\r\n\tIn order to understand the detailed content, these parameters are also divided into different classes such as inert, readily biodegradable, soluble COD, etc. However, still we do not possess detailed knowledge on organics in water sources or wastewater streams. Therefore, during the last decade, scientists tried to divide organics into different classes and understand their treatment potential and natural pathways. This book aims to fill out a very significant gap in this research field. Different treatment processes, monitoring and water determination chapters on dissolved organics, emerging organic pollutants, endocrine disruptors, emerging disinfection by-products, microplastic etc. in water or wastewater are welcome to this book project.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"358ff11fd43b59f3a36498ef0494189d",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Taner Yonar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8934.jpg",keywords:"COD, BOD, TOC, treatment, toxicity, fire retardents, bioacumulaion, treatment, pesticides, hormones, sources of microplastics, effects on health",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 11th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 2nd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 31st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 18th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"190012",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Taner",middleName:null,surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190012/images/system/190012.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Taner Yonar is a Professor of Uludag University, Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department. He has received his B.Sc. (1996) degree from the Environmental Engineering Department, Uludag University. He received his M.Sc. (1999) and Ph.D. (2005) degrees in Environmental Technology from Uludag University, Institute of Sciences. He did his post-doctoral research in the UK, at Newcastle University, Chemical Engineering and Advanced Materials Department (2011). He teaches graduate and undergraduate level courses in Environmental Engineering on water and wastewater treatment and advanced treatment technologies. He works on advanced oxidation, membrane processes, and electrochemical processes. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Parallel kinematics machines, PKMs, are known to be characterised by many advantages like a lightweight construction and a high stiffness but also present some drawbacks, like the limited workspace, the great number of joints of the mechanical structure and the complex kinematics, especially for 6-dof machines. Therefore Callegari et al. (2007) proposed to decompose full-mobility operations into elemental sub-tasks, to be performed by separate minor mobility machines, like done already in conventional machining operations. They envisaged the architecture of a mechatronic system where two parallel robots cooperate in order to perform a complex assembly task: the kinematics of both machines is based upon the 3-CPU topology but the joints are differently assembled so as to obtain a translating parallel machines (TPM) with one mechanism and a spherical parallel machine (SPM) with the other.
\n\t\t\t
In one case, joints’ axes are set in space so that the mobile platform can freely translate (without rotating) inside its 3D workspace: this is easily obtained by arranging the universal joint of each limb so that the axis of the outer revolute joint is parallel to the base cylindrical joint; such three directions are mutually orthogonal to maximise the workspace and grant optimal manipulability. With a different setting of the joints, three degrees of freedom of pure rotation are obtained at the terminal of the spherical wrist: in this case the axes of the cylindrical joints and those of the outer revolute pairs in the universal joints all intersect at a common point, which is the centre of the spherical motion.
\n\t\t\t
This solution, at the cost of a more sophisticated controller, would lead to the design of simpler machines that could be used also stand-alone for 3-dof tasks and would increase the modularity and reconfigurability of the robotised industrial process. The two robots have been developed till the prototypal stage by means of a virtual prototyping environment and a sketch of the whole system is shown in Fig. 1: while the translating machine has been presented already elsewhere (Callegari & Palpacelli, 2008), the present article describes the design process of the orienting device and the outcoming prototype.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Architecture of the assembly system based on two cooperating parallel robots
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Kinematic synthesis
\n\t\t\t
The design of parallel kinematics machines able to perform motions of pure rotation, also called Spherical Parallel Machines, SPM’s, is a quite recent research topics: besides the pioneering researches by Asada and Granito (1985), the most important mechanism of this type is the agile eye by Gosselin and Angeles (1989), upon which many prototype machines have been designed since then. Few other studies on the subject are available during the 90’s, among which the work of Lee and Chang (1992), Innocenti and Parenti-Castelli (1993) and Alizade et al. (1994). In the new millennium, however, a growing interest on spherical parallel wrists produced many interesting results, as new kinematic architectures or powerful design tools. The use of synthesis methods based on or screw theory, for instance, has been exploited by Kong and Gosselin (2004aa and 2004b) that provide comprehensive listings of both overconstrained and non-overconstrained SPM’s; Hervé and Karouia, on the other hand, use the theory of Lie group of displacements to generate novel architectures, as the four main families in (Karouia & Hervè, 2002) or the 3-RCC, 3-CCR, 3-CRC kinematics specifically treated in (Karouia & Hervè, 2005); Fang and Tsai (2004) use the theory of reciprocal screws to present a systematic methodology for the structural synthesis of a class of 3-DOF rotational parallel manipulators. More interesting architectures, as the 3-URC, the 3-RUU or the 3-RRS, have been studied by Di Gregorio (2001a, 2001b and 2004) and also by other researchers.
\n\t\t\t
Following the approach outlined in (Karouia & Hervè, 2000), Callegari et al. (2004) proposed a new wrist architecture, based on the 3-CPU structure; it is noted also that the 3-CRU variant is characterised by a much more complex kinematics but can be useful in view of a possible prototyping at a mini- or micro- scale, as shown by Callegari et al. (2008). The main synthesis steps of the 3-CPU parallel wrist are outlined in the following paragraphs.
\n\t\t\t
First of all, it is noted that only non-overconstrained mechanisms have been searched in order to avoid the strict dimensional and geometric tolerances needed by overconstrained machines during manufacturing and assembly phases. Moreover, the use of passive spherical pairs directly joining the platform to the base has been avoided as well and for economic reasons only modular solutions characterised by three identical legs have been considered. It must be said that these advantages are usually paid with a more complex structure and the possible presence of singular configurations (translation singularities) in which the spherical constraint between platform and base fails.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Limb of connectivity 5 able to generate a spherical motion of the platform
\n\t\t\t
Aiming at this kind of spherical machines, a simple mobility analysis shows that a parallel mechanism able to generate 3-dof motions must be composed by three limbs of connectivity 5. Without losing generality, it is supposed that each single limb consists of 4 links and 5 revolute (R) or prismatic (P) joints that connect the links among them and the limb itself to the fixed frame and to the mobile platform. If each limb’s kinematic chain has 3 revolute pairs whose axes intersect at a common point, that is the centre O of the SPM, therefore the moving platform can rotate around the fixed point O: in this way, each limb generates a 5-dimensional manifold that must contain the 3-dimensional group of spherical motions around the point O. If the other two lower pairs are locked, the kinematic chain of the overconstrained Gosselin and Angeles wrist (1989) is obtained, see Fig. 2.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 3.
Limb with subgroup RRR able to generate the subgroup of planar displacements
\n\t\t\t
By analysing the described configuration, it is seen that the spherical motion can be obtained also by using 5 revolute pairs R1-R5 where the axes of the joints R1, R3 and R5 still intersect at a common point while the axes of pairs R2 and R4 are parallel to the direction of R3. In such a way, the 3 joints R2, R3 and R4 will generate the 3-dimensional subgroup of planar displacements G(П), i.e. the set of translations lying in П and rotations around axes perpendicular to П. The same subgroup G(П) is generated also in case the axis of revolute joint R3 is still perpendicular to plane П but does not cross the rotation centre O, as shown in Fig. 3, therefore also with this limb kinematics a spherical wrist can be obtained.
\n\t\t\t
On the other hand, by following the same line of reasoning, the same subgroup of planar displacements G(П) can be generated by substituting one or two revolute joints among the R2, R3, R4 set with prismatic pairs whose axes lie in the plane П, thus obtaining limbs whose central joints are characterised by one of the sequences PRR, RPR, PPR, PRP, RRP, RPP. Of course, two adjacent joints in limbs kinematics can be merged to yield simpler architectures with fewer links: for instance two revolute joints with orthogonal axes can be superimposed to give a universal (U) joint, while the set of one revolute joint and one prismatic pair with the same axes are equivalent to a cylindrical (C) joint, as shown in Fig. 4.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 4.
Merge of two adjacent joints able to yield universal (a) or cylindrical (b) pairs
\n\t\t\t
The kinematic chains described above prevent the ith limb’s end from translating in the direction normal to the plane Пi, i=1,2,3; therefore, if three such chains are used for the limbs and the three normals to the planes Пi, are linearly independent, all the possible translations in space are locked and the mobile platform, attached to the three limbs, can only rotate around a fixed point.
\n\t\t\t
In this way, seven alternative design concepts have been considered, which are: 3-URU, 3-CRU, 3-URC, 3-UPU, 3-CPU, 3-UPC, 3-CRC. Figures 5-9 show the mentioned synthesis steps leading to the specific limb topology (a) and sketch a first guess arrangement of the introduced joints (b). In particular, the second picture in each one of these figures, labelled (b), shows the simplest possible setting of the limbs, that all lie within vertical planes: unfortunately in this case the 3 normals to limbs’ planes are all parallel to the horizontal plane and therefore result linearly dependent, allowing the platform to translate along the vertical direction, see Fig. 10a. Among all the possible setting of these normal axes in space that grant them to be linearly independent, it has been chosen to tilt the limbs’ planes so that they are mutually orthogonal in the initial configuration (or “home” position of the wrist), Fig. 10b, thus greatly simplifying the kinematics relations that will be worked out later on; moreover, even if this arrangement changes during operation of the machine, this configuration is the most far from the singular setting previously outlined, therefore granting a better kinematic manipulability of the wrist. The sketch of the outcoming mechanisms are drawn in Fig. 11-13.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 5.
Synthesis of URU limbs (a) and sketch of the 3-URU mechanism (b)
\n\t\t\t
Figure 6.
Synthesis of CRU and URC limbs (a) and sketch of the 3-CRU mechanism (b)
\n\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Synthesis of UPU limbs (a) and sketch of the 3- UPU mechanism (b)
\n\t\t\t
Figure 8.
Synthesis of CPU and UPC limbs (a) and sketch of the 3- CPU mechanism (b)
\n\t\t\t
Figure 9.
Synthesis of CRC limbs (a) and sketch of the 3- CRC mechanism (b)
\n\t\t\t
Figure 10.
Setting of the 3 axes normal to limbs’ planes: coplanar (a) and orthogonal (b)
\n\t\t\t
Figure 11.
Concept of a 3-URU (a) and 3-CRU (b) spherical parallel machine (home pose)
\n\t\t\t
Figure 12.
Concept of a 3-UPU (a) and 3-CPU (b) spherical parallel machine (home pose)
\n\t\t\t
Figure 13.
Concept of a 3-CRC spherical parallel machine (home pose)
\n\t\t\t
The kinematics of such machines has been investigated and in view of the design of a physical prototype the 3-CPU concept has been retained, see Fig. 14: this has been mainly due to the relative simplicity of the kinematics relations that will be worked out in next section, to the compactness of the concept, that allows an easy actuation and finally to the novelty of the kinematics, that has been proposed by Olivieri first (2003) and then studied by Callegari et al. (2004). Before studying the kinematics of the 3-CPU SPM it is marginally noted that the same limb’s topology, with a different joints arrangement, is able to provide motions of pure translation (Callegari et al., 2005); moreover, the 3-CRU mechanism is extensively studied in (Callegari et. al., 2008) in view of the realisation of a SPM for miniaturized assembly tasks.
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\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Kinematic analysis
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.1. Description of geometry and frames setting
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 14.
Placement of reference frames (home pose) (a) and geometry of a single limb (b)
\n\t\t\t\t
Making reference to Fig. 14, the axes of cylindrical joints A\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, i=1,2,3 intersect at point O (centre of the motion) and are aligned to the axes x, y, z respectively of a (fixed) Cartesian frame located in O. The first member of each link (1) is perpendicular to A\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t and has a variable length b\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t due to the presence of the prismatic joint D\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t: the second link (2) of the leg is set parallel the said cylindrical pair. The universal joint B\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t is composed by two revolute pairs with orthogonal axes: one is perpendicular to leg’s plane while the other intersects at a common point P with the corresponding joints of the other limbs; such directions, for the legs i=1,2,3 orderly, are aligned to the axes u, v, w respectively of a (mobile) Cartesian frame, located in P and attached to the rotating platform. For a successful functioning of the mechanism, such manufacturing conditions must be accompanied by a proper mounting condition: assembly should be operated in such a way that the two frames O(x,y,z) and P(u,v,w) come to coincide. Finally, it is assumed an initial configuration such that the linear displacements a\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t of the cylindrical joints are equal to the constant length c (that is the same for all the legs): in this case also the linear displacements b\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t of the prismatic joints are equal to the constant length d. It is also evident that, for practical design considerations, SPM’s based on the 3-CPU concept are efficiently actuated by driving the linear displacements of the cylindrical pairs coupling the limbs with the frame: therefore in the following kinematic analysis it will be made reference to this case (i.e. joint variables a\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t, i=1,2,3 will be considered the actuation parameters).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.2. Analysis of mobility
\n\t\t\t\t
From the discussion of previous section, it is now evident that in case the recalled manufacturing and assembly conditions are satisfied, the mobile platform is characterised by motions of pure rotation; the mentioned conditions can be geometrically expressed by:
Making reference to Fig. 14b, if the point P is considered belonging to the i\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tth\n\t\t\t\t\t leg, its velocity can be written in three different ways as follows:
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t˙\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t is the velocity of point P if considered fixed to link 2:
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tand \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t˙\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t is the velocity of point P relative to a frame fixed to link 2 and with origin in B\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t:\n\t\t\t\t\t
In the same way, with obvious meaning of the symbols, the vector \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t˙\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t can be expressed as:
By dot-multiplying (8) by \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and by taking into account the conditions (i)-(iv), it is finally obtained:
Equations (9-10), written for the 3 legs, build up a system of 6 linear algebraic equations in 6 unknowns, the scalar components of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t˙\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t¨\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. Such a system can be written in matrix form as follows:
which means that the point P does not move in space, i.e. the moving platform only rotates around P. The singular configurations, on the other hand, can be identified by posing:
Equation (17) is satisfied only when the three unit vectors\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t31\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t32\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tw\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t33\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tare linearly dependent; therefore the platform incurs in a translation singularity if and only if:
\n\t\t\t\t
the planes containing the three legs are simultaneously perpendicular to the base plane;
such planes are coincident with the base plane (configuration not reachable);
at least two out of the three aforementioned planes admit parallel normal unit vectors.
\n\t\t\t\t
This justifies the choice previously operated of having the legs laid on mutual orthogonal planes: in fact this configuration is the most far from singularities.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.3. Orientation kinematics
\n\t\t\t\t
Orientation kinematics is based on the definition of the relative rotation between fixed frame O(x,y,z) and the mobile frame P(u,v,w), where is always P≡O, see Fig. 14; to this aim the following set of Cardan angles is used:
Moreover, a local frame O\n\t\t\t\t\ti(xi, yi, zi), i=1,2,3 is defined for each leg, as shown in Fig. 15: the xi axis is aligned with cylindrical joint’s axis and the yi axis is chosen parallel to limb’s first link, when it is laid in the initial configuration.
\n\t\t\t\t
One loop-closure equation can be written for each leg as follows:
In inverse kinematics the values of α, β, γ Cardan angles (or equivalently the elements r\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tij\n\t\t\t\t\t of the rotation matrix\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t) are know and the joint variables a\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t must be found; loop closure equations (21) for i=1,2,3 represent three decoupled systems of non linear algebraic equations in the unknowns a\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t, θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1i\n\t\t\t\t\t and b\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t, that can be solved to find the single solution:
The direct kinematic problem, on the other hand, assumes the knowledge of joint variables a\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t, i=1,2,3 and aims at finding the corresponding attitudes of the platform in the space. The analysis is performed by means of simple trigonometric manipulations: by substituting in (28-30) the expression of r\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tij\n\t\t\t\t\t given in (18), it is obtained:
where the k\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, i=1,2,3 are known values. The 3 equations in (31) can be solved to find up to 4 admissible values for sγ:
therefore system (31) admits up to 16 different solutions: direct kinematics of the mechanism, however, is characterised by a maximum number of 8 different configurations, since angle β can be restricted in the range [-π/2, π/2] without any loss of information.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.4. Differential kinematics
\n\t\t\t\t
By direct differentiation of the first 3 equations in (28-30), the expression of the analytic Jacobian JA is directly derived:
The geometric Jacobian JG can be worked out by expressing the relation between the derivatives of Cardan angles and the components of angular velocity ω:
It is noted that the geometric Jacobian JG is not a function of geometric parameters, therefore machine’s manipulability cannot be optimised by a proper selection of functional dimensions.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
3.5. Analysis of singular poses
\n\t\t\t\t
Limbs’ structure does not allow for inverse kinematics singularities, while direct kinematics singularities can be found by letting the determinant of JG vanish:
The zeros of (38) all lie on closed surfaces in the 3-dimensional space α, β, γ: their intersections with the coordinate planes are straight lines (see also Fig. 16), as given by:
The analysis of singular configurations has been performed also by means of numerical simulations. Figure 17 shows the value of the determinant of the geometric Jacobian matrix, normalised within the range [-1, +1] after division by the constant d\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t: the black regions are characterised by determinant values in the range [-0,05, +0,05]. All the singularity maps are plot against the β and γ angles, α being a parameter of the representation; the configuration of the mechanism for β=γ=0 is represented aside. Figure 18a plots the singularity surface in the α,β,γ space but it is a hardly readable graph. In Fig. 18b, on other hand, the workspace volumes whose determinant assumes values in the range [-0,05, +0,05] have been taken out of the representation, while the colour map still represents the local determinant value: it is now more appreciable the extent of singularity-free regions inside the workspace, Fig. 18c, where the planning of a motion could be performed: e.g. for the mechanism under design a sphere with a radius of about 50 can be internally inscribed.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 16.
Projection of direct kinematics singularity surface on several coordinate planes: α=0 (a), α=40 (b), α=80 (c), β=0 (d), β=45 (e), β=89 (f)
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 17.
Determinant of the geometric Jacobian matrix on the planes α=0 (a), α=40 (b), α=80 (c) and representation of manipulator configurations.
\n\t\t\t\t
The sphere representation of singularity-free regions given in Fig. 18c is suggestive but it is expressed in a space (the α,β,γ Cardan angles) whose geometrical meaning is rather obscure. For many industrial tasks, on the other hand, it may be useful to use the spherical parallel machine for orienting a device or a part within a possibly large 2-dimensional space, identified by the axis of finite rotation, while the need for a further twist around the axis itself may not be urgent or at least only limited rotations may be required. In this case, the geometric Jacobian may be readily represented by a colour map on the surface of a unit sphere. Figure 19, for instance, uses lighter colours to render higher determinant values while black regions represent almost singular configurations; in this figure the orientation of the platform can be easily read through its elevation and azimuth, with the twist around the central axis is taken as a parameter of the representation: it is noted that in this case, at the expense of reduced twist rotations, greater pointing motions can be accomplished in the other 2 space directions.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 18.
Singularity surface in the α,β,γ space (a); colour map representing local determinant values (b) and close-up view of a connected singularity-free region.
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Figure 19.
Singularity-free regions inside workspace for twist angle equal to 20 (a) and 60 (b)
\n\t\t\t\t
Turning to translation singularities, the singular configurations found in (17) can be easily expressed as a function of articular coordinates θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t1i\n\t\t\t\t\t:
Equation (41) is a useful expression of translation singularities in task space, where the elements of the rotation matrix are used; by using the definition of the rotation matrix in (18) and after some trigonometric manipulation, an alternative expression can be obtained in function of Cardan angles α, β, γ :
It is noted that (42) vanishes in the same configurations of (38), therefore translation singularities coincide with direct kinematics singularities, i.e. no additional singular surfaces are present inside workspace.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
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3.5. Analysis of static loads
\n\t\t\t\t
The static analysis is useful in the first phases of machine design for the selection of machine’s motors and for a first design of the links, with the related connecting bearings.
\n\t\t\t\t
The base relation is provided as usual by the well known duality between kinematics and statics, which allows a straightforward assessment of the actuation efforts τ needed to balance a moment npl applied at the mobile platform:
It must be noted that the application of a force fpl at the centre of the spherical motion does not require balancing forces by the actuators but it is entirely born by frame bearings: the internal reactions at the bearings caused by the application of the mentioned external wrench have been evaluated as well and used during structural design.
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\n\t\t
\n\t\t
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4. Dynamics
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4.1. Inverse dynamics model
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In this section an inverse dynamics model of the 3-CPU mechanism is worked out by using the virtual work principle: it is assumed that frictional forces at the joints are negligible, therefore the work produced by the constraint forces at the joints is zero and only active forces (including the gravitational effects) must be accounted in the developments.
\n\t\t\t\t
In the derivation of the model, the notation is based on Fig. 14b and the second subscript i (i=1,2,3) indicates the i\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tth\n\t\t\t\t\t limb while the first subscript j (j=1,2) refers to the first or second link respectively. Namely, m\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tji\n\t\t\t\t\t and I\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tji\n\t\t\t\t\t are the mass and (central) inertia tensor of the j\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tth\n\t\t\t\t\t member of the i\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tth\n\t\t\t\t\t limb; ω\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tji\n\t\t\t\t\t is its angular velocity and v\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tji\n\t\t\t\t\t is the linear velocity of its centre of mass; m\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tpl\n\t\t\t\t\t, I\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tpl\n\t\t\t\t\t, ω\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tpl\n\t\t\t\t\t, v\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tpl\n\t\t\t\t\t are the same quantities referred to the mobile platform.
\n\t\t\t\t
The total wrench of active and inertial effects acting on the centre of mass of j\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tth\n\t\t\t\t\t member of the i\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tth\n\t\t\t\t\t limb is written as:
where fe and ne are the external force and moment applied to its centre of mass; it is accidentally noted that the centre of mass of the platform does not coincide with the fixed point O. If τ is the vector of the actuation forces and q are the corresponding displacements, the principle of virtual work can be written for the present case:
where the vector xji gathers the position of the centre of mass of j\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tth\n\t\t\t\t\t member of the i\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tth\n\t\t\t\t\t limb and the orientation of the same link and xpl expresses the position of the centre of mass of the mobile platform and its orientation. It is noted that all the infinitesimal rotations appearing in (46) must be expressed as functions of the angular velocity of the respective link, e.g. for the platform:
Since all the virtual displacements in (47) must be compatible with the constraints, they are not independent but can rather be expressed as functions of an independent set of Lagrangian coordinates; if the Cardan angles φ=[α, β, γ]T of the mobile platform are chosen for this purpose, the following relations hold between the introduced virtual displacements:
where J, Jji and Jpl are proper Jacobian matrices that can be found through the usual velocity analysis of the mechanism. Equation (46) can be written again as:
Equation (52) completely describes manipulator’s dynamics; all the elements in it have been worked out and the resulting model has been proofed by comparison with commercial packages’ output, see (Callegari & Marzetti, 2006).
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4.2. Dynamic analysis in the task space
\n\t\t\t\t
The dynamic expression (52) is usefully re-worked in order to explicit the dependency on a proper set of Lagrangian coordinates and its derivatives. In the case of parallel kinematics machines, the dynamic model results quite naturally written in the task space, due to the (usually) difficult expression of DKP; therefore in the present case, after some cumbersome manipulation, it is obtained:
with:\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tτ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tϕ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t⋅\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tτ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, moments acting at the end-effector and corresponding to actual forces τ at actuated joints;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, Cartesian mass matrix of the manipulator;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t˙\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, vector of centrifugal and Coriolis terms;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, vector of gravity moments; h, vector of external forces and moments acting at the centre of mass of the mobile platform.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 20.
Values of mass matrix’ elements for null roll angle, i.e. γ=0 (note the different scales of the plots)
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 21.
Plots of mass matrix’ elements, normalised by determinant value, for null roll angle, i.e. γ=0 (note that all the scales of the graphs are multiplied by 10-6 but M(1,2) and M(2,3) which are multiplied by 10-7)
\n\t\t\t\t
In view of the realisation of possible control schemes based on the inversion of manipulator’s dynamics, it is useful to study the variability of mass matrix throughout the workspace. In fact, a major simplification of the model would be yielded by neglecting the 6 non-diagonal terms of the mass matrix, whether actually allowed by their comparative magnitude; otherwise, all the elements in M\n\t\t\t\t\t\tϕ\n\t\t\t\t\t and C\n\t\t\t\t\t\tϕ\n\t\t\t\t\t could be considered constant. First simulation results show that in this case both simplifying assumptions could be taken into consideration, even if the validity of the reduced models weakens when the operating trajectories get closer to singularity surfaces, as expected.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 21, for instance, shows the values of mass matrix’ elements in different workspace configurations characterised by null roll angle, i.e. γ=0: for robot’s parameters it has been made reference to the virtual prototype, whose mass properties, presented in the following Tab. 2, are very similar to physical prototype. In Fig. 22 the same plots have been normalised by dividing the matrix element by the (local) value of matrix determinant, to allow a relative comparison among elements that have very different magnitudes. It can be seen that near the isotropic point (α=β=γ=0) the diagonal elements are dominant and matrix variability is limited, while off-diagonal elements show a stronger influence when getting closer to workspace boundaries; moreover, element M(3,1) is generally an order of magnitude greater than M(2,1) and M(2,3). Such behaviour gets even more evident if one moves away from the plane γ=0. The plots have been traced for pitch and yaw angles varying between -50 and +50 because the sphere of 50 radius in the Cardan angles space is completely free of singularities, as shown already in Fig. 18.
\n\t\t\t\t
Other kinds of tests have been performed, aiming at identifying the relative contribute of various dynamic terms: for instance it seems that, even for high dynamics manoeuvres, the contribute of gravity is never negligible, while Coriolis and centrifugal forces account for 10%-16% maximum; on the other hand, the mass and inertia of the mobile platform affect very slightly the overall dynamic behaviour of the machine, possibly allowing for a major simplification of system’s model.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.3. Dynamic manipulability
\n\t\t\t\t
The dynamic manipulability ellipsoids introduced by Yoshikawa (1985, 2000) are a useful means to study the dynamic properties of a mechanism: they express graphically the capability of a given device to yield accelerations in all the directions stemming from one attitude of its workspace. As a matter of fact, many other measures of manipulability have been proposed by different researchers since that pioneering work but very few applications dealt with orienting devices.
\n\t\t\t\t
Let us consider all the actuation forces τ with unit norm:
A meaningful formulation of dynamic manipulability must be expressed as a direct function of the angular acceleration\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tω\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t˙\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t, therefore the mapping between the rate of change of the Cardan angles \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t˙\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and the angular velocity ω must be made explicit:
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tIf \n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t¨\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t is taken out of (58) and substituted in (55) it is then obtained:\n\t\t\t\t\t
The inspection of (62-64) shows that gravity merely induces a translation of the dynamic manipulability ellipsoid while in general velocity has a complex, non-negligible effect on manipulability. Making reference to the remarkable case of a fixed platform (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t˙\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t) with no external or gravity action applied (h=Gφ=0), (61) provides:
The quadratic form (64) represents an ellipsoid in the Cartesian space of the angular accelerations: its eigenvalues express the square root of the maximum and minimum accelerations that can be developed with unit actuator forces while the eigenvectors represent the associated directions in the orientation space. Figure 23 represents graphically some dynamic manipulability ellipsoids of the robot in the poses sketched aside.
The design of a first prototype has been developed, aiming at obtaining high dynamics performances; as reference figures, the following requirements have been posed:
\n\t\t\t
orientation range (elevation and azimuth): 150 \n\t\t\t\t\t
maximum angular velocity: 500 /s\n\t\t\t\t\t
maximum angular acceleration: 5 000 /s\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
spatial resolution: 0.01 \n\t\t\t\t\t
overall dimensions of the machine: maximum volume of 1 m\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t.
\n\t\t\t
The particular form of the Jacobian matrix (35) does not allow for a mechanical design based on the optimisation of kinematic properties, since JG is not function of robot’s geometry, therefore heuristic considerations have been made in a first phase, in order to limit wrist’s overall dimensions. By looking at Fig. 24 and taking into consideration (31), it is noted that the value of length c does not affect actuators’ stroke but only their initial position. The value of length d, instead, is directly proportional to the motors’ run needed to attain an assigned configuration in space and by decreasing its value a more compact design is obtained: on the other hand, a lower limit is provided by the need to accommodate the universal joints on the mobile platform and to grant a limit positioning accuracy in the task space. By means of computer simulation, all the geometrical parameters represented in Fig. 24 have been made to change, in order to take into account the above considerations and to assess the resulting geometry; in the end, it has been decided to refine the mechanical design by taking into account the concept of dynamic optimisation, enabled by the availability of the inverse dynamics model.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 23.
Main geometrical parameters
\n\t\t\t
Two dynamic figures have been used to drive the design of the machine. The measure of the dynamic manipulability, w, defined as:
results proportional to the volume of the manipulation ellipsoid and therefore yields an overall information on the global manipulation capabilities, but fails to capture the closeness to singular configurations or even the anisotropy of local dynamics. On the other hand, the index of dynamic manipulability, i, can be defined as:
with λ\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tmin\n\t\t\t\t, λ\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tmax\n\t\t\t\t minimum and maximum eigenvalues of the matrix\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tΓ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tφ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t: the index (66) is independent from the volume of the ellipsoid and vanishes close to singular configurations.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 24.
Plots of the index of dynamic manipulability as a function of actuators strokes on the three coordinate planes a\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t=0 (a), a\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t=0 (b), a\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t=0 (c)
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 25 shows sample plots of the index of dynamic manipulability as a function of actuators strokes a\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t on the three coordinate planes for the final design. With specific Matlab routines, a dynamic optimisation of the design has been performed, trying to maximise the global dynamic manipulability of the wrist while still guaranteeing a minimum threshold of the local features. For instance, in the configurations shown in Fig. 23a-23d the indexes assume the values: 0.7755, 0.1374, 0.3571, 0.0341 respectively, while it has been obtained a mean value of i\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tave\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t=0.502 over the central ±30 span of the workspace. Table 1 summarises the final geometrical values used for the design, with h being the total length of the lower part of the three limbs. It must be said that, as a general rule, in this case the optimisation routines tend to concentrate all the masses in the centre of the spherical motion, that is only too natural.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 26 on the left shows a sketch of the design of final prototype meeting the posed requirements; on the right side, a picture of the machine is presented. The limbs are made of avional (an aluminium-copper alloy) in order to join good mechanical properties with a lightweight construction. The mobile platform is made of bronze, therefore allowing the precise machining in a single placement of the 3 journal bearings that have to meet orthogonally in a single point: in this way it has been a high stiffness together with precise geometrical alignments. It must be noted that such revolute joints are idle, since no rotation occurs at all if all the manufacturing and mounting conditions are correctly satisfied. In order to allow the precise mounting of the robot in the initial (home) configuration, the special fixture shown in Fig. 27 has been realised.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 25.
Sketch of spherical wrist’s prototype
\n\t\t\t
Figure 26.
Fixture for axes alignment during mounting
\n\t\t\t
The actuation is based on 3 induction linear motors Phase WVS 20.6.3, able to provide a maximum thrust of 184 N at the speed of 6 m/s, with a maximum acceleration of 14.3 g and is controlled by Nation Instrument hardware (Flexmotion/PXI architecture). The first tests of motion are currently under development, while wrist’s controller is under design.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
d m]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
c [mm]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
h [mm]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
a imin [mm]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
a imax [mm]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
b imin [mm]
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
b imax [mm]
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
210
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
490
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
280
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
319
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
661
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
130
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
210
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Main geometrical data of spherical wrist design
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
link
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
m (mass, kg)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
I 11 (x-x moment of inertia, kg-m2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
I 22 (y-y moment of inertia, kg-m2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
I 33 (z-z moment of inertia, kg-m2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
upper limb
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
2.50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.016
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.016
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0013
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
lower limb
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
7.50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.070
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.070
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.0014
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
platform
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5.35
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.030
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.030
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.060
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Mass properties of spherical wrist design
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6. Conclusions
\n\t\t\t
The article has described an innovative spherical parallel wrist developed at the Polytechnic University of Marche in Ancona, revisiting all the main design steps, from kinematic synthesis up to physical prototyping.
\n\t\t\t
Machine kinematics has been worked out in closed form and all the singularity surfaces have been analysed: it has been pointed out that the mechanism does not possess inverse kinematics singularities, while direct kinematics singularities and translation singularities lie on the same closed surface. The inner space, where motion paths can be safely planned, has been identified and unfortunately it cannot be enlarged by kinematics optimisation because machine’s Jacobian does not depend on geometrical parameters.
\n\t\t\t
For this reason, it was decided to drive machine design by dynamic optimisation concepts and an inverse dynamics model has been developed: the study of machine’s dynamic manipulability, by means of different algebraic tools, led to the final design of the wrist, that has been also verified with structural analysis packages. The availability of the dynamic model, on the other hand, will be useful for the development of model based control systems, able to exploit the high potentials of direct drive actuation: a first dynamic analysis, moreover, shows that simplified models could be used, since the non-diagonal terms of mass matrix are much smaller than diagonal terms and platform’s inertia could be neglected, at least when manipulator is far from singular configurations.
\n\t\t\t
All design steps have been performed in a virtual prototyping environment, that allowed to take into consideration simultaneously the constraints of the mechanics and the problems of the controller, allowing to assess the performances of the closed-loop system. The physical prototyping of the machine, however, allowed to validate the good properties envisaged during the design phase but also to experience the disadvantages of the concept itself: they are mainly due to the scarce accessibility of the centre of the spherical motion, which is common to most parallel wrists, and to the difficult assembly, which requires a precise alignment of joints axes: this problem has been partially overcome by the manufacturing of specific fixtures that are characterised by very high accuracy and are used while assembling the machine.
\n\t\t\t
The machine has been moved so far only through motors drives and a conventional PID position controller is actually being developed: more advanced control systems, able to exploit the high dynamics of the design and the power of direct actuation, will be studied soon.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/766.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/766.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/766",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/766",totalDownloads:2720,totalViews:191,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 1st 2008",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/766",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/766",book:{slug:"parallel_manipulators_new_developments"},signatures:"Massimo Callegari",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Kinematic synthesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Kinematic analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Description of geometry and frames setting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Analysis of mobility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Orientation kinematics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4. Differential kinematics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5. Analysis of singular poses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.5. Analysis of static loads",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Dynamics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1. Inverse dynamics model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2. Dynamic analysis in the task space",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3. Dynamic manipulability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Prototype design",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAlizade\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. I.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTagiyev\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. 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W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tStructure synthesis of a class of 3-DOF rotational parallel manipulators, IEEE Trans. on Robotics and Automation, 20\n\t\t\t\t\t1 (Feb. 2004) 117\n\t\t\t\t\t121 , 0882-4967\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B13",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGosselin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAngeles\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1989\n\t\t\t\t\tThe optimum kinematic design of a spherical three-degree-of-freedom parallel manipulator, J. 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Robotic Systems, 2\n\t\t\t\t\t113\n\t\t\t\t\t124 , 0741-2223\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYoshikawa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tErratum to “Dynamic Manipulability of Robot Manipulators”. J. Robotic Systems, 17\n\t\t\t\t\t8 (Aug. 2000), 449\n\t\t\t\t\t0741-2223\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Massimo Callegari",address:null,affiliation:'
Dipartimento di Meccanica, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, Ancona, Italy
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Zatsiorsky ad Mark L. Latash",authors:[null]},{id:"841",title:"Mobility of Spatial Parallel Manipulators",slug:"mobility_of_spatial_parallel_manipulators",signatures:"Jing-Shan Zhao Fulei Chu and Zhi-Jing Feng",authors:[null]},{id:"842",title:"Feasible Human-Spine Motion Simulators Based on Parallel Manipulators",slug:"feasible_human-spine_motion_simulators_based_on_parallel_manipulators",signatures:"Si-Jun Zhu, Zhen Huang and Ming-Yang Zhao",authors:[null]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"64497",title:"Indonesia Dengue Fever: Status, Vulnerability, and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82290",slug:"indonesia-dengue-fever-status-vulnerability-and-challenges",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne disease caused by any one of four closely related dengue viruses (DenV-1, DenV-2, DenV-3, and DenV-4). Dengue fever is transmitted by the bite of an Aedes mosquito infected with a dengue virus. The female mosquito becomes infected when it bites a person with dengue virus in their blood both indoors and outdoors during the daytime (from dawn to dusk). Aedes aegypti is particularly involved, as it prefers to lay its eggs in artificial water containers, to live in close proximity to humans, and to feed on people rather than other vertebrates.
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Dengue infection is the most rapidly spreading mosquito-borne viral disease in the world. Infections are most commonly acquired in the urban environment. In recent decades, the expansion of villages, towns, and cities in the areas in which it is common and the increased mobility of people have increased the number of epidemics and circulating viruses. Dengue fever, which was once confined to Southeast Asia, has now spread to Southern China, countries in the Pacific Ocean and America, and might pose a threat to Europe. In the last 50 years, dengue virus infections had expanded to many other countries with significant increasing cases [1] up to 2.5 billion people living in endemic countries where about 1.8 billion (more than 70%) in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific Region [1, 2, 3, 4]. About 50 million dengue infections occur every year [2, 3], and approximately 500,000 patients are hospitalized of whom dominated by children [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The increasing incidence and geographical spread of dengue virus were more likely driven by demographic and societal changes such as population growth, urbanization, and modern transportation [8]. The traveler movement also contributed to the risk of contracting dengue disease from nonendemic countries to endemic dengue areas to nonendemic regions where competent mosquito vectors are currently found [9, 10, 11, 12].
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Indonesia, with 257.5 million inhabitants and 17,500 islands spread across the equator, poses as the largest archipelago country in the world [13], comprising 3.1 million km2 of ocean (62% of the total area) with a coastline of 81,000 km and approximately 2 million km2 of land (38% of the total area). Its tropical climate and subsequent relative high humidity makes Indonesia favorable conditions for vector-borne disease transmission. The increasing trend of dengue infections over the current decades putting Indonesia as one of endemic area for dengue fever and tread both the people as well as travelers visiting the archipelago [14]. Its burden is a result of a constant ground of established infections in the past period, combined with epidemics of emerging infectious diseases (EID) [15]. This chapter describes the dengue fever status or situation in Indonesia, its vulnerability among population, the future challenges, and the disease prevention and control.
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2. Dengue fever status in Indonesia
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Indonesia is reported as the second largest with dengue fever cases among 30 endemic countries. The number of cases of dengue fever is most prevalent in the provinces of East Java, West Java, and Central Java. However, there are a number of provinces that are vulnerable with its high incidence rate of dengue fever. In 1968, the first 58 dengue cases were reported in Indonesia from the city of Jakarta (DKI Jakarta) and Surabaya (East Java) [16, 17, 18, 19]. Since then, the sharp increasing numbers of cases and spreading to many other geographical locations have been reported [16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. The epidemiology of dengue fever in Indonesia has been described mostly in the form of case series, reporting on single outbreaks, or clinical and virological studies in confined geographical locations and selected years [26].
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A study in 2014 reported that the annual dengue fever incidence increased from 0.05/100,000 in 1968 to ~35–40/100,000 in 2013. The highest epidemic occurred in 2010 with the incidence of 85.7/100,000 population. The data revealed declining of case fatality rate (CFR) from 41% in 1968 to 0.73% in 2013. Dengue cases increased among ages during the observation period up to 1998 with the highest incidence of aged 5–14 years. From 1999 onward, the trend of dengue incidence increased among those aged 15 years or over. This study indicates incidence of dengue fever increased rapidly over the past 45 years in Indonesia with peak incidence shifting from young children to older age groups [27].
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The threat of dengue fever among children was emphasized clearly on a recently published study among 3194 children aged 1 through 18 years who lived in 30 different urban neighborhoods. Children blood samples were drawn for antibodies to dengue, an indication that someone has been infected with the virus in the past, and found that 69.4% of all children tested positive for dengue antibodies. Among the age groups, positive antibodies found 33.8% at the group of 1–4 year olds, 65.4% at the group of 5–9 year olds, 83.1% at the group of 10–14 year olds, and 89% at the group of 15–18 year olds. The first time to become infected with dengue was at the age of 4.8 years as the median, and in addition, 13.1% of children on average get their first dengue infection each year. It was also found that the more people in a household who had been diagnosed with dengue since a child’s birth, the more likely the child were to test positive for dengue antibodies [28].
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The incidence rate (IR) for every 100,000 population in seven provinces were found over 100 or are prone to dengue cases. The seven provinces are Bali (484), East Kalimantan (306), DKI Jakarta (198.7), DI Yogyakarta (167.9), North Kalimantan (158.3), Southeast Sulawesi (123.3), and South Kalimantan (101.1). The lowest IR is achieved by Papua province (11.8) and West Kalimantan (12.1) (Figure 1). The whole of Indonesia is high (IR is 78.0). In general, the increasing number of dengue fever cases is more likely followed by the spread of the cities and districts infected in all of 34 provinces in Indonesia (Figure 2). From the total of 497 cities and districts in Indonesia, about 80% have reported the dengue fever cases in 2017.
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Figure 1.
Incidence rate (IR) of dengue fever per 100,000 population by province in Indonesia 2016 (source: DG of CDC MOH 2017).
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Figure 2.
Incidence rate (IR) of dengue disease per 100,000 population and number of cities/districts infected in Indonesia 1968–2016.
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In the context of dengue fever mortality, as many as 1229 people died in 2015 from the disease caused by this dengue virus. Throughout the history of dengue fever in Indonesia, the highest death rate occurred when first time the disease was discovered in 1968 in Surabaya. Of the 58 people infected, 24 lives were lost. In 2016, the highest percentage of CFR was obtained in Maluku Province (6.0%), Gorontalo (6.1%), and West Papua (4.6%). Provinces with the lowest CFR were achieved by Papua (0%), DKI Jakarta (0.1%), and NTT (0.2%). In some provinces, dengue disease was an outbreak in 1998 and 2004 that caused 79,480 people and 800 more deaths. In subsequent years, there has been reported a decrease in the case of death but note that the number of cases continues to increase. In 2008, there were 137,469 cases and 1187 deaths. In 2009, there were 154,855 cases and 1384 deaths [29].
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3. Dengue fever vulnerability
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Studies on Indonesian vulnerability to climate change were mostly focused on mitigation aspects, such as water scarcity, reduction emission from deforestation and degradation (REDD), the forest conservations, disasters, land drought, floods, and others. Meanwhile, the vulnerability study on adaptation is still rare, especially to human health. In 2013, Research Center for Climate Change—University of Indonesia (RCCC-UI) initiated a study on vulnerability of dengue disease to climate change/variability in collaboration with the Directorate of Environmental Health of the Ministry of Health and supported by Indonesia Climate Change Trust Fund (ICCTF). The study involved 20 districts/cities in 5 provinces namely West Sumatra, Jakarta, East Java, Bali, and Central Kalimantan which were selected based on the availability of monitoring station of the Indonesian Agency for Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysics (BMKG). The dengue disease vulnerability components were generated based on bionomic mosquito and habitat, pathology dengue disease, and factors related to dengue disease occurrence. The exposure variables include land use (settlement, offices, business, schools, etc.) and population density. The sensitivity variables include breeding places and resting areas of Aedes mosquitoes, pupa and adult density, incidence of dengue fever, and population mobility. The adaptive capacity variables include availability of health services (number of hospitals, clinics, and public health centers), treatment management and skilled providers, implementation of dengue fever intervention program, community participation and involvement on dengue fever prevention program, and personal protection behavior. The Intergovernmental Panel Convention for Climate Change (IPCC) vulnerability analysis was implemented to gain the coping range index of DF for each city/district [31]. The coping range index (CRI) = 1 (blue) indicates the people vulnerability of having dengue fever is very low and located at quadrant between low exposure and sensitivity index and high adaptive capacity index; CRI = 2 (green) indicates the people vulnerability of having dengue fever is low and located at quadrant between high exposure and sensitivity index and high adaptive capacity index; CRI = 3 (yellow) indicates the people vulnerability of having dengue fever is medium and located at quadrant between medium exposure and sensitivity index and medium adaptive capacity index; CRI = 4 (brown) indicates the people vulnerability of having dengue fever is high and located at quadrant between low exposure and sensitivity index and low adaptive capacity index; and CRI = 5 (red) indicates the people vulnerability of having DF is very high and located at quadrant between high exposure and sensitivity index and low adaptive capacity index (Figure 3) [30].
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Figure 3.
The coping range index (CRI) of dengue disease vulnerability.
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A study of Research Center for Climate Change—Universitas Indonesia 2013–2014 reported that in almost all districts/municipalities under study (in 17 out of 20 regencies/cities) indicated a very serious vulnerability condition of very high coping range index (CRI) (red = 5) since 2005. Very high CRI was found in 75% of regencies/cities in West Sumatra province (City of Padang in 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2012; Padang Pariaman Regency in 2008, 2011, and 2012; and City of Padang Panjang in 2007 and 2008), all of regencies/cities in Bali province (City of Denpasar in 2006, 2009, and 2010; Jembrana Regency in 2007; City of Badung in 2007, 2009, and 2010), 80% of regencies/cities in East Java province (City of Surabaya in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, and 2012; Malang Regency in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, and 2012; City of Pasuruan in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011; Sumenep Regency in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, and 2012), all of cities in Jakarta province (City of Central Jakarta in 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2012; City of North Jakarta in the year 2006–2012), half of cities in Banten province (City of Tangerang in 2007–2012), all of regencies/cities in Central Kalimantan province (City of Palangkaraya in 2006, 2008, and 2012; Kotawaringin Barat Regency in 2005–2008 and in 2012; Kotawaringin Timur Regency in 2008, 2010, and 2011; Barito Utara Regency in 2008). High CRI (brown = 4) was also happened more often before and following the years of the very high CRIs occurrences in the regencies/cities [30]. Thus, this concluded that dengue fever is in the level of seriously vulnerable to people living in the regencies/cities under study in Indonesia. Figures 4 and 5 show the dengue fever vulnerability among cities/districts in 2012 in the provinces of Jakarta/Banten, Bali, Central Kalimantan, and East Java.
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Figure 4.
Map of CRI of dengue fever vulnerability in Jakarta/Banten and West Sumatra in 2012.
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Figure 5.
Map of CRI of dengue fever vulnerability in Bali, Central Kalimantan, and East Java in 2012.
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4. Dengue fever challenges
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Dengue emerged as a public health burden and has become increasingly important, with progressively longer and more cyclical epidemics of dengue including cases of dengue with alarm signs and severe dengue. In Indonesia, although some programs and control efforts have been performed, both the incidence and case fatality rate are still high and not showing significant changes. There are still some challenges that need to be handled, such as surveillance system, availability adequate laboratory, community knowledge, awareness, and involvement against dengue, many new cases reported from new city or district, high mobility of dengue fever’s carrier, density of community in the city/district central, access to health centers, and the availability of drugs and vaccines.
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Surveillance for this vector-borne viral disease remains largely passive and based on the hospital report which is the estimation of real cases still underreported. It was also reported that many health centers and clinics were without adequate laboratory support. This will lead increasing of referral activities to hospitals with the consequences of time spent and transportation challenges in rural areas. Some studies found about one-third adult population with sufficient knowledge about dengue fever and its fast spreading to other people. However, only about 17% of them aware and clearly know the way for prevention [31, 32]. In addition, the high number of dengue fever incidence can also be caused by increasing Aedes aegypti mosquito breeding places, mosquito habitat, more effective mode of transmission, more frequent dengue fever course, shorten dengue fever symptoms, access for dengue fever treatment. Home conditions such as governance and the layout of goods at home can also affect the high number of dengue fever incidence.
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Indonesia is a country with a vast region, varied geographic and biodiversity, populated density, and characteristics of various populations. In the last decade, several new administration districts developed with the newly reporting and recording management systems. This will lead underreporting of dengue fever both from the passive surveillance and the number of real cases estimation. The increasing number of people and the area of dengue fever spread in Indonesia is due to the high population mobility, the development of urban areas, climate change, increasing population density, and changes in population distribution. Climate change causes changes in rainfall, temperature, humidity, and air direction thus affecting the breeding of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
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The last and most important thing of the challenges is community participation. The participation of the community to participate consistently to keep the environment from dengue is still difficult. Various breakthroughs by government such as 3 M plus (draining, covering, burying or utilizing/recycling and all forms of prevention, such as to apply powder of larvae-killers in water tanks, to use mosquito repellents, to keep fish predators to consume mosquito larvae, etc.) movement, Jumantik (volunteer or student who periodically monitor Aedes larvae on water storages at home) and so have long been circulated. But people who forget and bored easily become a problem. For example, after some time, there was no extraordinary incident, the community considered it safe and careless, consequently when the case exploded, people just reacted [33].
\n
Among other challenges, passive surveillance systems tend to underestimate the burden of communicable diseases such as dengue. By utilizing the data from the Indonesian surveillance system and associated health system parameters, a study to estimate the proportion of dengue was conducted by Delphi panel in 2017. The iterative estimation was generated by calculating the expansion factors (EF), the ratio of total and reported cases during the presentation of medical and epidemiological data and subsequent discussions. The data revealed that from all of symptomatic Indonesian dengue episodes, 57.8% enter healthcare facilities to seek treatment but only 39.3% of them are diagnosed as dengue. Furthermore, only 20.3% of them are subsequently reported in the surveillance system. Public sector found dominating occurrence of hospitalizations and followed by private sector for ambulatory episodes (∼55%). Therefore, estimations gave an overall EF of 5.00; hospitalized EF of 1.66; and ambulatory EF of 34.01 which, when combined with passive surveillance data, equates to an annual average (2006–2015) of 612,005 dengue cases, and 183,297 hospitalizations (Figure 6.). The findings are lower than those similar estimations published elsewhere, perhaps due to case definitions, local clinical perceptions, and treatment-seeking behavior [34].
\n
Figure 6.
Estimated annual number of dengue cases and hospitalizations in Indonesia following adjustment of surveillance reports with EFs, and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs), 2006–2015.
\n
\n
\n
5. Dengue fever prevention and control
\n
The goal of WHO Global Strategy is to reduce the burden of dengue. Its specific objectives are: (1) to reduce dengue mortality by at least 50% by 2020, (2) to reduce dengue morbidity by at least 25% by 2020, and (3) to estimate true burden of the disease by 2015 (the year 2010 is used as the baseline). The implementing strategy is expected to pave the way for reducing dengue morbidity and mortality nationwide through strengthening local and national capabilities, as well as regional coordination. National Dengue Control Program in Indonesia is currently implementing WHO Global Strategy 2012–2020 that promotes coordination and collaboration among multisectoral partners, an integrated vector management approach and sustained control measures at all levels. Dengue is an ecological disease, therefore coordination and collaboration by all sectors within the government, communities, civil societies, private sectors, and media need to be strengthened. All sectors should harmonize the prevention, surveillance (entomological and epidemiological), and case management with the existing health systems, in order to make the program sustainable, cost-effective, and ecologically sound.
\n
It has long been believed that preventing and reducing dengue virus transmission was very depended upon vectors control (Aedes sp.) or interrupt the human-vector contact. Activities to control transmission should target Ae. aegypti (the main vector) in the habitats of its adult stages as well as the immature. The high death toll from dengue fever demands people to stay alert to possible outbreaks of this disease in their neighborhoods [35]. Therefore, it is important for the community to collectively jointly create a healthy environment free of larvae to suppress the incidence of dengue disease. The prevention and control programs need to be undertaken with specific commitments from stakeholders from the top to the bottom levels. Currently, the Ministry of Health has launched a program of Nest Mosquito Eradication Program (PSN) through 3 M plus way.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
Given the wide area in the tropical temperature, high population density in urban area, and various geographic and biodiversity, putting Indonesia as a natural potential for the habitat of dengue viruses. The number of dengue fever cases reported dramatically increases since it was firstly found in 1968 and spread out almost in 80% cities and districts in Indonesia in 2016. Many of those cities and districts were very vulnerable and putting million people at risk to the disease in 2012. Some challenges are still heading in the front of the prevention and control implementation actions. However, keeping spirit for struggling to combat dengue fever in Indonesia along with full commitment and involvement of community are urgently needed as well as to revitalize dengue disease eradication programs at every stage with close monitoring implementation.
\n
In addition, technical guidance and increased skills of health officers are indispensable. Socialization of a hands-on program activities in particular and increased capacity and active participation of community on the action could be a joint action in preventing the increase in dengue disease associated to climate change.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
The author declares no competing financial interests.
Research Center for Climate Change, University of Indonesia, Indonesia
Department of Environmental Health, University of Indonesia, Indonesia
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