\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2206",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Global Warming - Impacts and Future Perspective",title:"Global Warming",subtitle:"Impacts and Future Perspective",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Global Warming has become perhaps the most complicated issue being faced by world leaders. Thus, it requires field of attention for many modern societies, power and energy engineers, academicians, researchers and stakeholders. The so-called consensus in the past century anthropogenically induced Global Warming, has recently been disputed by rising number of climate change panelists. Whatever the uncertainties of climate models are, mankind has to strive towards reduction in the amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere in order to preserve natural resources and living organisms by introducing new advances on alternative fuels and other related technologies.\nThis book presents the state-of-the-science fundamentals on the origin of Global Warming and other related technologies that can be implemented to reduce human impact as well as to present novel policies that world leader should adopt. In this book, chapters received from various authors are placed in three sub- sections in a sequential and easy manner so as to strive an appropriate balance between breadth and depth of coverage of various topics.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0755-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5008-4",doi:"10.5772/2599",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"global-warming-impacts-and-future-perspective",numberOfPages:366,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"8ba60d80cd4f2a7cb3eaff9e53e5127b",bookSignature:"Bharat Raj Singh",publishedDate:"September 19th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2206.jpg",numberOfDownloads:38131,numberOfWosCitations:37,numberOfCrossrefCitations:44,numberOfDimensionsCitations:73,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:154,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 7th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 11th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 16th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 14th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"26093",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat Raj",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bharat-raj-singh",fullName:"Bharat Raj Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/26093/images/9_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. (Dr.) Bharat Raj Singh is currently working as Director General-Technical, with School of Management Sciences, Technical Campus, Lucknow-226501, India. Born at Raibigo, Distt. Sultanpur, Uttar-Pradesh, India in 1946. \nHe received B.Tech.(Mechanical) in 1972, from SVNIT, Surat, South Gujarat University ; M.Tech.(Analysis & Design of Process Equipments) in 1988, from MNNIT, Allahabad University and Ph.D.(Design & Analysis of Novel Air Engine) in 2011 from UP Technical University, Lucknow. \nHe served many Govt. organizations for 32 years and was recipient of many recognition and awards. For the last 16 years, he is in academics and published 16- books & 21-books chapters and more than 133 papers globally to cut down the carbon foot prints. He attended International and National Symposium, Seminars & Conferences and presented about 55 papers; also published 50 papers in leading International Journals and 28 papers in National Journals. \nHis areas of specialization are in Unconventional Manufacturing Processes, Industrial Engineering and Automobiles. His research field is in Sustainable Energy Resources, Environment and Development of zero pollution air engines. He became Member (M) of The Institution of Engineers (India) in 1978, CE (I) in 1985 and a life Fellow Member, FIE (India) in 1985. Also member of IAENG in 2010 and Life member of Indian Society of Technical Education (ISTE) in 2014; Past-Chairman, IE(I), UP State Centre, Lucknow from 2016-18, and President, MNNIT Alumni Association, Lucknow Chapter, Lucknow for the period 2017-2019 & 2019-2021....more on...(www.brsinghlucknow.com).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"626",title:"Climate Change",slug:"atmospheric-sciences-climate-change"}],chapters:[{id:"39195",title:"A New Perspective for Labeling the Carbon Footprint Against Climate Change",doi:"10.5772/48609",slug:"a-new-perspective-for-labeling-the-carbon-footprint-against-climate-change",totalDownloads:1448,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,signatures:"Juan Cagiao Villar, Sebastián Labella Hidalgo, Adolfo Carballo Penela and Breixo Gómez Meijide",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39195",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39195",authors:[{id:"146552",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Cagiao Villar",slug:"juan-cagiao-villar",fullName:"Juan Cagiao Villar"},{id:"155122",title:"Mr.",name:"Sebastián",surname:"Hidalgo",slug:"sebastian-hidalgo",fullName:"Sebastián Hidalgo"},{id:"155123",title:"Prof.",name:"Adolfo",surname:"Carballo Penela",slug:"adolfo-carballo-penela",fullName:"Adolfo Carballo Penela"},{id:"155125",title:"MSc.",name:"Breixo",surname:"Gomez Meijide",slug:"breixo-gomez-meijide",fullName:"Breixo Gomez Meijide"}],corrections:null},{id:"39185",title:"The Impact on Global Warming of the Substitution of Refrigerant Fluids in Vapour Compression Plants: An Experimental Study",doi:"10.5772/48349",slug:"the-impact-on-global-warming-of-the-substitution-of-refrigerant-fluids-in-vapour-compression-plants-",totalDownloads:1502,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"C. 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Comprised of different compounds, nanocomposites have opened possibilities for applications in fields of bioengineering for agriculture [2], green technology [3], antifungal plant protection [4], and different strategies for human and animal health care—from tissue remodeling and scaffold production in regenerative medicine [5] or antiviral [6], antimicrobial [6, 7], and anticancer therapies [7, 8], in conventional/unconventional medical and veterinary science (Figure 1) [10, 11].
\nTypes of applications for AgNPs as different-sized single particles in self-organized complexes with active compounds (e.g., antibiotics) or in nanofabricated materials (based on [5, 9]).
Among engineered materials various compounds are used including metals: silver (Ag) [12, 13], gold (Au) [13, 14], copper (Cu) [14], zinc (Zn) [15, 16], gallium (Al) [17], metal oxides [16], and many others [1, 18, 19]. Based on the physical and chemical approaches of metal-based nanoparticles, numerous features can be used in their applications, including shape recognition, paramagnetic properties, biocompatibility, fluorescence, and optical density [19]. Some NPs are suitable in diagnostic techniques, because of their paramagnetic behavior, unique optical properties, and quantum size effect used in bio-imaging (Figure 2) [18]. NPs can be used separately, as spheres 10 nm [12] or 18 nm in diameter as reported by Zielinska et al. [20] diluted in aqueous citrate buffer. Colloidal solutions of AgNPs were for that reason applied at different concentrations of particles per ml of solvent. In combination with different active compounds such as antibiotics, AGNP complexes, with improved size of their active surfaces, improved cytotoxicity against bacteria [9]. Because of their antibacterial properties and biocompatibility with human cells, many of active commercially designed Ag-based compounds are used for nanomaterial production, including by the coaxial electrospinning process [5].
\nPhysical and chemical properties of AgNPs implicated in their applications (based on [18]).
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are well known because of their wide spectrum of applications in diverse fields of research; this review will focus on their biological activities. For such reason size-dependent physical and chemical properties of AgNPs are discussed [18]. Living organisms are one-cell or multicellular structures with typically 10 μm across for a single cell, so the much smaller nanoparticles (NPs) (1–100 nm) can interact with cell surfaces (plasma membranes, plant cellulose walls, bacterial and fungal cell walls, and membranes). NPs or their active nano-complexes can penetrate and pass through the organism’s external envelopes. The plasma membrane’s permeability for small-sized AgNPs allows for accumulation of them in internal compartments of cells. Physical properties of Ag are used for tracking and visualization of NPs in living organisms and cells using, for example, TEM micrography or X-ray absorption spectroscopy [21]. The uptake mechanisms of NPs in eukaryotic cells were observed to be phagocytosis, endocytosis, or micropinocytosis [22] and were rather dose-dependent with diverse protection or cytotoxicity effects [21]. NPs must be well characterized before addition to cells and their physical and chemical properties well defined. These properties result mainly from different protocols of AgNP synthesis, and only nontoxic ones should be preferred in bioassays using living organisms.
\nDifferent strategies of AgNP synthesis should be focused on novel methods for ecological fabrication, allowing toxic chemical discrimination. Some so-called eco-friendly methods were developed using ethanol extracts from many plant species, for example, ethanolic extract of Rosa indica petals [7]. Other procedures followed by encapsulation, microemulsions, or dispersion in polymeric solutions, based generally on plants or algae, also bacteria [23], and fungi organism. Intra- or externalization of NPs into one-cell organisms resulted with protein tagging, for example, AgNPs covered with proteins from the fungus Coriolus versicolor [24]. Protein-conjugated NPs could play a role of mimetic envelopes constructed from cellular proteins during inter- or externalization processes in living one-cell organisms. Bio-AgNP coverings stabilize NPs and extend the possibilities of their application in living tissues [24]. During simple aqueous synthesis, temperature elevation of a starch solution for 20 h above room temperature, with addition of silver nitrate and glucose is sufficient to produce eco-starched AgNPs [23]. It was reported also that virus particles also seem to be useful in NP production (Figure 3) [23].
\nScheme of green-synthesized “eco-friendly” AgNPs (based on [7, 23, 24]).
Among the biological activities of AgNPs, an antimicrobial action is already well characterized [7, 8, 9, 25]. The most effective is an antiproliferative impact where in a minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) assay, inhibition of bacterial growth on plate cultures is observed. Typically, the tests are made both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, with plate agar, liquid LB medium (lysogeny broth, named also Luria-Bertani medium), or a migration assay. It was reported, in MIC assays against different bacterial strains and human pathogenic bacteria such as Streptococcus mutants (MTCC-896), Enterococcus faecalis (MTCC-439) (Gram-positive), E. coli(MTCC-40), and Klebsiella pneumonia (MTCC-740) (Gram-negative), it was reported that addition of ethanolic petal extract of Rosa indica or AgNO3 solutions (each 30 μl) reduced significant microbial proliferation significantly [7]. The mechanism of action that resulted in proliferative potential reduction during MIC assays was explained by the good permeability of AgNPs through the bacterial wall and plasma membranes [7]. The cytotoxic effect was improved when biologically synthesized nanoparticles were used together with AgNO3 solutions [7]. On the other hand, addition of Ag+ ions to the culture media resulted in reduction of biofilm formation by bacteria during growth. Anti-biofilm formation effects of AgNPs were observed against Gram-positive (Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Shigella sonnei and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) bacteria in biological assays [6]. Other pathogens, strains of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aurous, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Haemophilus influenzae, were inhibited by AgNPs synthesized with leaf extract of Artemisia vulgaris [3]. The inhibitory effect was discussed there in terms of plasma membrane interaction of AgNPs and release of Ag+ ions into the cytoplasm that eventually resulted in disruption of respiratory mechanisms located in in the bacterial membrane and mesosomes, and also of ion exchange processes, and blockade of synthesis of sulfur-containing proteins on ribosomes [3]. All of those schemes of action demonstrate the antimicrobial properties of AgNPs and implicate their usage as anti-pathogenic agents reducing the proliferative potential of microbes.
\nThe unicellular fungi, and mostly multicellular fungi, are responsible within plant agricultures for plant diseases. They are cost-risky and noneconomic for vegetables and fruit farms, also during long-term production, storage, and transportation procedures. AgNP addition during plant growth could play a role of environmentally safe anti-fungicides [4, 26, 27]. AgNPs, added at different concentrations to agar plates, were very effective against plant phytopathogenic fungi in studies of 18 different fungal species [4]. In vitro studies showed a hypothetical molecular mechanism of action for AgNPs, where released Ag+ ions into the cytoplasmic compartment of fungal cells disrupt respiratory system and have an impact on DNA replication process and on expression of genes implicated in replication [4, 28, 29]. Multifunctional bio-applications of AgNPs 20 nm in size were studied for protection against pathogenically species of fungi, strains of Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Candida species, in immunosuppressed patients [30]. Similar effects, with reduction of proliferation, were observed on agar plate assays against species potentially pathogenic for plants and humans: Penicillium brevicompactum, Chaetomium globosum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Mortierella alpina, Stachybotrys chartarum, and Aspergillus fumigatus [30].
\nAnti-pathogenic activity of AgNPs is wide, and the spectrum of their action has been reported against viral infections in plants, animals, and humans [6, 31]. The most effective prevention against diseases caused by different viruses is an antiviral vaccine. Although effective vaccines have not been discovered against every viral infection, antiviral agents are still being developed, and AgNPs are also in this potential group [31]. Human viral diseases such as influenza, human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis, chickenpox, infectious mononucleosis, herpes keratitis, or viral encephalitis are still studied with novel therapeutics, because of their high mortality risk in the human population, together with increases of virus resistance against already used pharmaceuticals [31]. The interaction of AgNPs, synthesized by a biological method using fungi, was tested against herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively) and human parainfluenza virus type 3 (HPIV-3) [31]. In these reports the particular mechanism of prevention against viral infection in Vero cells in vitro was explained as a physical barrier, built by NPs [31]. Monolayer culture of Vero cells were preincubated with AgNPs for 1 h at 37°C and then infected with HSV-1, HSV-2, or HPIV-3 and in the next 2 days, the monolayers were fixed and stained with X-gal (HSV-1 and HSV-2) or crystal violet (HPIV-3), and plaque numbers were scored [31]. The final results showed a lower infectiveness of viruses for cells pretreated with AgNPs in comparison to untreated cells without NPs [31]. Size-dependent mechanical protection against Monkeypox virus infection was also previously reported in vitro, in tests with 10 nm AgNPs a, with significant inhibition of disease [32]. In human cells the addition of AgNPs could inhibit enzymes responsible for DNA replication, a crucial process for further viral infection [31]. Pure AgNPs, synthesized by the electrochemical method were tested against poliovirus by adding different concentrations of AgNPs were added to human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) monolayer cells before viral infection [33]. The results confirm silver protection against poliovirus infection, with the cell viability up to 98% at 48 h postinfection [33]. For the food industry it is important to avoid viral infections within a big farm where the animals are cultured and are crowded. Food production in India could be endangered by infectious bursal disease (IBD) virus [34] and therefore alternative technology against IBD virus using AgNPs started to be developed. This strategy is based on two schemes, inoculation of viral particles first for 2 h with active AgNP solutions and then injection of such mixtures into embryonated chicken eggs, whereas the second method is first infection of embryonated chicken eggs with virus and then the AgNP injection. In both strategies the viral infection was reduced [34].
\nAntiviral activity of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) is still unknown and needs to be studied, because of its usefulness for human applications. However, not only direct action on virus particles is important in developing novel strategies against viral infections. In many cases an intermediate carrier/host is required in the replication cycle of a virus, and a strategy was developed against such a vector using AgNPs fabricated with Pedalium murex, an ancient Indian medicinal plant’s seed extract, for inducing mortality in mosquito’s larvae stage [6]. Zika virus needs the vector Aedes aegypti for a complete replication cycle and spreading the disease. AgNPs fabricated with P. murex extract tested on fourth instar mosquito larvae reduced the viability of Zika vector after 24 h [6]. This promising finding showed a wide spectrum of applications of different fabricated AgNPs alone against different viral infections and diseases. The mode of action could be direct or indirect.
\nCombined cancer therapy allows limitation of the side effects of chemotherapy, decreasing effective doses or inducing cellular self-protection against damaging agents [35]. For many aspects of conventional therapies, combinations of novel drugs and NPs together with already well known compounds, is still tested. Searching for more effective protocols for drug administration leads to the modification of already existing procedures and combining pharmacological agents with natural, unconventional molecules. Metal-based AgNPs, known as pro-oxidative in different cancer cell lines [36] including breast MCF-7 and lung A549 cells [37] and squamous carcinoma SCC-25 cells [12], have shown novel applications in photodynamic therapy [37, 38]. The alkaloid berberine was tested on squamous carcinoma cells as an antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic agent alone [22, 39, 40, 41] or in combination with AgNPs that improved its anticancer properties [12]. The antimicrobial activity of AgNPs as aseptic or preservative agents has been known since decades, and they also serve for synthesis of novel nanomaterials with potential applications in regenerative medicine [5]. For many applications, compounds such as metal NPs should be carefully examined, especially when they are easily applied by living organisms.
\nUse of AgNPs in the food industry, as antimicrobial preservatives, has an impact on the human digestive tract. Interactions of AgNPs with healthy cells (epithelial cells, mucous membrane cells, etc.) and cancer cells (squamous, liver, or colon cells) through the gastrointestinal tract has implicated diverse actions of NPs as anti- or pro-oncogenic factors. Knowledge about processes of carcinogenesis are still unclear; however, applications of AgNPs as anticancer agents is nowadays strongly developed. The most widely used AgNPs disrupt the proliferative system and cell cycle of cancer cells, with finally inhibition of proliferation. Tested on squamous carcinoma SCC-25 cells, colloidal solutions of 10-nm-diameter NPs at a dose of 10 ng/ml arrested the cell cycle in the sub-G1 or G0/G1 phase after 24 and 48 h, respectively [12]. The cells responded with a failure of mitosis, and in the treated population there were not as many bi-nucleated and doublet cells as in controls. DNA synthesis was also stopped, probably because of DNA damage (single- and double-stranded breaks, sSBs and dSBs) and because of the presence of AgNP’s inside the cell nuclei. This suggestion was confirmed by measuring production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in parallel cytometric assays, which damage DN, influence the S-phase of the cell cycle, and inhibit replication [12]. Additionally, cell proliferation was monitored by colorimetric MTT assays, where absorbance measured at 570 nm is proportional to the amount of cells in each well on a plate. This simple assay showed that after AgNP treatment, viability and proliferation of SCC-25 cells decreased in dose-dependent manner with increased concentration of AgNPs [12]. Larger 20 nm diameter AgNPs also displayed antiproliferative effects at higher concentrations (up to 20 μg/ml) in two cancer cell lines, HepG2 (liver) and Caco-2 (colon) when cytotoxicity was estimated fluorometrically by the resazurin (Alamar Blue) reduction assay [42] in which nonfluorescent Alamar Blue is taken up by viable cells and reduced by mitochondria to the fluorescent product resorufin. Fluorescence is proportional to the viability of the cells and corresponds to the cell number [42]. After 24 h of incubation with AgNPs, viability and proliferation of HepG2 cells were more reduced than those of Caco-2 cells; however, in both cell lines they were significantly lower than untreated controls [42]. Tests on different human cell line models showed tissue-dependent sensitivity and the importance for applied doses potentially used in anticancer therapies of NPs. The same research group, working again with HepG2 and Caco-2 cells, discussed the genotoxic potential of AgNPs as a result of chromosome damage during mitosis, where chromosomal abnormalities occurred as seen by micronucleus formation (Mn assay) [43]. The nanosilver genotoxicity resulted in viability reduction in a dose-dependent manner and was explained by cytokinesis blockade [43], which could be a result of abnormal formation of histone H2A, that disrupts cellular division and proper chromatin (chromosome) formation [44]. AgNPs act also as epigenetic factors and influence genetic profiles in treated cells [45]. It was reported that several genes could be impacted by AgNPs, especially those related to the cell cycle, where they could be upregulated or downregulated. The most important findings were connected with genes coding for cell cycle checkpoint proteins and also for DNA repair pathways during the S-phase [45, 46, 47]. All of these molecular disruptions resulted in the antiproliferative action of AgNPs in living cells, especially in cancer and cancer stem cells [44].
\nMost of the findings about toxically effects of AgNPs in antimicrobial and anticancer defense, based on the mitochondrial activation and reactive oxygen species overproduction, are interpreted as pro-oxidative properties. AgNPs possess the ability to induce mitochondrial chain and complex disruption that leads to superoxide anion leakage [12, 22, 48]. After AgNP internalization, into cytoplasm compartments, typically Ag+ ions are released which influence mitochondrial enzymes and also interact with –SH groups of proteins and glutathione (GSH). In such situation the ROS scavenging potential of GSH decreased and oxidative stress occurred [44]. DNA damage changed gene expression, and cellular death could be manifested as programmed death (apoptosis) [44]. In photodynamic therapy (PDT), AgNPs caused tumor cell sensitization via intracellular ROS overproduction [19, 37, 38]. Ag ions are captured by free electrons, which affect mitochondrial membrane potential (Ψ) and leads to an increase in mitochondrial membrane permeability [45]. The production of intracellular ROS is amplified by the next generation of oxidizing agents and lowered production of ATP by mitochondria in tumor cells [45]. The ROS production and damages resulting from oxidative stress are AgNP size-dependent; smaller NPs cause greater ROS overproduction [1]. Those observations result from the ability of AgNPs to interact with cellular components and to penetrate to organelles (mitochondria, nuclei, liposomes, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.) and to release free Ag+ ions there (Figure 4) [1].
\nPro-oxidative activities of AgNPs in cancer cells.
After AgNP internalization into cancer cells, a cascade of processes starts with loss of inner homeostasis and redox state destabilization. A series of free radical waves damages mitochondrial and nuclear membranes and propagates oxidative stress. Additionally, in S-phase (DNA replication) of the cell cycle, damaged DNA is not repaired effectively because repair enzymes are blocked by Ag+ ions and replication stops [12, 49]. Because of uncoupling in mitochondria and effects on mitochondrial membrane potential, the ROS level increases to propagate the canonical apoptotic pathway (Figure 4). The mitochondria-dependent apoptosis pathway was studied in SCC-25 cells at the transcriptional level, where expression of the genes Bax and Bcl-2 was assayed [12, 50]. The pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 gene was upregulated after 24 h of treatment with AgNPs [12]. ROS production in Caco-2 cells was manifested also by an inflammatory state that resulted in cellular death due to release of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin(IL)-8 after 24 h of AgNP exposure [49]. This state was also propagated between cells by external pro-apoptotic signals. Use of AgNPs as good pro-apoptotic agents in cancer therapy seems to be reasonable. Toxicity of AgNPs is shown through the intrinsic ROS-mediated mitochondrial apoptotic pathway [49]. AgNPs could propagate a free radical wave, with further lysosomal rupture and free radical accumulation. Lysosomal damage leads to cathepsin release into the cytoplasm, which is a signal for lysosome-mediated apoptosis [1, 51]. Any of these disruptions have been described as cytotoxic effects of AgNPs of different origins; however, the most desirable one is the lethal apoptotic effect on cancer cells.
\nThe numerous physical and chemical properties of AgNPs implicate possible applications in the human environment: in agriculture, food industry, cosmetology and finally in human health protection and medicine [1, 2, 13, 19]. Metal-based particles, because of their paramagnetic property and optical density (Figure 2), are widely used in bio-imaging as well as in electron microscopy, in magnetic resonance, in computed tomography for visualization, and in molecular diagnostics [19, 21, 50]. AgNPs, as cellular sensitizers with pro-oxidative and pro-apoptotic potential, also serve as therapeutic agents in photodynamic therapy against cancer cells [37, 38]. In future applications some possible controversies must be resolved: dosage for different tissues, because of tissue-specific biocompatibility and side effects during therapy or microbial resistance against NPs. Some effects of AgNPs appear to be dual and even opposite in different situations, such as anti- or pro-oxidative, anti- or pro-apoptotic, biosensing, or bioresisting-activity depending on the type of organism or cells [30]. Nanotechnology allows for technical applications of AgNPs, for example for fabrication in material technology [5]. Size-dependent activities and the ability to form different complexes with natural or pharmaceutical compounds have opened further applications for AgNPs, especially in biomaterials, health care, cancer therapy, environment protection, agriculture, and chemical synthesis [5, 9, 52]. Biomedical applications, particularly in nanomedicine, are nowadays the most desirable.
\nSilver nanoparticles, because of their wide spectrum of activities and physical and chemical properties, are nowadays studied extensively. However, careful studies on living organisms should be performed, with strong attention to biocompatibility. Multiple effects displayed after AgNP treatment show an interesting potential of metal-based NPs, not only in bionanotechnology but also in molecular medicine and anticancer therapy. AgNPs are promising anticancer agents: they influence the cell cycle, inhibit cancer cell proliferation, induce oxidative stress, and propagate programmed cellular death (apoptosis). Additionally, they protect against bacterial, fungal, and viral infections. During chemo- and radio-therapies, such antimicrobial protection is desirable, because of the decreased immunological resistance of cancer patients. In conclusion, more studies on AgNPs should be carried out for novel findings and better characteristic of silver NPs.
\nMagdalena Skonieczna received financial support from the Association for the Support of Cancer Research in Gliwice, Poland.
\nThe authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Magdalena Skonieczna conceived the idea of this review, participated in writing of the manuscript, and performed all literature surveys. Dorota Hudy prepared the figures and reviewed the literature. Both authors were involved in revising the paper’s important content, read, and approved the final manuscript.
\nBangladesh is a very small but densely populated country with very rich biological diversity. It is located at the cross roads of the Indo-Himalayan and Indo-Chinese subregions in the oriental region and is the transitional zone for the flora and fauna of the subcontinent and that of the Southeast Asia [1, 2]. The country is also a part of the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, demanding high conservation priorities on a global aspect [3]. Because of its zoogeographical location, Bangladesh plays a significant role in terms of the migratory species, acting as the flyways or the staging ground for wildlife movements of the region [1].
Bangladesh has a total of 2,600,000 hectares of forest cover which is about 17% of the total land area of the country. About 61.52% of the forestlands (1,600,000 hectares) is owned and managed by the Bangladesh Forest Department (BFD), 26.80% of unclassified forest (697,000 hectares) is under the jurisdiction of the deputy commissioner (executive chief of district), and 10.38% of the land (270,000 hectares) is private woodland and community forests, controlled by the community [4, 5]. Despite of having a rich biodiversity, Bangladesh has one of the lowest per capita forestlands in the world [6] mostly due to the high human population density in the urban areas. Moreover, the country has also experienced one of the highest rates of deforestation in south Asia, 2600 hectares per year [7, 8].
Even in a small land area, Bangladesh hosts four major types of forests: (a) hill forests (mixed-evergreen forest), (b) sal forest (deciduous forest), (c) mangrove forest (natural mangrove), and mangrove plantation (Figure 1). Three other types of forest also contain substantial biodiversity of the country: (d) freshwater swamp forests, (e) homestead forest, and (f) village common forest, which is a natural forest conserved by communities for their uses [5, 10]. Many of these forests are protected by laws in Bangladesh, and designated protected areas (PAs) are shown in Figure 2.
Various forest ecosystems by protected areas in Bangladesh (Source: [9]).
Location of the protected areas (PAs) in Bangladesh (Source: [11]).
Hill forests are mostly mixed-evergreen forests which cover 680,000 hectares of land and mostly situated in the northeast and southeast parts of Bangladesh [11, 12, 13]. The forests of northeast are mostly fragmented, and some relatively large patches of mixed-evergreen forests still exist in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) in the southeast [14]. The dominating plants in these forests are Dipterocarpus turbinatus, D. pilosus, Swintonia floribunda, Hopea odorata, Syzygium grande, Salmalia insignis, Lophopetalum fimbriatum, and Duabunga sonnerationides. Evergreen plants dominate the mixed-evergreen forests; however, deciduous plants are quite common and abundant [5, 15]. The mixed-evergreen forests of Bangladesh support large populations of wild mammals including Asian elephants, Asiatic black bear, hoolock gibbon, sambar deer, wild dog, leopard, and other globally threatened species [10, 16].
The Sal forest or moist deciduous forests of Bangladesh cover roughly about 120,000 hectares, which is about 0.81% land of the country. The central part of the country has the largest single mass of deciduous forest [17]. The single dominating plant of this forest is Sal (Shorea robusta). Most of the other plants of this forest are Butea monosperma, Careya arborea, Terminalia belerica, Terminalia chebula, Dillenia pentagyna, Aphanamixis polystachya, Streblus asper, and Phyllanthus emblica [15, 18]. This ecosystem is the home of the largest population of capped langur of Bangladesh [10].
The mangrove forests cover an area of 801,700 hectares along the coast of the Bay of Bengal. Out of the total coastal forest, 601,700 hectares are natural mangroves, the Sundarbans—the single largest chunk of productive mangrove forest of the world—and 200,000 hectares are coastal plantations [19, 20]. This forest includes fairly dense evergreen plant species, which are adapted for life under saline conditions and frequent inundation by the tides. Major plants of this forest are Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha, Sonneratia apelata, Avicennia officinalis, Avicennia alba, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Phoenix paludosa, and Acrostichum aureum [20].
The Sundarbans harbors 334 species of plants and 269 species of wild vertebrates. The Sundarbans is currently the last abode of important elements of South Asia’s threatened megafauna, including the Bengal tiger, Ganges and Irrawaddy dolphins and saltwater crocodiles, a number of threatened bird species, and at least 176 species of fish [5, 16]. The flagship tree species of Sundarbans, a mangrove Heritiera fomes, has also been declared as an “endangered species” in 2010 under the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List category of threatened species [21].
This type of forest is situated in the lowlands of the northeastern region of Bangladesh. Freshwater swamp forest consists of flood-tolerant evergreen trees of about 10–12 m in height. These trees have vast rooting system and form a close canopy. The major tree species of this forest are Barringtonia acutangula, Millettia pinnata, Saccharum spontaneum, Phragmites karka, Acanthus ilicifolius, Alpinia allugas, and Schumannianthus dichotoma [5, 10]. Seeds of these trees disperse through water and regenerate in mudflats. The freshwater swamp forests are the home of many species of wading birds, reptiles, and amphibians [5].
There are approximately 25.53 million homestead forests in Bangladesh [22] to fulfill the basic needs of the householders such as fruits, vegetables, other foods, and timbers. Planting native fruits and timber trees and bamboos near homesteads is a traditional land use practice in Bangladesh; however, amount of this forest is declining at an alarming rate due to various reasons. Major plants of the homestead forests are Mangifera indica, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Syzygium cumini, Bambusa spp. Areca catechu, and Musa spp. Homestead forests are the home of many threatened mammals including jungle cat, fishing cat, golden jackal, Bengal fox, mongoose, and civets [5].
Village common forests are natural forests other than the government reserve forests near the households of the indigenous communities that are managed to fulfill their daily demands [23, 24] and also harbor considerable biodiversity. Most of the village common forests are situated in the southeastern hilly areas of the country. Village common forests are small forest patches but harbor a good number of threatened wild animals [13].
Protected areas and forests of Bangladesh are home of many flagship species of global concern (Figure 2). Terrestrial PAs particularly in northeast and southeast regions of the country contain considerable biodiversity, and those in the CHT are part of the Indo-Burma biological hotspot. Madhupur National Park, the first protected forest situated in the central part of Bangladesh was established in 1962 under the provision of the Forest Act 1927. After the implementation of the Wildlife Act 1974, the legal status of the PAs was improved considerably. Several new PAs were declared after the signing of the Rio Convention in 1992.
A total of 41 protected areas have been declared for the conservation of wild animals of Bangladesh, of which 20 are wildlife sanctuaries, 17 are national parks, 2 are special biodiversity conservation areas, 1 is marine protected area, 1 is eco-park, and 2 are vulture safe zones (Figure 2). Moreover, five migratory bird flyway sites have been declared in 2011 for the conservation of migratory birds of the country. Many globally threatened species such as Asian elephant, Asiatic black bear, Malayan sun bear, leopard, clouded leopard, marbled cat, hoolock gibbon, slow loris, Chinese pangolin, and greater hornbill are still found in those PAs [5, 10].
The Sundarbans is the home of the only viable population of Bengal tiger in the country. Many other threatened wild animals like saltwater crocodile, Irrawaddy dolphin, white-bellied sea eagle, lesser adjutant stork, rock python, and king cobra are still in good condition in the Sundarbans [10, 16, 20]. PAs in deciduous forests (particularly Madhupur NP) also support a good population of capped langur.
Biodiversity and forests of Bangladesh provide a buffer against climate change and provide sources of natural products of value to both local villagers and in the markets. Forests also serve to hold soil from excessive erosion and to maintain the integrity of watersheds and freshwater supplies. Tourism, both foreign and domestic, to natural areas of the country has been advertised for its potential to allow sustainable development of ecosystems and to provide incentives to preserve these areas instead of converting them to other uses. Bangladesh has a great potentiality to develop sustainable ecotourism in the PAs spread over the whole country [25].
Bangladesh is the home of 1952 species of invertebrates, 653 fish species (251 freshwater; 402 marine) [2, 10, 16], 50 species of amphibians, 147 species of reptiles, 566 species of birds including residents and migrants, and 127 species of mammals [16]. Many of these species are reported from Bangladesh in the last couple of decades; especially the number of amphibians and reptiles has grown up very fast, and it is expected to go even higher in near future [26, 27]. A total of 11 species of mammals, 19 species of birds, and 1 species of reptile has gone extinct from Bangladesh over the last century [16]. Many species such as hoolock gibbon, long-tailed macaque, Malayan sun bear, Asian elephant, and gharial are at the brink of extinction and demand attention for conservation management [16]. Distribution of some distinct wildlife species has been mentioned with the major forest types in Bangladesh (Figure 3).
Major forest types of Bangladesh with distinct wildlife species (Source: [9]).
Among the 50 recorded species of amphibians, 46 species are found in forested areas of which 36 species are exclusively restricted to different types of forests [16]. The number of recorded amphibians from Bangladesh is even higher in other reports, and the reported species is up to 57 [27]. About 33% amphibian species are threatened in different categories (Figure 4). According to IUCN’s Red List, Fuller’s caecilian (Chikila fulleri) and Khare’s stream frog (Pterorana khare) are critically endangered and restricted to the particular forests in Bangladesh. Bush frogs like Doria’s pygmy frog (Chiromantis doriae), Anderson’s bush frog (Philautus andersoni), and pied warty frog (Theloderma asperum) are endangered species and only found in mixed-evergreen forests of the country. Cascade frog (Amolops marmoratus) is a vulnerable species and restricted to some particular hill streams of Bangladesh.
The latest threat status of amphibians in Bangladesh (percent value, N = 50).
A total of 30 species of turtles and tortoises, 35 species of lizards, 80 species of snakes, 2 species of crocodiles, and 1 gharial species has been reported from Bangladesh [16]. Forests of the country harbor 110 species of reptiles, of which 98 species are exclusively restricted to the different types of forest. About 38% reptiles of the country are threatened under different categories (Figure 5). Marsh crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) has been extinct from the wild. Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) is at the brink of extinction and has been categorized as “critically endangered.” Salt water crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) is also facing different kinds of conservation threats and categorized as “endangered” [16].
Latest threat status of reptiles in Bangladesh (percent value, N = 147).
About 87% turtle species are threatened, of which 14 species are “critically endangered” and 4 species are “endangered” and “vulnerable” each. Larger-sized turtles and tortoises are more vulnerable to local consumption for meat and are victim of illegal trade. Large snakes (e.g., pythons and boas) and venomous snakes (e.g., cobras) are also threatened due to illegal trade for skin and venom. Reticulated python (Malayopython reticulatus), Burmese python (Python bivittatus), monocled cobra (Naja kaouthia), spectacled cobra (Naja naja), and king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) are frequently associated with illegal trade and are threatened with various categories [16].
Bangladesh harbors a total of 566 species of birds [16]. A large number of birds (19 species) have already been extinct from the country, and currently 68 species of birds are facing conservation threats of various kinds (Figure 6). Among the regionally extinct birds, seven species were forest dwellers, six species were from grasslands and bamboo tickets, and five species were wetland birds. Terrestrial birds are more likely to face greater threats of extinction. Size and weight were another important factor for their extinction. Among extinct birds, 11 species were large sized, e.g., spot-billed pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), greater adjutant (Leptoptilos dubius), sarus crane (Antigone antigone), white-bellied heron (Ardea insignis), Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus), and green peafowl (Pavo muticus) [16].
The latest threat status of birds in Bangladesh (percent value, N = 566).
Out of the 10 species of critically endangered birds of Bangladesh, eight species are migratory, and other two species are resident. Survival of migratory birds in Bangladesh mostly depends on the health status of the migratory bird habitats. Two species of critically endangered migratory birds, spoon-billed sandpiper (Calidris pygmaea) and Indian skimmer (Rynchops albicollis), are only found in two isolated coastal sites in southern Bangladesh, and their survival is greatly dependent on the habitat protection [16]. The causes of declining population of critically endangered white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis) are mostly related to the use of a lethal veterinary drug “diclofenac” in Bangladesh [28].
Bangladesh is the home of 127 species of mammals [16], 10 species of primates, 27 species of rodents, and 29 species of bats; the Asian elephant and the Bengal tiger are the most notable species. Forests of Bangladesh are the home of 86 species of mammals, of which 60 species are fully restricted to forests. Eleven species of mammals have already been extinct from the country. The extinct species are mostly large mammals, and principal causes of their extinction were uncontrolled hunting and habitat loss. The existing large mammals of Bangladesh are facing continuous pressure of extinction threats. About 40% mammals of the country are threatened, and 33% are data deficient (Figure 7). Nineteen species of mammals are “critically endangered,” and many of them are at the brink of extinction, e.g., long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), hog deer (Axis porcinus), sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), gaur (Bos gaurus), Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus), Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), leopard (Panthera pardus), and Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) [16].
Threat status of mammals in Bangladesh (percent value, N = 127).
Like most other developing countries, Bangladesh is facing different kinds of threats to the forest and its wildlife. With accelerating economic development and the growing population, it is easily understandable that many of these threats will intensify in future leaving a huge challenge for conservation professionals [5, 10, 29]. Some of the major threats are important to discuss which have been summarized below.
Hunting and poaching is one of the major threats for wildlife species in Bangladesh especially for the game species. Wild animals are hunted illegally either for local consumption for meat and trophies or for international trade. Poachers usually target animals that are in high demand in illegal market. Tigers are killed for the hide as well as other body parts to be used in traditional Chinese medicine. Other smaller cats are also poached for their hides. Deer are hunted for meat and skin, whereas elephants are killed for the ivory. Turtles and tortoises are poached for meat and demand in pet markets. Many birds like hill myna, parrots, and sunbirds have a great demand in illegal pet markets. Python skin and snake venom have also high demand in illegal markets [4, 30, 31].
Illegal wildlife trade is one of the most serious threats to wild animals in the region, and Bangladesh is no exception. For its geographic location, being conveniently located between India and Myanmar, Bangladesh is being used as a source of animals as well as the transit route of international wildlife trade. Wildlife species are killed for their meat, skins, bones, fur, and other body parts which are used for traditional medicine, clothing, jewelry, and trophy and also for unconventional exotic food. These animal products have demands mostly in the international illegal market, and their destination is the traditional Chinese medicine market [32].
While wildlife poaching and trafficking pose a great threat to the flagship species of the country but the status of the lesser known species (e.g., golden jackal, civets, mongoose, and small cats), the latest situation is currently unknown. These animals play a vital role in the ecosystem, and if this process continues, the conservation of mammalian species of the country would be a huge challenge [32].
There are at least 29 ethnic communities in Bangladesh, and most of them find their protein source from wild animals. These ethnic communities are spread over the country, but most of them inhabit in the southeastern and northeastern part of Bangladesh. Ethnic communities usually hunt wild animals such as wild boar, barking deer, Indian hare, small cats, primates, mongoose, civets, squirrels, rats, bats, turtles and tortoises, snakes, and frogs [32].
Some of the wildlife species have growing demand as pet or zoo animals in both local and international markets. Wildlife traders illegally collect the harvested animals from the poachers. Keeping wild animals in private collection or establishment of mini zoo is not legal in Bangladesh according to the existing laws, but many private collections are established in several parts of the country. Most commonly found animals of these private collections include but not limited to hoolock gibbon, rhesus macaque, pig-tailed macaque, Assamese macaque, slow loris, spotted deer, barking deer, marbled cat, fishing cat, civet, large birds, pythons, cobras, turtles, and tortoises. This is a total violation of the Bangladesh Wildlife (Conservation and Security) Act, 2012, as most of these animals are protected by the current laws of the country [4, 32].
Human-wildlife conflict is currently a burning issue as it influences a group of people against wild animals and also against the people who want to conserve and restore wildlife [33]. The growing human population of Bangladesh is forcing rapid urbanization and habitat loss for the wildlife and also forcing wild animals to live in close proximity to humans. Many wildlife species of Bangladesh such as Bengal tiger, Asian elephant, leopard, fishing cat, golden cat, jungle cat, civets, etc. are facing various threats of extinction due to human-wildlife conflict [30, 31].
Roads through the natural habitats are intrusion to the wildlife habitats which adversely affect the wild animals. Effect of road ranges from habitat loss and fragmentation to the distribution pattern [34] of the animals, movement and reproductive behavior [35], and direct mortality by the moving vehicles [36, 37]. In Bangladesh, many forest areas have been bisected by roads, highways, and railway tracts which contribute negatively in losing biodiversity at a much faster rate. Nocturnal animals are also harmed by the bright headlights at night and are often killed by the moving vehicle. Many threatened species are also killed by the vehicles on a regular basis.
Excessive and uncontrolled tourism activities pose a great threat to wild animals especially for small forest patches like Satchari and Lawachara National Parks. These parks are critical habitats for critically endangered mammalian species like hoolock gibbon and other primates. With the growing tourist activities in the core of these critical habitats especially during winter season, the daily activity of wildlife activities is heavily impacted both diurnal and nocturnal species. The breeding activities are interrupted by such unwise human activities [4].
Habitat fragmentation and degradation are currently the most important factor for the biodiversity loss in Bangladesh. With the ever-growing human population in the country and coupled up with other reasons, wildlife habitats are being destroyed and fragmented in an alarming rate [5, 10, 15], and as such, different vertebrate wildlife groups face conservation threats at various levels (Figure 8). We would like to summarize the major reasons of habitat degradation and fragmentation in a very brief way.
Overall threat status on the vertebrate wildlife groups in Bangladesh.
Timber harvest from the natural forests is currently banned in Bangladesh as a measure to restore country’s forestland. But, timber extraction is still going on, in many cases with the support from corrupt forest managers. It is assumed that local timber merchants persuade unemployed poor people to take down the large-sized hard wood trees from the forests and sell it to the local market. In many of this forestland, the upper canopy is not connected, and forests are fragmented [15]. Distant canopy cover creates problem to highly arboreal mammals, e.g., hoolock gibbons, capped langurs, macaques, and squirrels for their movement and breeding activities. Fragmentation of forest also restricts the movement of mammals from one habitat to another, which poses more threats to their existence. Moreover, due to the softwood demand in plywood industry, illegal poaching of softwood trees is also happening in Bangladesh, which would otherwise provide food for the wild animals [4].
Almost all households, in and around the forests, use fuel wood for daily livelihood. Majority of the fuelwoods are sourced from the nearby forests. The local people generally collect dead or fallen trees or branches, which do not contribute directly to the destruction of trees in the forest; but it has other ecological consequences. Some local community members live on selling the fuelwood extracted from the forest. Fallen leaves collection is a major problem in deciduous forests in the central as well as in the northern part of the country. Leaf and fuelwood collectors clean up the undergrowth of the forest and also cut down seedlings which hinder regeneration of the forest [4].
Several crops are extensively cultivated on the hill slopes and in the low-lying areas in and around the forestland in Bangladesh. Pineapple, banana (Musa spp.), citrus, bean (Vigna spp.), and papaya (Carica papaya) are mainly cultivated on the hilltop. Paddy (Oryza spp.) is cultivated in the low land between two hills [4]. For making the land cultivable, local people usually clean the forest floor, burn the unwanted vegetation, and cultivate the desired crops, resulting in destruction of natural vegetation. Local farmers slowly expand their cultivation land each year, which causes rapid fragmentation of the forestland. Expansion of agricultural land is one of the major problems of deforestation in Bangladesh except the Sundarbans mangrove forest [5].
Alteration and modification of undergrowth vegetation is one of the major conservation issues, a lot of the forestlands are facing in Bangladesh. Both the Bangladesh Forest Department (BFD) and local community contribute to this factor. Collection of dead leaves from the forest floor prevents natural seed germination, which eventually hinder undergrowth plant diversity. The forest department permits local people to clean up undergrowth and eventually plant canes (Calamus rotang) in the forestland. The rapid growth and aggressive nature of canes prevents growth of other plant species. The forest department also encourages bamboo plant during winter season, which results the monoculture of bamboo undergrowth and ultimately contributes to the topsoil erosion of the forests [5].
Deforestation is closely associated with overgrazing in many parts of the world, and Bangladesh is no exception [4]. Overgrazing by domesticated animals and farming play a major role in natural forest regeneration. Free-range cattle in the forestland would eliminate seedlings, which would potentially regenerate the forest. Grazing also accelerates soil erosion [10].
Huge landslide during rainy season in the hilly region (Chittagong and CHT) of Bangladesh is quite common and one of the major reasons for the lack of vegetation cover of the area. Landslides change the hydrological pattern of forest and could be an issue for animal movement [2].
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is the sole authority from the government side to implement and enforce natural resource-related activities and laws. The Bangladesh Forest Department and Department of Environment operates under the MoEF and two major wings to manage natural resources in Bangladesh. However, limitations like poor institutional capacity, lack of logistical and operational support, and insufficient funding and manpower are holding the country behind. Most of the field offices in the peripheral forest range have no vehicles or travel allocations to make necessary field interventions [4].
There is lack of coordination in the management of biodiversity and natural resources among different government agencies in Bangladesh. For example, there are overlaps between the jurisdictions of the Bangladesh Forest Department, Department of Environment (DoE), and Ministry of Land (MoL). Coordination gaps or overlaps are also found among different projects and among different donor agencies, especially in high-profile areas like the Sundarbans. Lack of coordination is also observed at the transboundary level, especially between water rights and usage between Bangladesh and neighboring countries that are the upstream sources of water [4].
Information is not widely available in Bangladesh, and with regard to field level baseline data on natural resources, there is no single place to get everything. Aside from some modest university efforts, there is a dire lack of scientific data on forest, wetland, and aquatic species. This information is crucial for effective management of natural resources and biodiversity of the country. There are no long-term monitoring efforts to evaluate any changes in species occurrence, abundance, and distribution in Bangladesh [4]. Bangladesh managed to have a number of sound environmental policies, but that is not enough, and there are many gaps. For example, donor-initiated conservation projects are not sustained after the funding tenure is over. The government either does not have their interest or no self-funding capability to continue the project initiated by a donor agency [32].
Environmental crime is not treated as seriously as other types of crime either by the local communities or by the law enforcement agencies. Although there are laws related to natural resources in Bangladesh, enforcement of these laws is very poor. Poachers are often politically connected and often are protected by their leaders or contractors [4]. Even when a case makes it into the court, there are no incentives (monitory or logistic) for the forest officials who are willing to testify before court.
Many of the forests in Bangladesh are recently declared as protected areas, but the actual implementation is still in very rudimentary stage (Figure 2). The idea of the PA is not very welcomed and well perceived by the local people, and also there is lack of coordination between the stakeholders and the government. Although there are dozens of PAs in the country, many are 500 hectares or less: too small to provide adequate habitat to preserve biodiversity. In addition, protected area system includes only forestland and does not include some of the most critically important wetland habitat of the country.
Corruption is evident at all levels of the government system in Bangladesh where biodiversity and forest conservation are an integral part. It is expected that folks with strong political connections or wealth can circumvent existing laws to obtain individual favors, rights to use protected land, and immunity to environmental crimes [4].
Most country people are not properly aware of the importance of maintaining a healthy biodiversity and its conservation. Being a developing country, Bangladesh is fighting with poverty, high population density, and lack of education. Most local stakeholders have no idea about the existing laws of the land, especially with regard to environmental crimes [32].
Climate change is being recognized as a global crisis threatening any forms of life on the face of earth. The biophysical changes in the environment have an underlying effect on the present and future biodiversity in Bangladesh [19]. Some of these biophysical factors are changes in temperature and precipitation pattern, sea level rise, frequent natural disasters, increase of salinity in the southern coast, drastic changes in upstream water flow, high sedimentation in inland water, etc. [38].
Most people living in and around the forests and protected areas support themselves using forest resources collected either legally or illegally. Bangladesh already has a very high population density, and this problem has been intensified by allowing thousands of outside people settled in by the government in the southeastern part of the country. The presence of large refugee camps of Rohingya people from Myanmar in Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary has already been identified as a major threat for the biodiversity of the region. With no other income options, these Rohingya people are engaged in unsustainable practices in forest resources along the coast. This problem would even go out of control if it is not taken seriously and a solution is chalked out by the governments of the two neighboring countries [2, 13].
The high and rapidly growing population of Bangladesh places a great strain on the natural resources, and PAs are no exception [39]. The situation in Bangladesh is not atypical; the majority of PAs around the world, not only those in developing countries or the tropics, face a variety of problems [40]. Among many others, shortage of skilled manpower, insufficient logistics, political influence, corruption, and lack of interagency coordination are some of the major reasons for the improper enforcement of law. Review and proper implementation of laws; institutional development; promotion of collaboration among different agencies; habitat protection and restoration; and human-wildlife conflict mitigation are some of the urgently needed factors for the conservation of wildlife and forest in Bangladesh.
Although there are lots of limitations, Bangladesh has several laws and policies that still safeguard the existing forest and wildlife species, and we hope that proper implementation of these laws would help to thrive the unique biodiversity and diverse wildlife of the country. Some of the important laws and policies for the conservation of forest and wildlife of Bangladesh are Forest Act, 1927; Wildlife (Conservation and Security) Act, 2012; Environment Conservation Act, 1995; Environment Protection Act, 2000; Climate Change Trust Act, 2010; Biological Diversity Act, 2012; Forest Policy, 1994; Environment Policy, 1992; Wetland Policy, 1998; and Coastal Zone Policy, 2005. The country needs to work hard to implement these laws and eliminate corruption from the government system.
The Bangladesh Forest Department (BFD) is the primary government agency that deals with forests and forest management and monitoring of biodiversity. The BFD manages PAs, forests, and most biodiversity activities in the field and operates through three management plan divisions. BFD’s Wildlife Crime Control Unit (WCCU) was established in 2013 to combat wildlife trafficking and coordinate efforts with other agencies both national and international. Bangladesh Forest Department’s capability for preventing wildlife crimes is currently not sufficient, and the country should invest more resources and manpower to the agency.
The BFD manages two large safari parks: Bangabandhu Safari Park, Gazipur, and Dulahazra Safari Park, Cox’s Bazar. These facilities maintain animals in near natural conditions and also serve as a repository for animals that have been confiscated through the illegal wildlife trade. The BFD also manages a few botanical gardens around the country, and the National Botanical Garden in Dhaka displays many native and exotic species sells roses and fruit trees to the public, and engages in minor activities in the field; their space limitations prevent the addition of new species that may need ex situ conservation.
The content of this manuscript is the outcome of many field visits and research activities made by the Wildlife Research Group of the Department of Zoology, Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh, where the authors actively participated. The authors are thankful to the other group members and the university. The authors are also thankful to the Bangladesh Forest Department for their cooperation. Thanks go to the Arannayk Foundation, Bangladesh, and Wildlife Rescue Center of the Department of Zoology, Jahangirnagar University, for providing valuable references. The first author would like to thank Delta State University for its cooperation and support to his research activities in Bangladesh.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
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