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He has over 25 years of experience in neuro-oncology and minimally invasive surgery techniques. He is a pioneer in many areas in neurosurgery (treatment of brain tumors, Chiari Malformation, and sacroiliac joint disorders).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"199099",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Vanaclocha",slug:"vicente-vanaclocha",fullName:"Vicente Vanaclocha",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199099/images/system/199099.jpeg",biography:"Vicente Vanaclocha is Chief of Neurosurgery. Doctor of Medicine from the University of Valencia, he has over 25 years experience in neuro-oncology, minimally invasive and minimally invasive surgery techniques. Specialist in neurosurgery both nationally and internationally (including the General Medical Register of England and stay at the Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa) has been Chief of Neurosurgery at the University Hospital of Navarra and head of Neurosurgery Service of San Jaime Hospital in Torrevieja. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69300",title:"Psychosocial Autopsy of Mass Suicides: Changing Patterns in Contemporary Times",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89439",slug:"psychosocial-autopsy-of-mass-suicides-changing-patterns-in-contemporary-times",body:'India recently witnessed two unnerving suicide events. In 2018, 10 family members of the Chundawat family from Burari were found hanged, while the oldest family member, the grandmother, was strangled. The Burari deaths are infamously known as the “Burari case” or “Burari Kand.” In another wave of suicides, in 2019, over 20 students killed themselves in a span of 1 week since Telangana Intermediate Examination results were announced. These two events, even though isolated in space and time, can be categorized under the phenomenon of mass or cluster suicides. While the major underlying cause of Telangana deaths was identified as failure of students in examination, it is the Burari case that perplexed one and all. This case was beyond the scrutiny of logic as it could not be explained by the usual causes of suicide in India, such as health concerns (mental and physical), bankruptcy and indebtedness [1]. Thus, Burari and Telangana point towards two different motives for suicide. With the help of these two examples, the authors wish to highlight the complexity and diversity prevalent in suicidal behavior.
The phenomenon of suicide can be viewed as a spectrum and the only way to arrive at any meaningful suicide prevention strategy is to first understand this psycho-social phenomenon in its different expressions. At a time when India is grappling with issues of mental health, this chapter aims to draw attention to the emerging trend of clustering and contagion in suicidal behavior, its nature as well as its manifestation, as witnessed in the contemporary Indian social cultural set-up.
Recently, the rate of cluster suicides in India has been growing rapidly since the last decade. It is a matter of deep concern as it became a massive social problem and thus, effective interventions and solution for suicide prevention need to be developed at the earliest.
There is a shift in the predominance of the number of suicides from the elderly to the younger people all over the world. India is labeled as “Suicide Capital of South-East Asia’ as it has recorded the highest number of suicides in South-East Asia in 2012, according to a WHO report [2] also in 2016 the number of suicides in India had increased to 230,314 and suicide was the most common cause of death in both the age groups of 15–29 years and 15–39 years. India has a major contribution to global suicide deaths as it increased from 25·3% in 1990 to 36·6% in 2016 among women, and from 18·7 to 24·3% among men.
There are several different types of mass suicide events that can occur, each for a different reason and for different goals. Form historical perspective the most infamous events of mass suicides are those that are related to religious groups or cults.
An understanding of the historical trends with respect to suicide in India takes us back to the ancient scriptures that emerged in the Indian society. After having reviewed different Indian scriptures such as the Upanishads, the Bhagvad Gita and the Brahma Sutras it was concluded that suicide is not either explicitly condemned or glorified nor is it seen as a crime in these ancient Indian texts [3]. Although suicide does find mention in the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, it appears that whether such behavior was approved or disapproved depended on the intent of killing oneself, which was perhaps more important than the behavior itself. Thus, if suicide was undertaken due to selfish reasons, it was likely to be disapproved, but if it was undertaken for heroic or self-sacrificial reasons, it was seen in a more positive light. Within the Indian context, it is also debatable whether taking one’s life to attain self-realization or enlightenment should be considered “suicide” or not. In such instances, a more suitable term seems to be “leaving one’s body” rather than “killing oneself.” Some Indian philosophical systems have emphasized on the existence of soul or atman, which is eternal and imperishable in nature, therefore death is then considered an end to the body or gross physical matter and not the soul.
In some religions such as Jainism there is provision known as “sallekhana” or “sanyasa-marana.” It can be defined as the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of food. It is linked to the attainment of “moksha,” the liberation from the cycle of life and death [4]. Sallekhana is sanctified morally and ethically by the Jain community, thus it is not considered an act of suicide. These observations point towards the increasing necessity of a culturally based understanding of suicide. Hinduism condemns suicide, but in specific instances accepts it as a meritorious act of self-sacrifice. It is cited in the Manusmriti that libations of water, which are usually offered to the departed souls, should not be offered to those who commit suicide.
In India’s past, there have also been widespread instances of “Sati” and “Jauhar” or “Juhar.” These practices were considered courageous and an act to save honor. “Jauhar” or “Juhar” was practiced by Rajput women and involved mass self-immolation, primarily to avoid capture, enslavement and rape by any foreign invader. While, “Jauhar” happens to be an example of mass suicide in India, when it comes to contemporary times the picture is different. There are growing instances of cluster suicide in India. The Burari deaths and the Telangana student suicides are examples of this growing trend.
History is replete with unforgettable cases of mass suicides. Mass suicide of Jonestown is perhaps one such haunting example that springs to memory. It is popularly known as “People’s temple mass suicide.” In the 1970s, Jim Jones, a self-styled prophet established a “socialist community” in Guyana named Jonestown. Jones was popular for his notorious image and was under the scanner for financial fraud and child abuse. Establishing an isolated community in a remote corner was perhaps one of the best ways to sustain his delusions and escape arrest. However, even after he moved to Guyana investigations against him continued. Moreover, his followers who moved with him soon discovered that the utopian world promised to them i.e. “an agricultural commune rich with food, where there were no mosquitoes or snakes and where temperatures hovered around a perfect 72° every single day” was a big lie. Instead, they were starving, living in hot and humid climate, full of mosquitoes and snakes. Naturally, his followers began looking for ways to flee. It has been reported that distressed by his followers’ attempts to run away; he ordered them to consume a cyanide-laced potion, which eventually resulted in the death of over 900 people. Later analysis has revealed it as more appropriately a case of mass homicide rather than suicide, as his followers were surrounded by Jones’s armed guards, thus they were left with no other option than to die. Jonestown massacre is a classic example of how one man’s delusion can be contagious to a mass of people.
Similar cases of mass suicide have been reported in different areas of the world, including the Heaven’s Gate Mass Suicide in California, where 39 people of the eccentric Heaven’s Gate cult committed suicide. They were all dressed identically, were lying on their bunk beds with plastic bags around their heads. They were misled by their Marshall that a UFO was following the comet Hale Bopp and leaving the human world was the only way to evacuate this earth and reach a better cosmic world [5].
In Uganda, the Movement of the Restoration of ten Commandments of God (MRTCG) was a Catholic group that was convinced that the world would come to an end when the millennium calendar began. On 17 March 2000, they resorted to self-immolation and poisoning.
In all of these cases, it can be observed that the self-proclaimed cult leaders exploited the vulnerabilities of people to meet their own ends. The fabled utopian land is often based on religious foundation. These cases are also testimony to the failure of reason. People when promised of “ideal land” and “perfect future” are willing to stake everything that they have; blindly following the one “messiah” that promises them a better life or rather a better death.
Mass suicide can be defined as the simultaneous suicide of all the members of a social group [6]. Mancinelli has subdivided mass suicides into two categories: Firstly, (a) hetero-induced, in which a particular population has reacted to oppression, it is typical of defeated and colonized populations forced to escape from reality that does not acknowledge their human dignity, thus people may choose to kill themselves rather than submit to their oppressors. These deaths are often looked upon as heroic and may find a place among cultural myths and legends. Secondly, (b) self-induced, in which the motivation is related to a distorted evaluation of reality, without there being either an intolerable situation or a real risk of death. The question perhaps is whether these categorizations are enough to encompass the range of suicidal behavior that occurs in the present Indian society.
Suicide cluster has been defined as “a series of three or more closely grouped deaths within three months that can be linked by space or social relationships. In the absence of transparent social connectedness, evidence of space and time linkages are required to define a candidate cluster. In the presence of a strong demonstrated social connection, only temporal significance is required” [7]. Another type of suicide cluster referred to as “mass clusters”, has been commonly defined as “a temporary increase in the total frequency of suicides within an entire population relative to the period immediately before and after the cluster, with no spatial clustering” [8].
Cluster suicide can be differentiated from mass suicide as a “pocket” phenomenon. It is defined by its contextual factors. Generally, studying clusters becomes more difficult than studying masses, as both temporality and spatiality of the event takes prime importance in its understanding. Again the Burari deaths and Telangana student suicides prove to be examples of the importance of local factors that played a role in these acts.
There are two main types of suicide clusters: point and mass [9, 10, 11].
Point cluster- Point clusters are time space clustering close in both location and time, that occurs in small communities, and involve a temporary increase in frequency of suicides above a baseline rate observed in the community and surrounding area [9, 10, 11, 12].
Mass clusters- occur when a large amount of people kills themselves at the same time. It involves a temporary increase in suicides across a whole population. The difference between point and mass is that it is close in time but not necessarily location. Mass clusters have been documented following suicides of high-profile celebrities or others who receive considerable media attention [10, 12].
A new concept has been introduced recently that is Echo cluster, the occurrence of subsequent, indigenous suicide which takes place in the same location after an initial suicide [7, 13].
Most attention has focused until recently on a greater than expected number of suicides in specific locations and time periods (“point clusters”), such as the cluster of suicides that occurred in Burari in Delhi where 11 members of a family committed suicide cumulatively.
It is observed that the mechanisms underlying suicide clusters are unclear. It has been proposed that point clusters may result from a process of “contagion,” whereby one person’s suicidal thoughts and behaviors are transmitted from one victim to another through social or interpersonal connections [10, 12].
In India there are several categories of suicide cluster which are related with their area of profession. Some of them are students’ suicide, family suicide and farmers’ suicide.
Student suicide: Now a day’s education is becoming society’s most critical responsibility as it is more related with social status. Students have to face many challenges that affect their life directly or indirectly like academic stress caused by the very system of education, acquisition of grades, coping up with peer pressure & parental pressure and the emotional disturbances to secure good marks and position. Poor scholastic performance, rising expectations from parents, getting involved in relationships these are the reasons which prompt a student to commit suicide.
Kota in State of Rajasthan in India is well known for its coaching of students for various admission exams after 12th standard. It has become the suicide city as the number of students committing suicide has increased drastically. By the end of the year 2018 three medical/ IIT students committed suicide within four days which brought unsettling case of students suicides. Total 19 students committed suicide in 2018.
A recent example of student suicide cluster was in Indian state of Telangana where more than 20 students killed themselves within a week after declaration of intermediate examination results. Due to the occurrence of these incidents, India’s education system is criticized as a poor one in which students are under heavy pressure not just to pass examinations but to exceed expectations at all costs. The instrumental value of education in India is its potential in generating socio-economic and cultural capital through a promise of decent job opportunities in the future.
Family suicide: takes place when a whole family is unanimously agreeing to take the critical step to commit suicide together. There has been a vast increase in the family suicide cases in last 2–3 years. This phenomenon came in light after the death of 11 members of family in the mysterious Burari case’. After few days of Burari case, seven members of family committed suicide in July 2018, According to police, the family was reeling under financial hardships. In March, 2013 the same thing happened in Gangapur District of Rajasthan where eight members of a family consumed poison to committed suicide together. The family was highly religious. They also made a video before suicide.
Recently in July, 2019 three members of a family ended up their life by consuming some toxins in Punjab. According to police records, some sort of family tension within the household led to this extreme step. Again after few days three of family members were found hanging on IIT campus.
Farmer Suicide: Two thirds of India’s population are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. The earth is most generous employer in this country of a billion [14] ‘It is the agricultural sector that the battle for long term economic development will be won or lost. For over a decade, famer suicides have been a serious public policy concern. More recently, this has also led to shrill outcry from the media and much politicking. The government response to the crisis of farmer suicide has mostly been simplistic and in some cases perhaps aggravating [1].
This is a particular concern for country. It is observed that huge debts, inadequate income from agriculture to repay the borrowed money, the absence of any help from outer sources, are the main cause of farmer’s suicide, making them choose to end their lives. Factors contributing to the high rate of suicide in this vulnerable population include economic adversity, exclusive dependence on rainfall for agriculture, and possibly monetary compensation to the family following suicide.
Contagion has been defined as an underlying assumption that “suicidal behavior may facilitate the occurrence of subsequent suicidal behavior, either directly (via contact or friendship with the index suicide) or indirectly (via the media) [9].
It is necessary to distinguish various types of individual suicide that might be imitated. One type of suicide relates to some symbolic or group activity which creates group pressure(s) that cause an individual to kill oneself (a form of altruistic suicide). A second type that might trigger imitative suicide involves individual’s prominence in specialized occupations, e.g., a well-known artist or businessperson. It is possible that such suicides might cause suicide among individuals with similar occupational backgrounds who have experienced crisis or failure. However, this imitation is only likely to occur among a small subgroup of the population. A third category that might trigger imitative suicide is the suicide of national celebrities, i.e., individuals who are well known and recognized by name and pictorial image by the larger American public. These individuals have usually achieved prominence in an occupation subject to significant public exposure, but some social actors may become celebrities through their social connections with other prominent celebrities [15].
Philips [16] examined U.S. and U.K. suicide rates from 1947 to 1968 and reported that suicides increased after highly publicized deaths by suicide. He proposed that news reports of suicides influenced suicide risk by means of “suggestion”. He dubbed this the “Werther effect.” Projective identification has been regarded as a psychoanalytical concept, which refers to feelings of empathy towards suicide. There is a blurring of self and suicide followed by a re-internalization of projection, leading to suicidal behavior.
In Priming [17], activation of one thought may trigger related pre-programmed thoughts. Media images stimulate related thoughts in the minds of audience members.
Social Integration and regulation: Where there is a lack of social ties in the community, social integration is low, leading to individualism and egoistic suicide and where interests of groups dominate those of individuals, altruistic suicides result [18].
Homophily or assortative relating [10]: The tendency of people to preferentially associate with one another and associative susceptibility, [19] where a stressful event occurring in a local community will affect several vulnerable individuals independently of each other.
Certain religious beliefs may leave people feeling guilty for things they have done and may lead them to think that they cannot be forgiven. Some believe that sacrificing themselves will earn them a reward (like going to heaven) or in countries like Japan, shame or dishonor may be a reason, like hara-kiri or seppuku.
The multidimensional nature of suicides is reflected in the array of motives and risk factors associated with it. It has been referred to as “multidimensional, multifactorial malaise” [20]. Previous researches have mostly studied the psycho-social risk factors associated with suicides. It appears that both individual factors as well as situational factors intermingle in a complex manner to determine suicidal behavior. The demographics of suicide in India [21] reveals factors such as Age, Gender, Marital status, Education, Family structure, Urban vs. rural residence, Occupation and Precipitating event, play a role determining suicidal behavior. As per the National Crime Records Bureau 2009 data [22], the top 10 causes or correlates of suicide in 2009 were identified as family problems (23.7%), illness (21%) [including insanity/mental illness (6.7%)], unemployment (1.9%), love affairs (2.9%), drug abuse/addiction (2.3%), failure in examination (1.6%), bankruptcy or sudden change in economic status (2.5%), poverty (2.3%), and dowry dispute (2.3%). In addition, the high rates of suicide among persons with mental illness and drug abuse/addiction are of much concern. Substance abuse, problems with parents-in-law and spouses and mental illness are the risk factors that are increasingly gaining momentum in the Indian society [23].
There are vulnerable individuals with negative self-esteem, socially isolated, who tend to internalize feelings and conflicts and are over-dependent on their families. Drug and alcohol abuse, employment problems, a history of self-harm have been quoted as possible causes [24].
Mass suicides are seen as suicide pacts in couples or families rather than as part of religious cults as in western societies. Suicide pacts almost always involve people well known to each other, mostly spouses, most of them childless. However, there is an emerging trend for cyber-based internet-facilitated suicide pacts which increasingly involve two or more strangers who meet on the internet and share similar world views. Such cases have been reported in the press, but have not been studied in a scientific manner [20].
Those who are especially susceptible to suicide contagion are adolescents with suicidal thoughts and people with depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, schizophrenia and PTSD.
Exposure to previous trauma makes a person susceptible to develop PTSD, especially in cases of physical and emotional proximity to the event and victim. Rumination followed by intrusive thinking are additional causes. In such instances long term emotional support is needed, which if found missing, has its adverse consequences. The mass trauma caused by mass suicide is likely to affect the mental health of individuals. Depression has been regarded as a key risk factor for suicide. Substance abuse, chronic pain, a family history of suicide, a prior suicide attempt and impulsiveness plays a major role in adolescent suicides.
The media sometimes gives intense publicity to “suicide clusters” - a series of suicides that occur mainly among young people in a small area within a short period of time. These have a contagious effect especially when they have been glamorized, provoking imitation or “copycat suicides”. This phenomenon has been observed in India on many occasions, especially after the death of a celebrity, most often a movie star or a politician. The wide exposure given to these suicides by the media has led to suicides in a similar manner. Copying methods shown in movies are also not uncommon. This is a serious problem especially in India where film stars enjoy an iconic status and wield enormous influence especially over the young who often look up to them as role models.
Two prominent methods are psychological and psychosocial autopsy.
In depth study of the history of suicide prior to the suicidal act is known as psychological autopsy [25]. Psychological autopsy is a method created by Shneidman [26]. It has become widespread in the last 2–3 decades.
Psychological autopsy is a depth study of a person’s mental state by analyzing medical records, interviewing friends and family and conducting research into their state of mind prior to death.
The psychological autopsy report provides detailed information about the death using various sources including the autopsy report, medical records, relevant documents and information gathered from interviews with key informants.
It was conceived as a means to help forensic pathologists clarify the nature of deaths regarded as unresolved and that could be associated with natural or accidental causes, suicide or homicide. The method was also used to investigate the reasons behind self-inflicted deaths and to provide comfort to family members of individuals who have died this way.
Psychosocial autopsy is understanding of emotional, social, economic and cultural reasons and circumstances associated with suicide among individuals. The aim is to investigate and analyze the relevance of interacting variables.
Some of the key goals of the Psychological Autopsy:
Obtaining an in-depth understanding of the decedent’s personality, behavior patterns, and possible motives for suicide; identify behavior patterns—reactions to stress, adaptability, changes in habits or routine Establish presence or absence of mental illness.
The demographic and clinical features of suicide cluster victims have been described by researchers. Only some studies [19, 27] adopt a more methodologically robust design, such as case–control study. Only a small number of possible risk factors for suicide were examined, like gender, age-group, marital status, area of residence, method of suicide. Studies using multi-level methodology are needed to determine which individual or contextual factors contribute to clustering of suicidal behavior. Longitudinal studies on suicide clusters combined with environmental factors are needed. It is not always possible to determine retrospectively whether or not a person in a suicide cluster knew about the suicide of another cluster member [28].
Suicide is often related to depression, social isolation and loss of meaning in life. Some strategies at the individual level are:
Talk to those intimately connected first prior to media coverage, possibly one who is trained in crisis care therapy.
Identify vulnerable persons for mass/cluster suicides, e.g. people who had a negative interaction with the person before suicide and feel that they were responsible for suicide, people who were in suicide pact, people who were previously suicidal.
Screen those at high risk, screening by trained counselors, screening for emotional and mental health problems, symptoms of depression and suicide risk.
Provide post-care after suicide counseling by crisis counselors available in schools and make sure students know these resources are readily available.
Offer case-management services at schools and universities.
Provide mental health screening for depression and suicide.
Share information about mental health with parents.
Mass suicides can be prevented at community level by designing of strategies by community leaders. All sectors of the community need to be included: public health, mental health, Education, Local government, parent groups, media, as no single agency has the requisite expertise to deal with the suicide cluster. The plans need to be adapted to the particular needs, resources and cultural characteristics of the community. Suicide prevention training needs to be provided in schools. Peer-helping needs to be encouraged. It is based on the premise that an informal helping network exists. This group teaches how to reach out adults for help. Tele-health services need to be in places which are manned by counselors, mental health clinicians, social workers and clinical psychologists. Having counselors on the sites of memorials, suicide anniversaries and other events related to suicides can also be of great help.
Addressing the environment, e.g. the internet environment and how students interact with each other on the net is also needed. Mass suicides can impact those living in the community deeply. Hence strategies at the community level have a great role to play.
The cultural/social resources include guidance from elders for addressing grief, informal community gatherings, where community members share stories and draw on a shared sense of spirituality and cultural history to overcome crises and impact of suicides and suicide clusters. The elders can pass on the wisdom and traditions on how to thrive through harsh conditions. The mutual care and concern for others, shared purpose. Spirituality helps to a great extent in dealing with traumas of life. Traditional culture helps to ground individuals and provide a framework to view their place in the world. Communities need to connect youth to their culture. Elders can share stories of how they used to deal with crisis situations in the past before our generation. School–based programs need to be organized on suicide signs and risk factors. Developing and promoting prosocial adult and peer mentors and role models are likely to help in a great way. Culture camps can be organized where youth (at community and school level) are exposed to their traditional life ways.
Psychological autopsy studies have found that media can be of great help by not publishing/telecasting the method used to kill oneself, not suggesting that the death was due to a similar reason or achieved a goal such as fame or revenge and listing resources to those who are struggling.
Treatment of mental illness can reduce the risk for suicide and increase the quality of life. One needs to be beware of warning signs like increased use of drugs/alcohol, statements threatening to hurt self, looking for access to fire arms, pills etc. statements of hopelessness, helplessness etc., increased anger and rage, highly reckless behavior, paired with recent losses, including deaths, break-ups, job or financial losses.
Mass suicide in across the globe is an age-old act which was carried out by individuals and was neither condemned nor glorified nor seen as a crime. The intent of the act determined its approval or disapproval. With the change in scenario, more number of cluster suicides has been reported in the present Indian society which can be categorized into family, farmers and students. Psychosocial autopsy has revealed imitation, suggestibility, contagion, lack of social integration, priming, associative susceptibility, guilt, mental illness and a host of other causes behind this act. Preventive strategies need to be addressed at individual, community and cultural level. In future, more methodologically sound and preferably longitudinal studies are needed to gain better insight into this suicide type so that preventive strategies can be targeted appropriately.
Groundwater (GW) belongs to all subsurface water, including saturated and unsaturated zones. More than 1.5 billion inhabitants around the globe depend on the groundwater for agriculture usage and industrialization consumption. However, pollutions were identified as one of the major challenges in hampering GW withdrawal (Figure 1) [1]. The exchange of the chemical and physical characteristics in water will affect the quality of groundwater resources, hence leading to the availability of humans in terms of quantity [2].
The figure is showing unconfined aquifer and confined aquifer.
Groundwater is deposited between the pore spaces of rock/soils, cracks, joints, and fractures and various geological formations. The movement of groundwater in soils and rocks depends on the hydraulic characteristics of the shape and size of void spaces. Water can flow easily through certain rocks through the soil into the underground aquifer system, but water typically penetrates through fractures, cracks, and some other geological formations. Generally, there are three distinct types of geological formations of groundwater that determine the availability of groundwater resource, namely, aquifers, aquitard, and aquiclude.
An aquifer is a highly permeable or porous saturated formation (conglomerate, sandstone, limestone, unconsolidated sand, gravels, fractured limestone, fractured basalt, etc.) that not only stores water but also provides adequate amounts of water and thus is considered as significant groundwater resources. The aquitard is a partially saturated formation (shale or clay) that allows water through it but does not provide enough available water than the aquifer. An aquiclude is an impermeable layer (clay) produces a considerable volume of water because of its high porosity but does not provide significant amount of water.
Groundwater passes from recharge zones to discharge zones along flow routes of variable lengths and comes in contact with surface water (SW) essentially at low elevated areas [3]. Surface water resources mostly depend on regional precipitation/rainfall and it may be lost by infiltration through the streambed, layer of soil-moisture, and cracks or fractures to interacts with the groundwater system and the area of mixing of both known as the hyporheic zone [4]. The interaction of surface water and groundwater takes several forms in which if surface water moves toward the groundwater system, it is referred to as a losing stream whiles the other way round is called gaining stream [5].
The surface water (SW)-groundwater (GW) interactions in the hyporheic zone take place within the close-streambed sediments at few scales, which depend on the hydraulic-potential strengths and bed geometry [6]. In SW-GW interactions and hyporheic exchange, earlier studies used three types of scales such as sediment scale (<1 m), local scale (1–1 km), and catchment scale (>1 km) [7]. However, Todd and Mays [8] classified only two scales such as local scale and regional scale which are associated with small watershed and large watershed, respectively. Here, SW-GW interaction is associated with the direction of streamflow, shallow GW aquifer property, and local GW flow system.
The scope of this chapter is to discuss the vertical distribution of GW, types of the aquifer system, types of SW-GW interface, and SW-GW interaction at both local and regional scales. This chapter has been divided into four sections; (i) groundwater distribution and aquifer characteristics, (ii) the SW-GW interactions at local and regional scale, (iii) types of SW-GW interface, and (iv) the methods for investigation of SW-GW interactions and aquifer system.
The distribution of groundwater is classified into two zones based on the water table, namely, unsaturation zone and saturation zone. The aquifer system is mainly divided into confined and unconfined aquifers, and its characteristics depend upon the main physical parameters such as porosity, permeability, transmissivity, specific yield, specific storage, and hydraulic conductivity.
The groundwater occurrence is typically categorized into two major zones based on the water table namely unsaturation zone and saturation zone. The zone of unsaturation is also known as the zone of aeration (vadose zone), which is also sub-classified into the soil moisture zone, intermediate vadose zone, and capillary zone. The unsaturation zone is comprised of interstices or void spaces that are partially filled with water and air. All interstices are fully saturated with water under hydrostatic pressure in the saturated zone under the water table.
The soil-moisture zone occurs across the main root zone beneath the earth’s surface, but its thickness varies with the types of soil and vegetation. This zone plays a significant role in the recognition of hydrological processes [9] and also important for the interaction of the land-surface atmosphere [10]. The practices of agriculture and irrigation, particularly in arid and semiarid areas, primarily depend on the timely characterization of spatial and temporal soil moisture fluctuations in the root zone as a consequence of the soil moisture effect on health status and production of crops and salinization [11]. Several environmental factors such as physicochemical characteristics of water, surface slope and roughness, soil hydraulic conductivity, the porosity of the soil, and pre-existing soil pore moisture content are controlling the soil matrix’s capacity to transfer water of which affecting the infiltration process [12].
The intermediate vadose zone is located beneath the soil moisture zone and upper part of the capillary zone. Water that drops into this zone can be either drawn into the capillary interstices of the transition area through the molecular attraction or drawn downwards to the adjacent saturated zone.
The zone is the lowest part of the aeration zone and directly above the water table where water as a component of the capillary action can be drawn back toward it. For a capillary zone of clay with a 0.0005 mm porous radius, the typical height may be 3 m, contrasted with fine sand of less than 10 cm with a 0.02 mm porous radius. Capillary water is the water stored above a surface of the water table in the capillary openings of unsaturated or saturated substances.
The saturation zone is above the water table which is often referred to as the phreatic zone or aquifer system. Water that has profoundly infiltrated through the vadose zone enters the saturation zone and filled all pore spaces with water. The thickness of the saturation zone varies from several meters beneath the earth’s surface to numerous hundred meters. The factors to determine the thickness of this zone depend upon the local geology, accessibility of openings or pores in the rock formation, and water flow within the zone from recharging to discharge points. This saturation can take place range from several days or weeks to many months in duration. Moreover, groundwater is controlled by quantity and rainfall intensity, temperature, rock porosity, and permeability, dryness of the air, vaporization intensity during the rainy season, land slope, vegetative covering, and water absorption ability for soil. As well, significant volume of water can be contained within fractures and joints structures. The following are typical opening types contained in rock: (1) openings in gravel and sandstone formations with individual particles; (2) vugs, caverns, and solution channels in dolomite and limestone rock; and (3) joints, crevices, gas holes and faults in metamorphic rocks and igneous formations.
Aquifers are generally categorized into two major classifications, confined and unconfined aquifers; leaky and fractured aquifers are sometimes addressed in some other aquifers (Figure 1).
An unconfined aquifer is a layer of water-bearing formations or rocks that do not have a confining bed at the top of the groundwater which is referred to as the groundwater table where the pressure becomes equivalent to the atmospheric pressure. The variation of groundwater levels varies and depends on the pumping from the wells, permeability, area of recharge and discharge, in effect impacting the increasing or declining water rates in wells that are extracted from aquifers. The water table is free to rise or to fall which is often called the free or phreatic surface. Contour graphs and water table profiles of wells that use the water to determine water quantities available as well as water distributing, and movement may be prepared from elevations of wells. The perching water sources, as shown in (Figure 1) are a case of unconfined aquifers. Their high susceptibility to contamination is a major problem with non-confined aquifers. If something dumps on the surface, it will penetrate vertically and go down into the storage of groundwater.
The definition of the confined aquifer as “a formation in which the groundwater is isolated from the atmosphere at the point of discharge by impermeable geologic formations; confined groundwater is generally subject to a pressure greater than atmospheric” [13]. It is also known as “artesian or pressure aquifers” and it occurs mostly just above the base of confined rock bodies or layers which is mostly composed of clay that can protect it from surface pollution. Punctured wells from artesian aquifers are more prone to fluctuate with their depth of water because of changes in pressure than the amount in stored water. When such an aquifer is well penetrated, the water level should increase over the base of the confined layer, as illustrated by the flowing and artesian wells of (Figure 1). The water reaches a confined aquifer in a region in which the confining layer reaches the surface. The groundwater flow system into aquifers is frequently affected by gravity and geological formations in such areas either vertically or horizontally. A zone that provides water to a restricted area is considered a recharge area and water may even be leak into a restricted bed. Water ups and downs in confined aquifers penetrating wells mainly result from pressure changes instead of storage volume changes. Confined aquifers thus show only limited variations in storage and are predominantly used as conduits to move water to natural or artificial discharges from recharge areas.
Aquifers that are fully unconfined or confined appear less often than aquifers that are leaky, or semi-confined. This is a common occurrence of plains, alluvial valleys, or former lake basins where a semi-pervious aquitard or semi-confining bed is underlain or overlain by a permeable layer. Pumping water from a well into a leaky aquifer eliminates water in two directions such as the vertical flow into the aquifer through the aquitard and the horizontal flow in the aquifer.
The fractured rock aquifers vary from the subsurface water systems that are stored in the geological formation. Although sedimentary aquifers hold and move a significant amount of water between specific sedimentary granules through pore spaces, however, fractured rock aquifers hold and move water in an otherwise impermeable rock mass through as cracks, joints, and fractures (Figure 2).
The figure is showing the aquifer system in fractured rock formations.
Therefore, fractured rock aquifers have hydraulic characteristics that vary from those found in sedimentary aquifers with accessible water (common in terms to be described as bore yield) and are typically defined by nature (opening, size, and extent) and degree of interconnection between discontinuities in the rock mass. The long-term yield from well in fractured rock aquifers depends on the location of the degree of discontinuity and the relationship of discontinuities in the total mass of the rock instead of on the permeability of the geological substances near the extraction phase. The aquifers in fractured rock typically depend on the amount of precipitation that caused the surface water runoff of which considerably greater than in flat regions. Moreover, permeability fractured rock aquifers can also be dramatically decreased by the weight of the overlying rock mass as open spaces progressively decrease between fractures and cracks.
Several properties that contribute to the identification and characterization of the aquifer are discussed.
Porosity (n) is the intrinsic characteristic of a substance and refers to the amount of void or empty space in each material. The porosity (void space) occurs between the fragments of soil or rock. It is defined by the ratio between the volume of the void space and the volume of rocks/soils.
where
Permeability is defined as the ability of water movement through rock or soil which is directly related to porosity and it applies to the interconnected of pore spaces in rock or soil. Considering the relationship between driving and resisting forces on a microscopic scale during flow to porous media, hence, the permeability, k, is a function only of the area where the hydraulic conductivity K is defined:
where
Hydraulic conductivity (K) is a physical characteristic that calculates the capacity of substance in the context of an applied hydraulic gradient to transfer water across the pore spaces and fractures of rock/soil [14]. It depends on various physical variables including porosity, the structure of the soil matrix, grain size distribution, type of soil fluid, particle arrangement, water contents, void ratio, and other factors [15, 16].
The transmission (T) is the rate of discharge where the water is transferred under a hydraulic gradient over a unit width of an aquifer. It is calculated by a formula and expressed in m2/s, or m3/day/m or l/day/m.
where
Specific yield (
In other view, specific yield can be defined as the ratio of the volume of water that a saturated rock or soil will yield by gravity to the total volume of the rock or soil [15]. It is expressed in percentage.
where
Specific storage (Ss) is the volume per unit amount of a saturated formation that is a deposit from the storage because of the compressibility of the mineral skeleton and the pore water per unit change in head. The specific storage is given by Jacob (1940) and is typically represented in cm−1 or m−1.
where
Groundwater moves across flow paths arranged in space and develop a flow system. GW flow system is classified into local, intermediate, and regional flow systems (Figure 3) [17]. Water travels to the adjacent discharge area in a local flow system. One or more topographical low and high located between their discharge and recharge regions describe an intermediate flow system; however, contrary to the regional flux system, it does not occupy both the bottom of the basin and the major topographic high [18]. Water flows at a longer distance than the local flow system in a regional flow system and often discharge into large streams and lakes.
GW flow system at the local and regional scale.
The range of groundwater at the local flow system is from 10 m to 10 km between the adjacent aquifers system and the stream reach. The recharge and discharge zones are associated with high and low areas respectively, associated with sub-watershed boundaries and local streams, respectively. The local GW flow system depends on the slope of topography and hydrogeology of the region (subsurface rock, streambed-sediment characteristics, and climatic conditions). At this scale, the seasonal effect on the hydrological response to recharge is high due to local flow systems, high water flux, and unsteady flow conditions. The fluctuation of the water table in local GW flow systems varies in different climatic conditions. For instance, the low water level in arid and semi-arid climate due to the low amount of precipitation and infiltration while the higher water level in a tropical environment is due to higher rainfall and infiltration. Therefore, SW-GW interaction is found more in a tropical and humid climate.
Generally, SW-GW can be introduced for homogeneous interaction of a stream and adjacent shallow aquifers system with hydrological processes, which is controlled by a SW-GW head and a streambed leakage coefficient. In hydrological processes, water moves with huge quantities of nutrients and streambed sediment and modifies the earth’s surface through deposition and erosion. The hydrological processes give information about the drainage basin, small watershed, stream basin, evaporation, transpiration, evapotranspiration, runoff, and infiltrations rate (Figure 4). The hydrological exchange between GW and SW is through the downwelling and upwelling processes (Figure 5). Upwelling processes are those in which local GW flow moves toward SW and on the other hand, the situation is referred to as downwelling processes. During these processes, if the shape of the longitudinal streambed profile is convex then the SW movement is through downwelling processes in the hyporheic zone whereas, if the shape of the longitudinal streambed profile of SW is concave then SW movement is through upwelling processes in the hyporheic zone [19]. The shapes of longitudinal streambed profiles are related to pool-riffle sequence and sediment bars, dunes, and ripples. The movement of stream water from riffles to pools is showing in (Figure 5) which is affected by the channel’s sinuosity and bed load materials.
River water and groundwater interactions in the hyporheic zone at the local scale.
Downwelling, upwelling, and hyporheic exchange processes.
The interaction of SW-GW is related to low topographical pathways varying from 10 to 100 km or more at a regional scale. The recharge or discharge trends of groundwater, regional topographic, hydrological conditions are mainly characterized by the regional groundwater flow system at a regional scale. The hydrological processes of the large watershed such as precipitation, surface run-off, infiltration, evapotranspiration, base flow, streamflow, and channel conditions are described in Figure 6. All hydrological processes can cover on the regional scale of a large watershed and a small stream reach conditions can cover local scales. Slow hydrological response to recharging areas will result in an insignificant seasonal impact on the regional GW flow system. The regional flow system is developed with long-distance SW flows and low charging levels on higher topographical slopes. It explains why recharging and discharge levels fluctuate more at the local level than at the regional level. The recharge or discharge rate investigation of the regional flow system can be analyzed using environmental tracer isotopes and hydro-chemical characteristics (major ions and heavy metals) [6].
River water and groundwater interactions at the regional scale.
There are several types of interactions between GW and SW. A losing river does not lose water as it flows downstream by percolation, but it can also lose water through evaporation, use of plants, and consumption of human activities.
In this connection, the level of GW is higher than the riverbed which recharges the river (Figure 7A). It can also be described as entering of GW into SW when SW reaches its base level which results in gaining stream connection.
Types of stream water and GW interactions, while (A) a stream water gains from GW, known as gaining stream, (B) a stream loses water to GW at shallow depth known as disconnected or losing or transition stream, (C) a stream loses water to GW at great depth known as a disconnected stream, (D) a stream loses water, but connected with GW known as a connected stream (E) a stream stage and the GW head are equally known as the parallel Stream, and (F) a stream shows the gain on one side and the loss on the other side to GW known as flow-through stream.
In this connection, given the level of GW is lower than the streambed, hence, SW recharges the GW. Losing streams connection divided into two types in which it is either connected or disconnected with the GW table. The term “transition” is used to define the condition of connected and disconnected streams. As shown in (Figure 7B), the unsaturation zone is presented in transition with a shallow GW table between riverbed. Note, there are distinguished interactions of the disconnected stream with shallow and deep water table [20].
In this connection, the unsaturation zone of sediments exists between the channel and regional water table hence it can be said that the system may be hydraulically disconnected (Figure 7C). The term disconnected has been criticized because it can suggest a system where there is no exchange of recharge and discharge of the GW system [21]. Therefore, the rate of infiltration of a disconnected system has been referred to as a “maximum losing condition”—stream discharge mechanism. Thus, the water table occurs at greater depth in the disconnected system and at shallow depth in the transition zone.
A stream is a stream that loses water while it flows downstream. The water penetrates the ground and recharges the local GW flow as the water table lies below the level of the channel with the absence of an unsaturation zone (Figure 7D).
This interaction occurs when the stage of the stream and the head of the groundwater is equal (Figure 7E).
Where the stage of the channel is less than the head in the groundwater on one bank side and larger than the head in the groundwater on the opposite bank side, this process is seen as a flow-through reaches (Figure 7F). This interaction occurs most frequently when the stream cuts perpendicular to the regional GW flow, which in the case of fluvial plains is along their axis.
The methods for the investigation of aquifer systems such as remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS), resistivity test, and pumping tests will be discussed. Several related approaches also will be discussed such as seepage meter, Darcy’s law, heat tracer method, and environmental tracer method for the investigation of SW-GW interactions.
In groundwater system, evaluation geophysical methods (geothermal gravity, electrical resistivity, etc.) have been well recognized. The electrical resistivity survey is one of the tools that is very effective to identify subsurface profiles without interfering with the structure of the soil [22]. The usage of this method enables the measurement of groundwater quantities and quality. This includes detailed knowledge concerning the geological and hydrological information of the GW system such as subsurface mapping to identify aquifer-protective structures, the analysis of infiltration of the vadose zone, measuring the extent of volume and internal aquifer structure, and groundwater contamination [23]. It is effectively used to estimate soil porosity and soil permeability as a non-destructive process. In addition, it is commonly utilized for the interaction of changes in the resistivity of the subsurface with the soil characteristics. The negligible porosity and permeability of the hard rock, as well as igneous and metamorphic rocks, in terms of soil exploitability, but the alteration processes taking place in the first 10–100 m of depth can significantly increase their fracture permeability. In the zone influenced by modification, this may create moderate secondary porosity aquifers.
These aquifers are very critical for irrigation and the availability of potable water in many parts of the world. Altered methods often influence the overall porosity of the rock such as water content which results in a varying spectrum of electric resistivity within the transition region [24]. Consequently, it is a good potential technique for the study of alteration zones in hard rocks, electrical resistivity in rocks influenced by differing weathering degrees. Schlumberger array system [25] was used to perform the resistivity survey. “ABEM SAS 1000 Terrameter” was the device used for performing Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES). For resistance measurement, four electrodes were selected at a certain time. Two existing electrodes situated on the outside of the potential electrodes were inserting currents into the field. The potentially different electrodes were quantified and the ground resistance was measured by Eq. (2).
where
Pumping test is a field technique and it is used for the assessment of the aquifer characteristics such as hydraulic conductivity (K), storage coefficient (S), and transmissivity (T). Aquifer hydraulic parameters are spatially and temporarily influenced by their heterogeneity, complicated geologic conditions, as well as multipart boundaries but these characteristics in various aquifer areas, are challenging to describe efficiently [26]. The geological formation of the aquifer (confined, leaky, unconfined, and fractured aquifer) influences the hydraulic parameters to estimate; thus, various interpretive techniques are applied. Implementation of geophysical studies and pumping test techniques may be used to maximize the comprehension of hydrogeology models by accurately detecting such essential aquifer characteristics: permeability, thickness, porosity, transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, etc. Various pumping test methods are used to determine aquifer hydraulic characteristics; but, long term, step pumping, and recovery tests are mostly utilized. Aquifer characteristics can be found by using easy methods such as the first analytical solutions proposed by [27] Thiem (1906) for a steady-state condition that gives an equation for the groundwater flow in aquifers subject to pumping. After this, [28] Theis (1935) and Cooper and Jacob (1946) [29] find extremely restrictive conditions in terms of a transient state that limit their implementation to aquifers that are uniform, homogeneous and isotropic, constant thickness, porous and permeable which produce pumping with a constant discharge in a completely penetrating well. The following formulas calculate the aquifer properties by Theis-Jacob method:
where Eq. (5) shows that the
Intensive performance applications of RS and GIS are spatial data analysis and monitoring methods for groundwater sources. RS data integration with the GIS environment seems to be very beneficial in considerably identifying the specific groundwater potential areas. In the short time available, RS and GIS cover a vast and unacceptable region of the earth’s surface to assess areas of possible groundwater and to identify natural recharging locations [31]. RS and GIS information are valuable for many geological resources including mineral exploration, hydrogeology conditions, structural, geomorphological, lithological features, depth, and thickness of the aquifer system and other geological areas [32]. Furthermore, in the area of groundwater studies, researchers have used thematic layers such as geomorphology, geology, drainage patterns, lineaments, vegetation, intensities of rainfall, and slopes [33]. A geophysical resistivity survey was performed by [34] and borehole lithology results were compared for aquifer characterization with groundwater potential mapping which was created by RS and GIS. For a hydrogeological study, [35] integrated electrical resistivity survey data with RS outputs in a GIS environment. Moreover, [36] suggested that the geophysical resistivity data integrated with high-resolution satellite data collected from RS and GIS techniques provide more accurate information on geological and hydrological characteristics and also give possible groundwater potential zones in the hard rock formations.
Seepage meter is one of the most common instruments for directly measuring SW-GW seepage flux. Initially, it was developed to measure water loss from a canal in 1940 by [37], and also it is used for other purposes such as measuring seepage flux in small lakes, estuaries, rivers, and several other environments [38]. The basic concept of the seepage meter is the difference between initial (
This method was described as a plastic bag type seepage meter, which is based on isolating principle and covers a portion of SW-GW interactions with a bottomless cylinder which important in determining the directions of water exchange at the local scale [38]. The streambed features (riffle-pool sequences) can be recognized by seepage meters at the local scale because this method is useful to investigate the water flux estimates of lower streambed sediments [39]. Seepage meters can also be used to determine the volumetric change in flow, discharge, or recharge zones along with the streambed sediments in the hyporheic zone at a local scale. The seepage meter is favorable for those streams which have low current velocities which represent a local scale stream [17]. For instance, four seepage meters have been used, along with riverbed sediments of Biebrza River, Poland to quantify the hyporheic exchange flux at a local scale [40].
Subsurface temperature variation is associated with the movement of water. This variation affects the chemistry of water which can be traced by the heat tracer method. According to Anderson [41], the heat tracer method is used to determine hyporheic exchange, GW flow patterns, and rate of discharge and recharge at the local regional scale. SW temperature fluctuates throughout the season and also daily while GW temperature remains constant throughout the year. This method has been used by Schmidt, Raich, and Schirmer [42] for SW-GW interactions at the local scale and suggested that streambed temperatures can be quickly, reliably, and cheaply assessed the SW-GW interactions at several locations. The successful combination of their conceptual methods described by Constantz [43] with these technical improvements to assess SW-GW interactions, GW discharge or recharge, SW movement through the streambed, and GW flow systems. In the past, heat tracers’ methods have been used to evaluate losing and gaining stream. For instance, the temperature was investigated by Cox, Su, and Constantz [44] and also determined the special conductance, and chloride between the aquifers system using the heat tracer method in the Russian River, Mendocino, California. Their results indicated that the special conductance and chloride data were not correlated with RW data. It means GW was not significantly varied by the exchange of SW and GW system and temperature variations in GW were negligible.
Darcy’s law [45] measures the hydraulic gradients, aquifer hydraulic conductivity, cross-sectional area of the aquifer perpendicular to the flow, and to evaluate the rate of GW flow. Darcy’s law expressed as,
where q is a specific discharge (L/T),
where q flows between SW-GW,
Environmental tracer method is used to analyze the SW-GW interactions on both local and regional scales which are based on isotope data and geochemical data such as major ions or heavy metals. Stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes are useful for assessing the flow of precipitation, source of water, age of water, and hydrological processes. In addition, this method has been used to determine the GW influx to a tropical river with major ions to supplement GW flux results [46]. Furthermore, it has been used to determine the gaining, losing disconnected and connected stream reach condition based on the geochemical parameters and stable isotopes [47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]. Moreover, it is important to understand the recharge or discharge zone along with the GW flow system.
The number of groundwater studies continues to increase globally. This chapter discusses the SW-GW interactions and groundwater characteristic with appropriate assessment methodologies encompassing subsurface investigation (resistivity), hydraulics aspects of groundwater (pumping test), and mapping (RS and GIS).
Furthermore, understanding the SW-GW interactions through available methods (seepage meter, heat tracer, and environmental tracer) is useful in watershed management, that is, risk management and assessment of the aquifer system. Moreover, environmental tracer method is also a useful for the evaluation of the hydrological process, source of water, age of water, and gaining and losing disconnected and connected stream conditions.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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