017
PEF [/]
Nonrenewable
Total
Slovenia (average)
Energy share [%]
Nonrenewable
Total
Nuclear
2.8
2.8
38.5
1.05
1.08
Fossil
4.05
4.05
34.36
1.39
1.39
Hydro
0.5
1.5
25.37
0.13
0.38
Wind
0.5
1.5
0.04
0.00
0.00
Solar
0.5
1.5
1.73
0.01
0.03
Sum
2.61
2.88
Table 6.
Calculation of the PEF of electricity mix for Slovenia for 2017, using the reference values from the standard SIST EN 15603.
In Table 6, two PEFs for the electric mixture are calculated through the fractions of individual energies composing the electricity mix in Slovenia for 2017. We can see that the average PEF for nonrenewable is less than the total factor. The reason for this is that the default primary factors that take into account only the nonrenewable part of primary energy are lower than the total or total factor. The difference between the two average factors is almost 0.3, which is not negligible. As with previous methods, here again, the calculation was also performed for previous years, with the same default factors. The results are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Average PEFs for nonrenewable and total PE calculated in accordance with SIST EN 15603.
3. Results and discussion
By comparing the methods, we can find that the calculation after partial substitution yields the same results for each year. This is due to the default efficiency, which is based on certain default values. Since we get the same PEF for the electricity mixture in all years, we cannot see changes in individual years. It is also impossible to predict what will happen to the factor in the coming years. We can see that the factor is 2.78, which represents a higher value than the predicted factor for Slovenia, which is 2.5 [21].
In the case of the physical energy method, we can better categorize individual years, and from the calculations, we see the PEF fluctuation. Physical energy method assumes energy conversion efficiency of 100% for renewable sources (produced electricity equals primary energy). The highest value of the factor occurred in 2003, while the lowest value amounted to 2.23 in 2016. The reason for such a change in the last year is in the increased production of electricity from renewable sources.
In the last method proposed by the standard SIST EN 15603, which computes two factors, we can see that in the case of the total factor, the value is higher than the average PEF, which takes into account only the nonrenewable part of energy. This is the case for renewable energy sources where PEF values are lower by threefold in comparison to nonrenewable energy sources. What is logical is that we do not consume any energy for the generation of hydro, wind, and solar energy. Likewise, we can also notice here that both factors are the highest in 2003, while they are the lowest in 2014. The reason for this is that the share of produced electricity from fossil fuels is the lowest, and the share of water energy is the highest, which means that due to the low share of energy from fossil fuels and high energy from renewable energy, the factor of PE has decreased.
3.1 Forecast of electricity generation and impact on PEF
By analyzing statistical data and calculating the PEF, we can predict the change of PEF for the electricity mix of Slovenia. The total production of electricity for the coming years and the annual growth of production were calculated by adding the individual quantities of electricity that were calculated by linear regression for each source separately. This means that we added the predicted production of electricity from nuclear power, fossil fuels, hydroelectric power, wind energy, and solar energy. With this simple linear regression, we predicted the amount of energy produced from different sources and how it affects the PEF. The predictions were made for 2020, 2030, and 2040 (Table 7). The share of individual sources and the total share of renewables are shown in Table 8.
Year
2017
2020
2030
2040
Nuclear
6285
6147
6574
7001
Fossil
5610
5592
5524
5455
Hydro
4141
5350
6384
7418
Wind
6
9
14
25
Solar
283
475
894
1312
Total
16,325
17,574
19,392
21,211
Table 7.
Forecast of total electricity production [GWh].
Year
2017
2020
2030
2040
Nuclear
38.5
35.0
33.9
33.0
Fossil
34.36
31.8
28.5
25.7
Hydro
25.37
30.4
32.9
35.0
Wind
0.04
0.1
0.1
0.1
Solar
1.73
2.7
4.6
6.2
Total share of renewables
27.1
33.2
37.6
41.3
Table 8.
Prediction of energy shares in the production of electricity.
In Table 8, we see that the nuclear energy share will decrease over time as well as for fossil fuels, whose share will decrease by more than 5% by 2040. In the case of hydro energy, the share will increase by just over 7%. Wind energy already represents a very small share in electricity, so in the future it is not expected to grow significantly. The share of solar energy will also increase; by 2040, we can expect an almost 5% increase. As we can see, Slovenia already generates a large share of electricity from renewable sources; by 2040, we can expect that this share will grow by almost 15%.
3.2 Forecast of the primary energy factor for Slovenia
For the partial substitution method, we used the same production efficiency as given in Table 3. The only difference is that in this case we carry out the calculation for 2020, 2030, and 2040. In Table 9 we see an example of the calculation for 2020, where we used the previously predicted quantity of produced electricity.
Production [GWh]
Network loss [GWh]
Useful energy [GWh]
Primary energy [GWh]
PEF
Total
17,574
1757.4
15,816
43,934
2.78
Table 9.
Calculation of predicted PEF by partial substitution method for the production of electricity in Slovenia in 2020.
The PEF calculated according to the method of partial substitution method does not change over the years. The reason why the factor remains the same is that the method assumes the same production efficiency for all energy sources.
For the physical energy method, we used the same production efficiency as in Chapter 2.2. The predictions for 2020, 2030, and 2040 have been recalculated, taking into account the energy production predicted by linear regression. In this method we also considered 10% network losses in the network. The forecasts of the PEF are listed in Table 10.
Year
Production [GWh]
Primary energy [GWh]
PEF
2020
17,574
38,442
2.43
2030
19,392
41,024
2.35
2040
21,211
43,607
2.23
Table 10.
Forecast of the PEF for the electricity mix in Slovenia using the physical energy method.
We can see that the PEF will decrease over time. This result is logical, since the share of renewable energy sources will increase substantially over time. Hence, the PEF is expected to decrease. For better transparency, the PEF calculated by the physical energy method is depicted along its forecast in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
PEF of electricity calculated according to the physical energy method.
Calculation of PEF according to the standard SIST EN 15603 was carried out as described in Chapter 2.3. In this method we use the proportions of individual sources determined by linear regression. Two PEFs are proposed, namely, the average PEF-nonrenewable and average PEF-total. The PEFs for 2020 are given in Table 11. The average PEF for the electricity mix with predicted values is illustrated in Figure 5. It can be noticed that by 2040, the average PEF for nonrenewable energy will decrease to a value of 2.17, while the average PEF-total will be 2.58.
2020
PEF
Nonrenewable
Total
Slovenia (average)
Energy Share [%]
Nonrenewable
Total
Nuclear
2.8
2.8
34.98
0.98
0.98
Fossil
4.05
4.05
31.82
1.29
1.29
Hydro
0.5
1.5
30.45
0.15
0.46
Wind
0.5
1.5
0.05
0.00
0.00
Solar
0.5
1.5
2.70
0.01
0.04
Sum
2.43
2.77
Table 11.
Forecast of the PEF for the electricity mix in Slovenia for 2020, using the reference values from the standard SIST EN 15603.
Figure 5.
Average PEF for electricity mix according to the SIST EN 15603 method with predicted values.
According to the conversion factors of PE, discrepancy between nonrenewable and total PEFs for the electricity mix can be significant. From Figure 6, we can see the annual progress of all the PEFs, calculated with all three evaluated methods, for electricity in Slovenia.
Figure 6.
Comparison of the methods of calculating the PEF for the electricity mix in Slovenia.
With the partial substitution method, we can see that the PEF for electricity does not change over the years, i.e., it remains 2.78. The reason for this lies in the assumption about the efficiency of production from renewable energy sources and nuclear energy, where 40% efficiency is taken into account. Furthermore, the same efficiency is also used for fossil fuels. Therefore, the efficiency of production from all primary sources is 40%. This is why we get the same PEF for all years. This means that according to this method, we do not get the correct representation of the PEF for the electricity mix, or the assumptions are not applicable for the case of Slovenia. In the event that Slovenia produced part of the electricity from biomass, whose production efficiency is estimated with 30% in this method, the PEF would be more volatile. However, Slovenia does not use biomass for the production of electricity; therefore, this method does not give us the useful values of the factor. We also notice that the factor 2.78 is quite high in terms of other methods.
The other method used to determine the PEF for electricity is the physical energy method. With this method we evaluate the efficiency of production from renewable energy sources as 100%, while the default efficiency of nuclear power generation and fossil fuel is 33 and 40%, respectively. The PEF calculated according to this method is very low, as shown in Figure 4. The reason is in the assumption that the efficiency of production from renewable sources is 100% and Slovenia has a large share of renewable sources in its electricity production, mainly from hydropower sources. In the previous analyses of individual years and forecasts, we also noticed that the share of renewable resources is increasing over time. For this reason, from Figure 4 decreasing trend for the future is clear. This means that a PEF determined by this method will slowly decrease with respect to the increase in renewable energy sources in electricity generation.
With calculation according to the standard SIST EN 15603, we calculated two different primary energy factors: the average PEF for nonrenewables, which takes into account only the nonrenewable part of the energy of individual primary sources, and the PEF, which takes into account the total share of primary energies. We used the default values of the individual factors determined by the method for each primary source separately. We can see that the average PEF for nonrenewable energy is much lower than the total. The reason for this is that the default values of the factors that we use to calculate the nonrenewable and total factor are different. The greatest differences occur in renewable energy sources. This is because renewable energy sources have a very small share of nonrenewable energy. Therefore, the factors for calculating the individual PE sources are low in the case of hydropower, wind, and solar energy. When calculating the total factor, the factor value for these types of energy is 1.5. Moreover, a different calculation approach is used in this method, i.e., the PEF is calculated through the shares of individual energy sources in the total electricity.
4. Conclusions
PEFs are used to describe the conversion efficiency from primary energy sources to secondary energy sources, which are supplied to end consumers. PEFs are, therefore, used for comparing necessary quantities of primary energy to the final energy demands. At EU level as well as national levels, PEFs are used for converting final energy to primary energy consumption, for comparing efficiency of devices with different energy sources as well as to benchmark building energy performance. As it stands, the EU Member States can autonomously determine national PEFs, which in turn can skew the evaluation process of primary energy use in buildings.
We analyzed the three most commonly used methods used to determine the PEF for the electricity mix. We examined what are the assumptions of the individual methods and the individual default values that the method assumes. Then, using these methods, the value of the PEF for electricity in Slovenia was determined. We also recalculated with all the methods how the PEF changed over time at an annual level. All calculations were made using statistical data about produced electricity from various primary energy sources and individual assumptions determined by the methods. In addition, a statistical analysis using linear regression was carried out in order to predict the future PEF values for all three considered methods.
We have found that the methods differ in the evaluation of individual primary sources, which has a significant impact on the PEF value. In addition, we observed that the factor is also changing in terms of the electricity production from different sources, which means that the factor depends on the amount of energy that is produced either from nonrenewable sources of energy or from renewable energy sources. If the annual production of electricity from renewable energy sources is higher, we can expect a lower PEF and vice versa. We also noted that the share of renewable resources increases over time, which is also noticeable in the predicted values of production from renewable energy sources.
We also found that with the partial substitution method, we do not get representative results about the PEF, since it remains constant over the years. This means that this method does not provide a proper representation of the PEFs and, hence, is not applicable for the case in Slovenia. The method of physical energy gives the efficiency of production from renewable energy sources as 100%. Here, too, the question arises as to whether the evaluation is completely correct and if we can truly assume that the use of PE is equal to the actual production of electricity. In the third method, defined in the standard SIST EN 15603, which provides two PEFs, a certain measure of criticality of the assumed factors for the different sources of energy is used.
\n',keywords:"primary energy, primary energy factor, electricity mix, renewable energy sources",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66151.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66151.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66151",totalDownloads:379,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"September 13th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 20th 2019",datePrePublished:"March 14th 2019",datePublished:"July 22nd 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"According to the European energy policy, the energy use of technical systems in buildings is given at the level of primary energy. This calculation requires knowledge of the primary energy conversion factors according to their source; however, there is currently no single European-wide recognized method for their determination. The aim of this study is to present and compare three methods for determining primary energy factors, namely the method of partial substitution, the physical energy method, and calculation according to EN 15603 standard. For the case study, the electricity factor for Slovenia was calculated according to the aforementioned methods. The results of this study showed that the methods differ in the evaluation of individual primary sources, which has a significant impact on the PEF value. We found that with the partial substitution method, we do not get representative results about the PEF. The method of physical energy defines the efficiency of production from renewable energy sources as 100%. The question arises if we can truly assume that the use of PE is equal to the actual production of electricity. In the third method, defined in the EN 15603 standard, which provides two PEFs, a certain measure of criticality of the assumed factors for the different sources of energy is used.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66151",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66151",signatures:"Matjaž Prek",book:{id:"7633",title:"Energy Policy",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Energy Policy",slug:"energy-policy",publishedDate:"July 22nd 2020",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"144302",title:"Dr.",name:"Matjaz",middleName:null,surname:"Prek",fullName:"Matjaz Prek",slug:"matjaz-prek",email:"matjaz.prek@fs.uni-lj.si",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Calculation of primary energy factor by partial substitution method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Calculation of primary energy factor by physical energy content method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Calculation of the primary energy factor according to the Standard EN 15603:2008",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Forecast of electricity generation and impact on PEF",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Forecast of the primary energy factor for Slovenia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. 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Data on energy, exergy analysis and optimisation for a sugar factory. Data in Brief. 2015;5:408-410. DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2015.09.028'},{id:"B7",body:'Taner T, Sivrioglu M. Energy-exergy analysis and optimisation of a model sugar factory in Turkey. Energy. 2015;93:641-654. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2015.09.007'},{id:"B8",body:'Taner T. Energy and exergy analyze of PEM fuel cell: A case study of modeling and simulations. Energy. 2018;143:284-294. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.10.102'},{id:"B9",body:'Taner T. Exergy analysis of a circulating fluidized bed power plant co-firing with olive pits: A case study of power plant in Turkey. Energy. 2017;140:40-46. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.08.042'},{id:"B10",body:'Taner T. Optimisation processes of energy efficiency for a drying plant: A case of study for Turkey. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2015;80:247-260. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.01.076'},{id:"B11",body:'Taner T, Sivrioglu M. 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Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Calculation_methodologies_for_the_share_of_renewables_in_energy_consumption#Definition_of_the_primary_energy_content_of_fuels'},{id:"B21",body:'Tehnična Smernica TSG-1-004:2010. Učinkovita Raba Energije. Slovenia: Ministrstvo za Okolje in Prostor; 2010. Available from: http://www.mop.gov.si/fileadmin/mop.gov.si/pageuploads/zakonodaja/graditev_objektov/TSG_01_004_2010_ure.pdf'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Matjaž Prek",address:"matjaz.prek@fs.uni-lj.si",affiliation:'
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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