Classification of vegetation on the basis of physical characteristics and function.
\r\n\tFurther development of geophysical methods in the direction of constructing more and more adequate models of media and phenomena necessarily leads to more and more complex problems of mathematical geophysics, for which not only inverse, but also direct problems become significantly incorrect. In this regard, it is necessary to develop a new concept of regularization for simultaneously solving a system of heterogeneous operator equations.
\r\n\r\n\tCurrently, the study of processes associated not only with geophysics and astrophysics but also with biology and medicine requires even more complication of interpretation models from non-linear and heterogeneous to hierarchical. This book will be devoted to the creation of new mathematical theories for solving ill-posed problems for complicated models.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d93195bb64405dd9e917801649f991b3",bookSignature:"Prof. Olga Alexandrovna Hachay",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8253.jpg",keywords:"Ill-Posed, Inverse Problems, Geophysics, Seismic, Electromagnetic, Thermal, Magnetic, Medicine, \r\nMathematical, Algorithms, Hierarchical, Nonlinear, Historical Description, Regularization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 7th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 27th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 26th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 13th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"150801",title:"Prof.",name:"Olga",middleName:"Alexandrovna",surname:"Hachay",slug:"olga-hachay",fullName:"Olga Hachay",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/150801/images/system/150801.jpg",biography:"Dr. Olga A. Hachay graduated with a degree in Astrophysics from Ural State University in 1969. She obtained her PhD from the Pushkov Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, Ionosphere and Radiowave Propagation of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IZMIRAN) in 1979 with her thesis “The inverse problem for electromagnetic research of one-dimensional medium.”\nSince 1969, she has been a scientific member of the Institute of Geophysics Ural Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences (UB RAS), Ekaterinburg, Russia. From 1995 to 2004, she served as chief of the group of seismic and electromagnetic research. Her research interests include developing new methods for searching the structure and the state of the Earth’s upper crust, as well as elaborating a new theory of interpretation of electromagnetic and seismic fields. From 2002, she has been the main scientific researcher of the Institute of geophysics UB RAS. Since 2008, she has been a lead scientific researcher for UB RAS in the laboratory of borehole geophysics. Dr. Hachay is a member of various organizations and societies, including the American Mathematical Society, Mathematical Association of America, International Association of Geomechanics, and the European Geosciences Union, among others. \nDr. Hachay is fluent in Russian, English and German language",institutionString:"Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61202",title:"Plant Nanobionics and Its Applications for Developing Plants with Improved Photosynthetic Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76815",slug:"plant-nanobionics-and-its-applications-for-developing-plants-with-improved-photosynthetic-capacity",body:'Nanotechnology is an emerging field of natural science dealing with materials of nano (1–100-nm) scale. NASA defined nanotechnology as ‘the creation of functional materials, devices and systems through a control of matter on the nanometre scale and exploitation of novel phenomena and properties (physical, chemical, biological) at that length scale’ [1]. The different applications of nanotechnology include the designing, characterization, production and application of structures, devices and systems. Nanomaterials (NMs) have unique properties like high surface area and improved optical property. For a chemical or a biological reaction, the rate of reaction depends on the surface area of the reactants, and due to the large surface area, nanomaterial-mediated reactions operate at a high rate. Plant biology is one of the oldest branches of science, aiming the study of different aspects of plants. The combination of plant biology and nanotechnology resulted in nanobionics which employs the nanotechnology for the improvement of plant productivity by improving plant growth, development and photosynthetic efficiency [2]. During the synthesis of materials at nanoscale, different properties of these materials get altered, and these altered properties get translated in various applications. Nanobionics is one of the important applications of nanotechnology which involves the improvement of plant or plant productivity using nanomaterials. The nanomaterial can be prepared by direct and synthetic route followed by milling, grinding, homogenization at high pressure and sonication to reduce its size at nanoscale [3, 4]. With unique physicochemical properties, that is, high surface area, high reactivity, tunable pore size, and particle morphology of nanoparticles, the nanomaterials have a large scope of novel application in the field of biotechnology and agricultural industries [5]. The nanomaterials are of different types:
Natural nanomaterial—Materials created independently without the involvement of human being. The natural nanomaterials are sea salt, sea spray, soil dust, volcanic dust, sulphates from biogenic gases, and so on.
Anthropogenic (adventitious) nanomaterial—Material created as a result of human action. The welding fume and particulates (sulphates and nitrates) resulting from the oxidation of gases [6], and soot resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels are the best example of anthropogenic nanomaterial.
Engineered nanomaterial—Nanomaterial designed and manufactured with human interest. The engineered nanomaterials are of organic and inorganic nature.
As the name indicates, the organic nanomaterials consist of carbon atom itself [7] and are polymeric structures with specific nano-characteristics, while inorganic nanomaterials are inorganic by nature. The engineered nanomaterials are of scientific interest because of their huge potential for different applications. The engineered nanomaterials are classified as carbon-based nanomaterials (NMs), metal-based NMs, metal oxides, dendrimers and composites [8]. The nanotubes are linear materials with nanometre size. Carbon nanotubes are long, thin cylinders of carbon molecules having good conductivity of heat, high strength and different electrical properties. The carbon nanotubes (Figure 1) are single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs). The double-walled carbon nanotubes are known for higher thermal and chemical stability as compared to single-walled carbon nanotubes [9]. Inorganic nanomaterials are inorganic by nature and consist of metals and metalloid oxides, quantum dots (QD), dendrimers having different kinds of features such as nanofibres, nanowires and nanosheets.
Single-walled carbon nanotube (a) and a cross section of single-walled carbon nanotube (b).
Nanobiotechnology is an emerging field of bioengineering and has enormous potential to modify or augment the plant function by employing the nanomaterial. With nanobiotechnological advancement, plants (1) are capable of imaging objects in their environment, (2) self-powering themselves as light sources, (3) with infrared communication devices and (4) having self-powered groundwater sensors developed [10]. The solar energy harnessing and biochemical sensing can be improved in plants by introducing nanomaterial in them [11], and nanobionic plants were developed for enhanced photosynthesis and biochemical sensing. Nanobionic plants can detect various chemicals present in the environment and have potential use as a plant-enabled sensor for monitoring environmental changes. The nano-encapsulated nutrients commonly referred to as nanofertilizers release the nutrients on demand basis, and thus these are beneficial for crops to regulate plant growth and enhance the target activity [12, 13]. The engineered carbon nanotubes are shown to boost seed germination, growth and development in plants [14, 15]. Comparatively, very few studies have been conducted on nanoparticles which are beneficial to plants. Nanotechnology has a great potential to develop new tools for the incorporation of nanoparticles into plants to augment the existing functions [16].
The characteristic feature of plant cell is its cellulosic surrounding, that is, cell wall. The plant cell wall behaves as a barrier for superficial ingression of different external agents including nanoparticles into plant cells. Cell wall possesses pores which provide sieving properties to cell walls, and this range from 5 to 20 nm [17]. Nanoparticles or aggregates of nanoparticles with a diameter less than the pore diameter of the cell wall could pass through pores and can reach the plasma membrane [18]. There is additionally a chance for the enlargement of pores or the induction of new cell wall pores upon interaction with engineered nanoparticles which in turn enhance nanoparticle uptake. Further internalization of nanoparticles or aggregates of nanoparticles occurs through endocytosis by forming a cavity-like structure surrounding the nanoparticles by a plasma membrane. Alternatively, they may cross the membrane via carrier proteins or through ion channels. In the cytoplasm, the nanoparticles may bind with different cytoplasmic organelles and interfere with the metabolic processes [19]. In leaf surface applied nanoparticles, the nanoparticles enter through the stomatal apertures or through the bases of trichomes and thereafter get translocated to tissues [20, 21, 22]. The nanoparticles penetrate the plant cell wall and enter into the space between plant cell wall and plasma membrane due to small size, capillary action and Van der Waals forces.
Improvement in an agronomic attribute of plant system, that is, photosynthetic efficiency with the help of nanomaterial, needs a successful uptake and transfer of nanomaterials in plant cell. The plant cell wall has pores of an average diameter of 5–20 nm. These pores allow the passage of solutes while constraining the diffusion of massive particles and macromolecules including some enzymes [23]. Plants cell employ several strategies to avail nanomaterial (carbon nanotubes) through cell wall and cell membrane depending on the size of the nanomaterial. The entry of nanoparticle in plant cells depends on size and charge [24, 25]. The single-walled carbon nanotubes are of 1–2 nm and are smaller than cell wall pores (5 nm). These nanotubes could be perceived directly through a spontaneous leakage into the apoplast [26]. Thus, for spontaneous leakage, the single-walled carbon nanotubes must be truncated to a commensurable size [27]. The introduction of wide-diameter carbon nanotubes into walled plant cells could also occur through local hydrolysis of the cellulosic cell wall. The cellulose molecules immobilized on the surface of carbon nanotube generate local lesions in the cell wall which facilitate the uptake of carbon nanotubes [28].
The leakage of carbon nanotubes through the cell wall pores has been reported in cells of Nicotiana tobacum and Catharanthus roseus [29, 30]. The first experimental evidence for the internalization of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) has been shown in N. tobacum [31]. Temperature-dependent uptake of single-walled carbon nanotubes in N. tobacum suggests the internalization of nanotubes through endocytosis [30]. On the other hand, it has been reported that there is no effect of temperature and light on SWNT transfer to lipid bilayer [11]. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) could also penetrate the cell membrane of plant protoplasts [30]. When MWCNTs are in close vicinity of protoplast of C. roseus, the nanotube aggregations increase the tonicity of cell medium and facilitate the penetration of MWCNTs. Active transport of nanoparticles has also been reported through the lipid bilayer [32].
The metal oxide nanoparticles may be transported through root to leaf or leaf to root in plants [33], and it was studied in hydroponic [34] and soil [35] culture. The negatively charged nanoceria translocates at a higher rate from root to leaf as compared to positively charged nanoceria [36]. The metal oxide nanoparticles are absorbed by root endodermis through apoplastic and symplastic routes, and these are then transported to stem, leaf, fruit and grains [37, 38, 39] through a vascular cylinder [40]. Similarly, the mono-dispersed mesoporous silica nanoparticles penetrate into the roots through symplastic/apoplastic pathways and then to the aerial parts of the plants through vascular system [41]. The uptake of metal oxide nanoparticle has been shown by seeds [42], seedlings [38] and mature tubers [43]. The metal oxide nanoparticles may enter through leaf stomata or cuticle and then to stem and root through phloem sap [44, 45]. The single-walled carbon nanotubes and nanosheets are transported into cultured plant cells by endocytosis or internalized in plant root cells via non-endocytic pathways [31, 46]. Silver nanoparticle enters in Arabidopsis protoplasts through mechanosensitive channels [47].
Different cellular organelles have been reported to uptake the nanomaterials. Serag et al. [48] reported the vacuolar uptake of SWNTs by labelling the SWNTs with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC). Following incubation of plant tissues with FITC-labeled SWNTs, fluorescence signals were detected in the cell vacuoles. Further measurement of diffusion coefficient (Deff) supported vacuolar accumulation. To confirm vacuolar uptake, the Deff was measured using fluorescence recovery in a photobleached area (FRAP). The Deff varied according to the size of a macromolecular complex containing fluorescent label. FRAP helped to study the fractions of molecules capable of recovering in the photobleached area and confirmed the accumulation of SW-F inside the vacuoles [48]. Further, the use of probenecid, an inhibitor of carrier-mediated transport, indicated the accumulation of SW-F in vacuoles.
SWNTs transport passively through chloroplast lipid bilayer through kinetic entrapping or by disrupting lipid bilayers [11, 49]. As SWNTs come in contact with the chloroplast’s outer envelope, it wraps around the glycerolipid (forming most of the chloroplast’s outer envelope). As nanotubes perforated through the envelopes, they are covered with a layer of lipids that irreversibly binds them to the interior side of the chloroplast. The formation of temporary pores has been noticed in the plasma membrane to internalize the nanoparticles like quantum dots and silica nanosphere [49, 50]. Also, the negatively or positively charged nanoparticles spontaneously penetrate lipid envelopes of the extracted chloroplasts [51].
The generational transmission of nanomaterials was studied in rice [52] using a bright field microscopy. Tissue of rice plants at various developmental stages were sampled, washed, sectioned and imaged to track the transmission after 1 week of incubating in 20 mg l−1 C70 solution. Black aggregates were frequently observed in seeds and roots and less frequently in stems and leaves which indicated that the sequence of nanoparticle uptake was from the plant seeds and roots to stems and leaves. The appearance of black aggregates was mostly found in and near vascular system. It was suggested that the transport of C70 occurred simultaneously with the uptake of water and nutrients in the xylem [52]. Further, to investigate generational transmission of nanomaterials, mature seeds from the control plants and C70-treated plants were germinated and second generation was raised. In second generation, black aggregates were also spotted in the leaf tissues, however, with much less frequency [52]. The results were supported by Fourier transform (FT)-Raman and IR spectra from both first- and second-generation rice plants.
Photosynthesis is the most fundamental and vital physiological process in plant kingdom. It converts the light form of energy into chemical form in chloroplasts using chlorophyll and CO2 and H2O as raw materials, and stores in the bonds of sugar molecules. This form of energy is later used as the energy currency to regulate various processes. In green plants, chloroplasts are the site of synthesis for chemical energy, that is, carbon-based fuels. With the help of light energy, the captured atmospheric CO2 is converted into different forms of sugars [53]. Photosynthetic apparatus utilized less than 10% of the sunlight [54], and there are possibilities to improve the solar energy conversion efficiency in photosynthetic organisms. The improvement in photosynthetic efficiency requires broadening the range of solar light absorption [55] particularly in the near-infrared spectra which are able to penetrate deeper into living organisms. With unique properties and higher stability, the nanomaterials can form chloroplast-based photocatalytic complexes having an enhanced and improved functional property under ex vivo and in vivo conditions [11]. It is clear that neither all the absorbed photons are involved in electron flow under intense light conditions nor chloroplast captures maximum solar energy under non-saturating light [56, 57]. The SWNTs have discrete optical and electronic properties and a broad range of absorption spectra (ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared). The enhancement of light reaction after the insertion of SWNTs in chloroplasts isolated from commercially available baby spinach leaves (Spinacia oleracea L.) has been observed [11]. Chloroplast does not have a broad range of absorption spectra and it cannot absorb spectra outside its absorption ranges of spectra. The boosted photosynthetic reactions might be attributed to electronic bandgap of semiconducting the SWNTs which converts the absorbed solar light into photosynthetic excitons [58]. Depending on their inherent light interaction capabilities, nanoparticles (NPs) interfere and alter the photosynthetic efficiency, photochemical fluorescence and quantum yield in plants. Keeping up with the importance of process, the researchers attempted either to mimic the process of photosynthesis artificially or to improve the existing efficiency in planta using nanotechnology-based inventions. The plants have been augmented to harvest more light energy by delivering carbon nanotubes into chloroplast. These carbon nanotubes serve as artificial antennae allowing chloroplast to capture wavelengths of light outside the normal range, that is, ultraviolet, green and near-infrared [11, 16]. Various reports are available on the enhancement of photosynthetic activity in plants through in vivo or ex vivo approaches. In subsequent text, a few cases will be highlighted to show the relevant progresses made by a nano-technologist for the improvement of agronomic attribute.
Plant photosystems include reaction centres (RCs) and the antenna chlorophylls; they are held in the membrane by weak intermolecular interactions. The antenna chlorophyll absorbs photons and transfers to the RCs and then electrons are transferred to the next electron acceptor. Naturally, photosynthetic machinery absorbs light within certain wavelength intervals. It has been reported that if nanoparticles conjugate with these RCs and antenna chlorophyll, there is an exciton enhancement effect [59]. Nanoparticle conjugate with light-harvesting complex absorbs a wider range of wavelength interval. Nanomaterials conjugated with a photosynthetic system strongly increase the rate of production of excited electrons due to the plasmon (metal nanoparticle having an oscillating free electron) enhancement effect. This excited electron can be used for photocurrents or chemical reactions. The association of metal nanoparticle with photosynthetic system has been reported to enhance the efficiency of photosystem. The incorporation of metal nanoparticles with light-absorbing chlorophyll molecules enhances the photon field which is referred as plasmon enhancement effect. Thus, the production of exited electrons has been reported to increase due to plasmon resonance and electron-hole separation [60]. In support of this, experimental proofs were generated for the increased rate of the formation of ATP molecules. With hybrid structure, the rate of formation of the excited electron was reported to enhance as compared to photosystem alone [61]. Artificial structures composed of a photosynthetic system and various metal nanoparticles also display strong enhancements of photosynthetic efficiency, and this cause the parallel increases in light absorption by chlorophylls and energy transfer from chlorophylls to nanoparticles [60, 62, 63].
Artificially, the quantum dots (artificial antennae absorbing light efficiently in a wide range of photon energies from solar spectrum) conjugated with a reaction centre complex of Rhodobactor sphaeroides purified from natural light-harvesting complexes showed an efficient transfer of excitation energy to reaction centre. The efficient energy transfer from QDs to the bacterial RC clearly offers an opportunity of the utilization of nanocrystals to enhance the photosynthetic biological functioning [59]. A silver nanowire conjugated with light-harvesting complex from the dinoflagellate Amphidinium carterae showed strong enhancement in fluorescence intensity of protein-bound chlorophyll molecules [64]. The increase with silver nanowire conjugate was recorded up to an average of 10-fold increase in chlorophyll fluorescence [65], and this indicates a higher rate of generation of excitations in the chlorophylls [66].
Metal nanoparticles have the ability to influence the energy conversion efficiency in photosynthetic systems. The binding to Au and Ag nanoparticles with chlorophyll molecule results in a novel hybrid system, which could produce 10 times more excited electrons due to plasmon resonance and fast electron–hole separation [60]. Electron transfer from excited fluorophore to Au or Ag nanoparticles has been reported [65, 67, 68, 69]. The concentration-dependent effects of Au nanoparticles (5–20 nm) on PSII chlorophyll, a fluorescence quenching in soybean leaves, have been observed [70]. Falco et al. [70] observed a shift in fluorescence towards a higher wavelength in Au nanoparticle-treated soybean leaves. An enhanced PSII quantum efficiency was reported in Ag nanoparticle-treated Indian mustard [71].
Giraldo et al. [11] reported 49% increase in electron transfer rate under ex vivo conditions (in extracted chloroplast from baby spinach leaves) after treatment with SWNTs. SWNTs also enhanced the light reaction in vivo in leaves of A. thaliana. Similarly, carbon nanotubes in spinach thylakoid improved photo-electrochemical activity under illumination [72]. Noji et al. [73] reported that nanomesoporous silica compound (SBA) conjugated with photosystem II (PSII) maintained the high and stable oxygen-evolving ability of PSII in T. vulcanus. The applied TiO2 nanoparticles caused the transfer of charges between light-harvesting complex II (LHCII) and TiO2 NPs because of their photocatalytic properties [74] which induced reduction–oxidation reaction. Ze et al. [75] reported an increased expression of LHCII b and contents of LHCII in the thylakoid membrane of A. thaliana after the application of TiO2 nanoparticles. It was found that TiO2 NPs promote the light absorption by chloroplast and regulate the distribution of light energy from PSI to PSII by increasing LHCII content, which in turn accelerate the transformation from light energy to electronic energy, water photolysis and oxygen evolution.
Nadtochenko et al. [62] observed an enhanced electron transfer efficiency in isolated photosynthetic reaction centres using alumina nanoparticles. The bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) showed an increase in grain number, biomass, stomatal density, xylem-phloem size, epidermal cells and water uptake after seed priming with MWCNT [76]. TiO2 nanoparticles have been reported to protect chloroplasts from aging during long illumination regimes, promote chlorophyll formation and stimulate Rubisco activity, which in turn results in increased photosynthesis or enhanced photosynthetic carbon assimilation [71, 77, 78]. With exogenous application of TiO2, Qi et al. [79] observed an improved net photosynthetic rate, water conductance and transpiration rate. Nano-anatase was reported to promote electron transport chain reaction, photoreduction activity of PSII, evolution of O2 and photophosphorylation of chlorophyll under both visible and ultraviolet light [80]. A higher photosynthetic carbon reaction due to Rubisco carboxylation was observed as a result of nano-anatase-induced marker genes for Rubisco activase mRNA, enhanced protein levels and activities of Rubisco activase [81]. On the contrary, the exogenous application of TiO2-anatase NPs resulted in a reduced PSII quantum yield, photochemical quenching, electron transfer rate, chlorophyll fluorescence and higher non-photochemical quenching and water loss [82]. Nano-TiO2 reported to improve water absorption, seed germination, plant growth, nitrogen metabolism and photosynthesis [63, 76, 83, 84]. TiO2 NPs were reported to alleviate heat stress through regulating stomatal opening [79].
Nano-TiO2 (rutile) influences the photochemical reaction in spinach chloroplasts [85, 86]. The spinach treated with 0.25% nano-TiO2 showed improved up-hill reaction and oxygen evolution. The noncyclic photophosphorylation activity was found to be higher than cyclic photophosphorylation in chloroplasts. This increase in photosynthesis with nano-TiO2 might be associated with the activation of a photochemical reaction in spinach chloroplasts [85, 86]. Similarly, an increase in dry weight, chlorophyll formation, the ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase activity and the photosynthetic rate was reported in aged spinach treated with 2.5% nano-TiO2 rutile [83]. The nano-anatase TiO2 improved light absorbance, conversion of light energy to electron energy and ultimately to chemical energy, and this promotes carbon dioxide (CO2) assimilation. Treatment of nano-anatase TiO2 improved Rubisco-carboxylase activity 2.67 times in spinach as compared to control, which consecutively activates Rubisco carboxylation and eventually the rate of photosynthesis increase [87]. Pradhan et al. [88] found that Mn-NPs induced an increase in the hill reaction rate in mung bean (Vigna radiata).
In the recent time, NMs are used as a vital tool for improving plant growth and productivity under adverse environmental conditions, that is, salt stress. The Si nanoparticles in the soil have been shown to alleviate salt stress, enhance seed germination, improve activities of antioxidative enzymes, photosynthetic rate and leaf water content [89, 90]. Increased leaf, pod dry weight and grain yield were recorded in soya bean using nano-iron oxide [91]. The β-cyclo dextrin-coated iron nanoparticles penetrate the biological membranes of maize and increase the chlorophyll pigments (up to 38%) as compared to control [92]. The spray of citrate-coated Fe2O3 nanoparticle spray on Glycine max had positive effects on root elongation and photosynthesis rate. Also, the elongation of root and an increase in seed germination were observed in Zea mays L. with silica (SiO2) nanoparticles treatment [93]. Maize with a treatment of 1500 ppm of ZnO nanoparticulates showed the highest germination and seedling vigor index [94].
Nanotechnology has enormous potential to create novel and improved functional properties in photosynthetic organelles and organisms for the enhancement of solar energy harnessing. The upward translocation from root to leaf opens up greater opportunities for their use in various delivery applications. The SWNTs delivered by this spontaneous mechanism have the potential for increasing chloroplast carbon capture by promoting chloroplast solar energy harnessing and electron transport rates. It has been shown that when nanoparticles enter into plant cell, various metabolic changes occur that leads to an increase in biomass, fruit/grain yield, and so on; therefore, further mode and action can be elucidated to evaluate the possibility of their uses. The nanomaterials have the potential to be utilized for the transport of DNA and chemicals into plant cells [95, 96] which offers new opportunity to target specific gene manipulation and expression in the specific cells of the plant. With nanomaterial, the output of a crop can be increased while reducing the input through a better understanding of nanoparticle interaction with plants. The nanobionics approach to engineer plant function will lead to a new area of research at the interface of nanotechnology and plant biology.
CSIR-CSMCRI PRIS 024/2018. The authors thankfully acknowledge the financial supports provided by the Govt. of India in the form of different R&D Projects through Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). KK is thankful to CSIR, New Delhi, for financial support in the form of Senior Research Fellow (SRF) and AcSIR for registration in Ph.D. program.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Deff | Diffusion coefficient |
FITC | Fluorescein isothiocyanate |
FRAP | Fluorescence recovery in a photobleached area |
MWNT | Multi-walled nanotubes |
PAA-NC | Poly(acrylic acid) nanoceria |
QD | Quantum dots |
SWNTs | Single-walled nanotubes |
SBA | Nanomesoporous silica compound |
LHCII | Light-harvesting complex II |
Landscape is specifically the amount of land, either countryside or cityscape, that can be seen at once in a glance by the eye in a single frame. Landscape can also be referred to as an area of either land or water, taken in aggregate. According to Norman T Newton in the forward to his “Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture” book, stated landscape architecture as “the art or the science if preferred of arranging land, together with the spaces and objects upon it, for safe, efficient, healthful, pleasant human use.”
Landscape elements include parks, turfs, golf courses, managed bio reserves, soil systems, water systems, street-furniture, outdoor spaces, side-walks, lighting features, railings, and of course, vegetation.
Landscape is a common element in most architectural works. It has many functional values even though it is largely used for its esthetic properties. It can be shading devices & evaporative coolers during the summer period, windbreaks during the winter period, and light filters throughout the year. Environmental quality within a building can be improved significantly by plants. Urban heat island is one of the most discussed phenomena in the present world. It is more evident in dense urban forms. It affects human beings as well as the environment by having both physical and physiological impacts. Some of the causes for this phenomenon are inappropriate material selection for building envelopes, improper land use, transportation & traffic, impermeable surfaces, etc. However, the landscape can improve this situation at different levels. Urban heat island can be reduced by proper planning of vegetation around the dwellings at micro and macro levels [1].
Hard-scape & soft-scape are the two constituents of landscape design. Both differ in their characteristics; Hard-scape has a solid character while soft-scape is more fluid in nature. Hard-scape remains unchanged throughout time but soft-scape changes with time as they mature. Soft-scape acts as a breathing animated component of the landscape (Figures 1–3).
Softscape (vegetated swales). Source: Co-author.
Hardscape (hard paving).
Energy efficient landscape solution-combination of hard and soft paving: grass-paver blocks: Source: Co-author.
Hard-scape elements – walkways, driveways, rocks, paver patios, etc.
Soft-scape elements - flowers, trees, turf, plants, vines, shrubs, etc.
Some of the key advantages of landscaping are as follows:
Reducing energy consumption, CO2 impact & heat island effect.
Treating nitrogen pollution in rain.
To negate acid rain effect.
Aesthetical value
Some of the major concerns that landscape deal with are:
Improving both outdoor & indoor environmental quality.
Integrating man-made structures such as agriculture, forests, transport, settlements, industry etc. to the natural world.
Composing land, water & vegetation with built elements & paving.
Designing land, together with spaces & objects upon it, to develop a public realm.
Growth habits define the shape or form of the plants and play a key role in both their esthetic character and their function in the landscape. Based on growth habit, plants can be classified as trees, shrubs, groundcovers, or vines. The boundaries between these growth habit types are not always distinct, nor consistent. A plant species may fall into several categories depending upon the conditions of a particular site or its maintenance regime. Despite the shortcomings of this classification system, it is widely used in landscape design.
Herbaceous & woody plants are the main two kinds of landscape plants. Both kinds of plants differ in their characteristics. Plants that do not produce woody stems are known as herbaceous plants. They are known botanically as herbs. They can grow either in an upright, prostate, or creeper manner. Trees, shrubs, or woody vines are different types of woody plants. It is usually difficult to find out a clear distinction between trees and shrubs. Woody plants can be further divided into evergreen & deciduous plants. Deciduous trees usually shed their leaves in autumn while evergreen trees keep their leaves. Trees are relatively larger than shrubs. Shrubs are usually taller than 0.5 m and less than 3 m in height. Plants that grow over and cover ground areas are known as ground covers. They act as the bottom layer in a planting design. Groundcover has various advantages and can be used for different purposes. It can protect from drought & soil erosion. It is also used to improve the aesthetical value of a landscape as it fills the area between trees & large plants. Vines are climbing plants that can spread in different directions. Vines can be used to control erosion as well as for protecting horizontal & vertical planes from the summer sun (Figures 4 and 5).
Trees with different foliage columnar, oval, weeping, conical and round-spread out. Source: Authors.
Typical broad-leaved-evergreen tree with large canopy.
Plants can also be classified according to their lifespan. Ecological origin, growth habit & seasonal pattern of plants are important factors that have to be considered in a landscape design. Region or place from which a plant species originated is considered as its ecological origin. Therefore, plants can be either native or non- native. Native plants usually have an integrated growth habit & pattern with its native ecology. Native plants can provide food to native insects and birds, developing an inter-relation with the native ecology. They usually require comparatively lesser resources & maintenance. So that, the use of non-native plant species may not help the native ecology & also can have negative impacts in some cases.
Some plant species shed their leaves during a period of the year while some others keep their leaves throughout the year. So that annual retention of foliage is another factor that has to be considered in landscape design as this foliage retention pattern can have a larger impact on its properties such as protection from sun & wind. Landscape can implement improvements by applying principles & practices that are environmentally friendly. Some of the changes that can be made in the micro-climate of urban public green spaces, streets & housing by proper planning, implementation & management of landscape are (Table 1).
Increasing the esthetic value
Increasing the real estate value
Decreasing the maintenance cost
Improving energy efficiency
Sr. no. | Name | Physical characteristics | Function/benefits |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Ground cover | Typically grow to less 0.5 m tall or are maintained at that height. In general, they reach 15–30 cm high. | A groundcover is utilized to provide protection from erosion and drought, and to improve the esthetic appearance of a landscape by filling areas between large plants and trees. |
2. | Shrubs | It can be defined as being larger than 0.5 m, but less than 3 m in height. | Used for Esthetic purpose, Buffer and fencing also sometimes |
3. | Vines/Climbers | Vines are climbing & rambling plants. | They are used on man-made structures such as a trellis, a pergola, a balcony to protect from summer sun the horizontal and vertical planes. Various vines can also be used for an effective erosion control. |
4. | Trees | Trees measuring 3 to 6 m is height can be classified as ‘small trees’, trees 6 to 9 m can be considered as ‘medium trees’, and trees taller than 9 m can be considered as ‘large trees’. | Form and Foliage persistence of the tree perform various function, in terms of shading, wind breakers, cooling, buffering and also add Esthetic value. |
4a. | Deciduous | Deciduous plants are those which completely or significantly, shed their foliage during the winter or dry season. and remain bare for a period of time, followed by the growth of new leaves in the next growing season, typically spring. | These trees are helpful for shading during the w Summer season and Allowing Sun light and warmth during the winter season. |
4b. | Evergreen | Evergreen plants retain foliage throughout the year. | All of these plants have special leaves that are resistant to cold and/or moisture loss. Evergreens may continue to photosynthesize during the winter or dry period. |
Classification of vegetation on the basis of physical characteristics and function.
Source: Authors.
Energy consumption can be reduced to a greater extent by proper utilization of landscape elements such as trees, shrubs, ground covers, or vines in strategic locations and proper quantity. Such kind of landscape systems can convert solar heat energy into moderate thermal loads. Thus, the need for mechanical cooling is reduced. Proper planning and management of landscapes help us to achieve a higher comfort level within the buildings. Landscape elements can be used to alter the microclimate around a building to regulate the heat gain in summer & heat loss in winter.
Heat exchange within a building occurs through three different processes – air infiltration, heat conduction & transmission of solar radiation. Outside air can infiltrate into the buildings through its openings in the ceilings or walls. Passage of air is also possible through cracks around doors & windows. This is the first heat exchange process. Air infiltration results in heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter. Surfaces that face wind subject to comparatively higher air pressure as the wind velocity increases and thus air enters through the openings or cracks in these surfaces. Proper planting of plants can reduce the wind velocity and thus reducing the air infiltration. Heat conduction is the second process. Heat can conduct through materials used for constructing the building. The Rate of heat conductions depends upon the insulating properties of these materials. Landscape can also reduce the heat conduction by regulating the difference between the inner & outer surfaces of the building. Landscape elements such as trees & shrubs also regulate the solar radiation receiving on the outer surfaces. Solar radiation can reduce heat loss in the winter period by increasing the temperature of outside surfaces. The Landscape system can block cold winds during the winter period to reduce conductive heat loss. Transmission of solar radiation via windows is the third process. South facing and east or west -facing glass allows an undesirable amount of solar radiation during the summer period. Glass can also heat a building in the winter period. Proper planning & planting of vegetation helps to regulate the transmission of solar radiation in different seasons. Thus landscaping & orientation on the site are two important factors that can affect the heating, cooling & lighting of a building.
Landscape reduces air infiltration & creates air spaces adjacent to buildings. These air spaces act as insulation.
Landscape elements can be shading devices that can reduce the total thermal heat loads on a building, especially during the summer period. Trees are better than man-made structures to provide canopy as trees do not heat up & reradiate down.
Vegetation cools the air in contact with it by transpiration of water from the leaves and thus reducing the cooling load on buildings. It is better for the building to be surrounded by trees, rather than concrete walls.
The advantage of using native plant species is that they are more adaptable to the local soil, climate & pathogens.
Longwave radiations are reduced by the trees and thus regulating the natural cooling at night. Radiant cooling will be more in an open field than in a canopy.
Vegetation can improve the quality of daylight passing through the windows and it can also moderate the light intensity & glare from the bright sky.
Vegetated green walls are more efficient in reducing the cooling load as compared to green roofs.
Strategic designing of the landscape is required in achieving these advantages. For example, plants are more effective when they are planted adjacent to the east & west walls, as those sides are more exposed to the summer sun. The north side requires comparatively lesser shading. The selection of plant species for shading the southern windows is difficult for a building that requires winter heat.
Proper shading of building surfaces is an effective method to reduce the undesirable thermal load, especially during periods of high-intensity solar radiation, such as the summer period of the year. The effectiveness of shade is largely dependent on canopy spread, the height of the trees, and the location of trees & shrubs within the site. One of the best methods to reduce the air temperature is by providing shade to the building roof, south-west &west facing walls & windows. This also helps in hastening early evening cooling. South-facing roof & wall surfaces have to be shaded as these surfaces receive the majority of direct sunlight when the sun is higher in the sky. Proper plants have to be provided for shading the east or west-facing surfaces as these surfaces receive direct sunlight in the morning & afternoon. Deciduous trees can be used to block the sunlight during the summer period. Sun crosses the sky at a lower angle during the winter period but proper planting of tall trees or trimming up the branches helps to achieve desirable winter sunlight. The ambient temperature around the structure as well as the indoor temperature can be reduced to some degree by shading other parts of the building & its adjacent site. The landscape design of the site is also an important tool to reduce the reflected light towards a building from surrounding surfaces (Figure 6).
Shaded alleys under canopy cover. Source: Co-author.
Vine covered frames or pergolas & high bushes can also be used for shading the surfaces. One main advantage of a newly planted vine is that it can provide shade much earlier than a newly planted tree. It is an effective method to cover east and west-facing surfaces by vertical vine-covered trellis while horizontal trellis can be used on any orientation. Bushes can be used on north-facing surfaces to block the low sun (Figure 7).
Shading of west walls through landscaping. Source: Authors.
Evergreen plants can be used in landscape designing to protect the cold winter winds. These plants can be used on the north, east & west sides of a building. Both evergreen trees and shrubs are used for continuous shading or to block heavy winds. Trees and shrubs with low crowns are used as an effective windbreak system that can block wind, close to the ground. Key locations, a well-designed landscape system & proper selection of plants help to reduce the total expenses for winter heating & summer cooling of a building. It can be reduced as much as twenty-five percent.
Deciduous plants are the best shading devices. They can shed their leaves in response to the change in temperature.
Advantages - low cost & aesthetical value, glare can be reduced, these plants have the ability to cool the air via transpiration.
Disadvantages - limited height, diseases can affect growth & slow growth
The east, south-west & south-east sides of a building are usually considered as proper locations for deciduous plants. Deciduous plants may also cause more harm during winter than good in the summer if those plants are not carefully placed on the southern side of a building.
The Wind is an important climatic factor that has to be considered in a landscape design. The Windbreak is an effective system used in a landscape to control wind & its impacts. These shelter belts, formed by rows of trees and shrubs can reduce the wind speed or redirect its movement. Properly planted windbreaks in a cold climate can regulate the heat loss & air infiltration by reducing the wind velocity around the building. Plants that can withstand the winter climate conditions have to be selected for windbreak systems. It is an effective technique to use evergreen species as the major constituent of a windbreak composition. They occupy a significant portion of the system as these plant species retain wind-blocking mass in winter. These species can divert cold winds from the buildings & thus reducing the expense for heating. Distance between the tree and building depends upon the tree height. The Optimum distance is usually taken as 1 to 3 times the windbreak height. Distance up to which the wind can be reduced depends upon the height of the tallest row. It is considered to be 30 times the height. The effective distance of a windbreak system is generally indicated based on the windbreak multiplier, which is measured from the middle of the outermost layer of vegetation, downwind, along a line following wind direction. Components of a windbreak system have to be closely spaced to act as a continuous barrier against the wind. It is necessary to consider the final form that plant species will achieve once they get matured. A one-row windbreak system is formed by a single linear row of trees & shrubs. Evergreen plant species are densely planted in a one-row windbreak as these species retain their lower limbs & foliage. Deciduous plants with narrow clowns can be used and these plant species have to be densely planted. Two-row & twin-row windbreaks are composed of two linear rows of trees or shrubs. A single species, a set of 2 species, or a mixture of species can be used to form this windbreak system. Each row of the windbreak has to be densely planted in the same way as in a one-row windbreak. Three-row windbreaks are composed of 3 rows of trees or shrubs. It should include at least one row of dense evergreen trees. Other rows can be either deciduous or evergreen plantings. Shrubs can also be used as a front-row to catch the snow, if necessary. The three-row system provides additional sheltered spaces and there is a possibility for greater diversity. Thus, the three-row windbreak system has more wildlife value than a single or double-row system (Figure 8).
Wind-shadows created by landscaping. Source: Co-author.
The mature size of plant species has to be considered in designing the landscape. The growth rate is thus an important factor. Fast-growing plant species may not be a good choice as most of these species have poor strength even though some vines are effective fast-growing species that can be used in landscaping. Man-made structures such as a pergola, framework, wall, etc. can be used for supporting vines. Vines can also act as shading devices. Properly designed and executed landscape consisting of trees, shrubs, vines & man-made structures can regulate the micro-climate around a building and thus reducing the heat gain in the summer and heat loss in the winter. Vegetation can guard buildings from the cold winds during winter. It also provides shade from the summer sun and controls the solar radiation during different periods of the year. Thus, landscape strategies can be used for solar, thermal & wind control, according to the climate types.
The climate of hot-humid zones is characterized by high rainfall and high humidity. The temperature range is relatively high at around 30–35°C and is fairly even during the day and throughout the year. Due to minimal temperature differences, winds are light or even non-existent for longer periods. However, heavy precipitation and storms occur frequently.
Landscape design strategies can be used to maximize the shade throughout the year and improving the air movement, thus increasing thermal comfort. Deciduous vines covering the wide trellises on the north & south sides of a building act as shading devices. These can provide comfortable outdoor areas and solar protection. Planting beds that require frequent watering have to be avoided in areas adjacent to the building. Plant species that allow penetration of low-angle winter sun have to be used for shading the buildings and outer spaces (Figure 9).
In buildings it is possible to have vines/creeper covered trellises which provides shading in summer, allows diffused sunlight. Source: Created by Nivedhitha Ravichandran.
Deciduous trees with high-canopy can be used on the east & west sides of a building to improve its solar protection in the morning & afternoon. These trees allow the movement of air underneath the canopies. Low vegetation has to be kept away from the building. This allows breezes to pass through and also prevents dampness. Proper landscape placements & deflection techniques help to channel prevailing winds and thus increasing the air movement. Glare & heat absorption can be reduced by light-colored materials that are paved around the building (Figure 10).
Channeling prevailing winds with appropriate landscaping. Source: Authors.
Other strategies which shall be adopted to minimize the discomfort occurred due to hot and humid climatic conditions like buildings should be separated with large, free spaces between them. This allows airflow which provides ventilation for cooling and a hygienic environment. Certain species of trees (e.g. rain trees) form an extraordinary outdoor space by creating a canopy effect. They should not be planted too far from each other, so that the crowns form a wide hall-like space, creating a comfortable microclimate. An un-shaded pavement should be avoided as far as possible and air should not be allowed to pass over such hot surfaces before reaching buildings. High bushes, however, should be avoided near buildings because the space between the ground vegetation and the high crowns of the trees should remain open, providing free access for the wind at the level of the living spaces.
The hot and dry climate, it is imperative to control solar radiation and movement of hot winds. The design criteria should therefore aim at resisting heat gain by providing shading, reducing exposed area, controlling and scheduling ventilation, and increasing thermal capacity. Hence, strategy should be such that it should prevent formation of dry dusty air due to overheating. It should maximize filtered air movement in summer. Vegetation is desirable as a radiation absorbent surface and for it has evaporative and shade giving properties.
The main aim of landscape design should be to provide maximum shade during the late morning & late afternoon hours. Forestation can be avoided on the north & south sides of the building and landscape elements such as shrubs, deciduous trees, vines, etc. can be used at the eastern & western sides. More shade-providing trees can be used at the east & west sides of the building. This helps to improve shade. Solar heating of the southern walls can be regulated by using shade trees or trellis structures with vines.
Vines help to cool the air adjacent to it via transpiration. Vines growing on vertical structures can also protect the east & west sides from heat gain during the morning & afternoon. Water features are also effective landscape tools that can cool the air in a hot dry zone. The Cooling effect is produced when hot, dry winds pass across the water body. This generates required moisture. It is better to reduce the use of paving materials and provide vegetation as much as possible. This reduces the glare as well as the potential for heat absorption by the paving materials. Light-colored paving material is an effective choice. Courtyard & garden walls are the other tools that can keep out the hot winds and conserve moist air. By planning narrow winding alleys and streets, which are shaded and relatively cool and break stormy winds, but allow through-ventilation and adequate natural lighting.
The Composite climate is characterized by three seasons. A hot and dry season, usually the longest period, is followed by a wet and warm season, the monsoon period. In the third season, the winter time, depending on the altitude, temperatures can drop far below the comfort level, especially at night, whereas daytime temperatures are moderate and the solar radiation intense.
It is necessary to maximize the shade throughout the year as well as improving the air movement. Proper humidity levels have to be maintained in dry seasons. These are the main objectives for landscape design in a composite climate zone. Some of the landscape design interventions that should be used in a composite climate zone are as flows:
Water features are effective strategies for cooling effect during dry seasons in a composite climate zone.
Deciduous trees with high canopy & terrace gardens can be used on the west & east sides of a building. This provides solar protection during morning & afternoon. It also allows air movement underneath the canopies.
Light-colored paving materials can be used around the building as this reduces the glare & heat absorption. Channeling prevailing winds with wind channeling & deflection techniques helps to maximize the air movement.
Wide trellises with deciduous vines can be used as shade structures on the north & south sides of a building to provide additional help for solar protection. It also develops comfortable outdoor spaces (Figures 11 and 12).
Window shaded by trellises with deciduous vines. Source: Co-author.
Deciduous trees cutting off summer solar radiation. Source: Co-author.
Temperate climates are generally defined as environments with moderate rainfall spread across the year or portion of the year with sporadic drought, mild to warm summers and cool to cold winters.
It is necessary to consider more substantial seasonal variations to effectively accommodate the climatic conditions of temperate regions. It is a good method to increase shade during the summer and the warming effect of the sun in winter. Winter winds should be prevented while summer winds have to be directed towards the buildings. Some of the elements that can be used in a prototypical landscape design for these climate regions are:
Use of high-canopy deciduous trees with high branches on the west & east sides. This allows penetrating warming rays from the lower sun in the winter as well as it protects from the high summer sun.
Use of low-branching evergreen tree clusters to block cold winds from north-west or north-east during the winter.
Dense evergreen shrubs can be used on the north, west, and east sides of a building to create an insulating air space between the building & vegetation. This helps to reduce heat loss during the winter.
Distance between the building and windbreak on the north side should not be more than four times the height of the windbreak
An overhead trellis with deciduous vines can be provided adjacent to the southern façade as it adds additional shade to the building. It also creates a shaded outer space for summer use.
Light-colored outdoor paving materials reduce the heat absorption and cooler air temperature can be maintained during the warm weather climate. It also reduces glare.
It is necessary to channel prevailing winds with wind channeling & deflection techniques.
Low vegetation has to be kept away from the building to prevent dampness & allow breezes to pass through.
Regions that lie in the cold climate zone are situated at high altitudes. The temperatures range between 20 and 30°C in summers, while in winters, it can range from −3°C to 8°C, or less.
Landscape design in a cold climate region has to consider the protection of the building from norther winds in winter. Windbreaks can be densely planted to prevent these cold winter winds. Overheating from the direct summer sun can be a problem and this can be avoided by providing shade to the south & west surfaces of the building. Dense evergreen shrubs can be planted at the northern sides of the building to create dead air spaces. This acts as insulation during the winter and summer. The speed of cold winter wind can be regulated by planting dense rows of evergreen trees and forming an earthen berm on the north & northwest sides. Low shrubs & grass should be applied in the southern windbreaker. Deciduous trees can be used in the south-west and south-east directions away from the building.
Earth sheltering is also an effective landscape tool in cold climates. It can be used if the building site is located on a south-facing slope that receives sufficient sunlight. Deciduous trees and shrubs can be used on the southern side of a building, as it helps to provide summer shading when required. It also allows low winter rays.
Advantages of using deciduous high canopy trees on the east & west sides are:
It allows warm winter rays, provides summer shade, and maximize summer breezes.
A sunken terrace with light-colored reflective material can be incorporated into the southern side of the structure to further capture low winter sun & reflect its warmth to building interiors. Darker paving materials can be used around the building to capture warmth & promote snowmelt.
Lightweight soil medium is used in green roof gardens (Figure 13). A drainage layer & a high-quality impermeable membrane is provided beneath the soil medium to prevent the seepage of water. Plant species are selected that can withstand severe, dry roof temperature and resist short bursts from heavy rains [2].
Schematic cross section of a green roof. Source: Redrawn by Co-author, reference from American Wick Drain: https://www.awd-usa.com/drainage-applications/green-roof.
Swales are constructed wetland systems. They are mainly used for managing storm-water runoff. These systems are used to maximize the removal of pollutants from the storm-water runoff and it is carried out through settling, uptake & filtering by proper vegetation planted. Some of the advantages of using swales are [3]:
reduce peak runoff rates
help in rainwater harvesting efficiency
contribute to the green goals of the site & project
Plants are immensely useful in the heating, cooling, and lighting of buildings. Simple strategies utilizing landscape planting elements such as trees, shrubs, groundcovers or vines in key locations and in proper quantities can greatly reduce energy consumption. In certain circumstances, carefully positioned trees and shrubs can save up to 25% of the energy a typical household uses. Appropriately utilized landscape elements and systems can deflect and diffuse sunlight or dissipate solar heat energy to moderate thermal loads and reduce requirements for mechanical cooling. Energy efficient landscaping has additional benefits such as lower maintenance costs, a reduction in water use, a cleaner air.
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