Factors influencing poultry meat color [58].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8163",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Translational Studies on Inflammation",title:"Translational Studies on Inflammation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Inflammation is known worldwide, from the bench to the bedside, but it is a hard theme to approach with one single point of view.In this sense, a selection of translational studies would support the medical-scientific community to better understand the complex network of the inflammatory process, its maintenance, and potential treatment targets. The eleven chapters that compose this book present interesting insights into inflammation and its mechanisms, merging classic background with innovative approaches. From the molecular basis to experimental models, the chapters selected for this book bring to readers at different academic levels updated and practical data on inflammation. Find out what drives interdisciplinary medical research on inflammation and enjoy this informative collection.",isbn:"978-1-78984-358-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-357-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-001-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78112",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"translational-studies-on-inflammation",numberOfPages:248,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"70da4d81101fe0cdaecad1f0fdaa2cf5",bookSignature:"Ane C.F. Nunes",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8163.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10290,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:27,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 15th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"55270",title:"Prof.",name:"Ane",middleName:null,surname:"Claudia Fernandes Nunes",slug:"ane-claudia-fernandes-nunes",fullName:"Ane Claudia Fernandes Nunes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55270/images/system/55270.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ane C.F. Nunes is a geneticist with a master’s degree and Ph.D. in Medical Sciences and Nephrology from the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Brazil. She has postdoctoral experience in renal physiology from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Brazil; clinical medicine and nephrology from the University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil; and nephrology and hypertension from the University of California, Irvine (UCI), USA. She is a Professor of Medical Genetics, Human Genetics, and Molecular Biology. Her research interests include human genetic diseases and cellular and molecular biology applied to nephrology, biochemistry, and microbiology with projects in the following subjects: inflammatory markers, molecular diagnosis, DNA polymorphisms, chronic kidney disease (CKD), polycystic kidney disease (PKD), Fabry disease, rare diseases, cellular and murine models for CKD, RNA processing, fluorescent image analysis, nanoparticles development, and nanomedicine.",institutionString:"University of California, Irvine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of California, Irvine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1035",title:"Clinical Immunology",slug:"immunology-allergology-and-rheumatology-clinical-immunology"}],chapters:[{id:"68815",title:"Introductory Chapter: Overview of the Cellular and Molecular Basis of Inflammatory Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88967",slug:"introductory-chapter-overview-of-the-cellular-and-molecular-basis-of-inflammatory-process",totalDownloads:761,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ane C.F. Nunes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68815",authors:[{id:"55270",title:"Prof.",name:"Ane",surname:"Claudia Fernandes Nunes",slug:"ane-claudia-fernandes-nunes",fullName:"Ane Claudia Fernandes Nunes"}],corrections:null},{id:"69530",title:"Spontaneous Prematurity, Innate Immune System, and Oxidative Stress at the Maternal-Fetal Interface: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88379",slug:"spontaneous-prematurity-innate-immune-system-and-oxidative-stress-at-the-maternal-fetal-interface-an",totalDownloads:690,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite the multifactorial etiology of prematurity, intra-amniotic infection is present in 25–40% of preterm pregnancies. Bacteria in amniotic cavity synthesize phospholipases associated with the production of prostaglandins that leads to rupture of fetal membranes and uterine contractions. Bacterial pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) activate pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as Toll-like (TLRs) and NOD-like receptors (NLRs), triggering pathways that culminate in the production of cytokines that further increase prostaglandin release. Importantly, endogenous molecules called damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) released under stressful conditions can also activate PRRs. Risk factors for both preterm labor (PTL) and preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM), including infection-induced inflammation, may cause an increase of ROS release and depletion of antioxidant defenses. In spite of the similarity between the pathophysiology of PTL and PPROM, there are significant differences regarding molecular mediators, degree of tissue damage, and oxidative stress present in these two conditions. PPROM seems to be a consequence of notable tissue damage resulting from chronic oxidative stress, while PTL is associated with minimal tissue degradation resulting from acute exposure and greater antioxidant status. A better understanding of prematurity pathophysiology and the differences between PTL and PPROM can benefit therapeutic approaches to prevent these important inflammatory syndromes.",signatures:"Natália Prearo Moço, Bruna Ribeiro de Andrade Ramos, Mariana de Castro Silva, Jossimara Polettini, Ramkumar Menon and Márcia Guimarães da Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69530",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69530",authors:[{id:"180264",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruna",surname:"Ribeiro de Andrade Ramos",slug:"bruna-ribeiro-de-andrade-ramos",fullName:"Bruna Ribeiro de Andrade Ramos"},{id:"291199",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcia",surname:"Guimarães Da Silva",slug:"marcia-guimaraes-da-silva",fullName:"Márcia Guimarães Da Silva"},{id:"291223",title:"Dr.",name:"Natália",surname:"Prearo Moço",slug:"natalia-prearo-moco",fullName:"Natália Prearo Moço"},{id:"291326",title:"BSc.",name:"Mariana",surname:"De Castro Silva",slug:"mariana-de-castro-silva",fullName:"Mariana De Castro Silva"},{id:"291327",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramkumar",surname:"Menon",slug:"ramkumar-menon",fullName:"Ramkumar Menon"},{id:"315959",title:"Dr.",name:"Jossimara",surname:"Polettini",slug:"jossimara-polettini",fullName:"Jossimara Polettini"}],corrections:null},{id:"66350",title:"Pharmacological Challenge Models in Clinical Drug Developmental Programs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85352",slug:"pharmacological-challenge-models-in-clinical-drug-developmental-programs",totalDownloads:899,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Early phase clinical research for drug development requires the investigation of safety, tolerability and efficacy of novel compounds. The latter is hampered by the absence of the disorder in healthy volunteers, which is why challenge models are often applied in order to demonstrate ‘proof of pharmacology.’ These challenge models can often be translatable from animal work and can inform the drug developer which dose, dosing regimen or application frequency should be selected prior to phase II studies in the target population. Furthermore, these challenge models represent well-controlled settings to perform activity screening of the compound. The following skin challenge models will be reviewed in this chapter: inflammation induced by Toll-like receptor agonists such as imiquimod, KLH challenge, UV-B irradiation and histamine.",signatures:"Salma Assil, Robert Rissmann and Martijn Bastiaan Adriaan van Doorn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66350",authors:[{id:"284601",title:"Dr.",name:"Martijn Bastiaan Adriaan",surname:"Van Doorn",slug:"martijn-bastiaan-adriaan-van-doorn",fullName:"Martijn Bastiaan Adriaan Van Doorn"},{id:"287620",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"Rissmann",slug:"robert-rissmann",fullName:"Robert Rissmann"},{id:"295605",title:"Ms.",name:"Salma",surname:"Assil",slug:"salma-assil",fullName:"Salma Assil"}],corrections:null},{id:"66216",title:"Sex Differences in Obesity-Induced Inflammation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84941",slug:"sex-differences-in-obesity-induced-inflammation",totalDownloads:1451,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Obesity is defined as a BMI greater than 25 kg/m2. Once thought to simply be a nutritional disorder, obesity has become a major health concern characterized by a state of constant low-grade inflammation caused by chronic adiposity. This state of inflammation is characterized by circulating inflammatory mediators, such as IL-6, leptin, and TNF-α, as well as varying levels of glucose-regulating hormones produced by obese adipose tissue. When left untreated, obesity can lead to a number of diseases including, but not limited to, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, neurodegeneration, type II diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and infertility. The distribution of adiposity differs in men and women, and these differences, along with the differences in sex hormones and sex hormone levels, can exacerbate or attenuate the course of disease pathology. Obesity can also be exacerbated by stress, which can worsen disease pathogenesis. In this review, we will explore how obesity affects inflammation and disease and how sex can affect the course of these diseases.",signatures:"Sari Terrazas, Lauren Brashear, Anna-Katherine Escoto, Shannon Lynch, Dylan Slaughter, Neena Xavier, Norman Robert Estes II and Samantha Giordano-Mooga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66216",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66216",authors:[{id:"213186",title:"Dr.",name:"Samantha",surname:"Giordano-Mooga",slug:"samantha-giordano-mooga",fullName:"Samantha Giordano-Mooga"},{id:"294123",title:"Ms.",name:"Sari",surname:"Terrazas",slug:"sari-terrazas",fullName:"Sari Terrazas"},{id:"294124",title:"Ms.",name:"Lauren",surname:"Brashear",slug:"lauren-brashear",fullName:"Lauren Brashear"},{id:"294125",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna-Katherine",surname:"Escoto",slug:"anna-katherine-escoto",fullName:"Anna-Katherine Escoto"},{id:"294126",title:"Ms.",name:"Shannon",surname:"Lynch",slug:"shannon-lynch",fullName:"Shannon Lynch"},{id:"294127",title:"Mr.",name:"Dylan",surname:"Slaughter",slug:"dylan-slaughter",fullName:"Dylan Slaughter"},{id:"294128",title:"Dr.",name:"Neena",surname:"Xavier",slug:"neena-xavier",fullName:"Neena Xavier"},{id:"294129",title:"Dr.",name:"Norman Robert",surname:"Estes II",slug:"norman-robert-estes-ii",fullName:"Norman Robert Estes II"}],corrections:null},{id:"66451",title:"The Wound-Healing Portal Hypertensive Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84689",slug:"the-wound-healing-portal-hypertensive-response",totalDownloads:869,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Portal hypertensive inflammation is associated with chronic liver diseases. The three successive and overlapping systemic inflammatory phenotypes, i.e., neurogenic, immune, and endocrine, which characterize the wound-healing response, are expressed by the portal venous system upon liver injury. The diverse functions of hepatic stellate cells in homeostasis and inflammation indicate the versatile nature of these mesenchymal-derived cells, which could adopt numerous phenotypes according to the interstitial microenvironmental characteristics. Consequently, these inflammatory phenotypes could represent the reexpression of two extra-embryonic functional axis, i.e., coelomic-amniotic and trophoblastic-vitelline, whose coupling in the portal system would induce a gastrulation-related phenotype. Therefore, hepatic stellate cells and liver-specific mesenchymal cells could recapitulate and couple these abovementioned extra-embryonic phenotypes during portal hypertension. These hepatic cellular population, thanks to their potential ability to integrate and reexpress functions showing analogies to extra-embryonic functions, display characteristics of stem/progenitor cells. In this way, during the development of portal hypertension, hepatic stellate cells not only could reexpress extra-embryonic functions, but also could adapt themselves in order to induce a gastrulation-related process in the space of Disse. Hence, by understanding the ontogenic interactions between hepatic stellate cells and the host inflammatory response in portal hypertension, it is possible to design effective therapeutic and prophylactic strategies to avoid or reverse wound-like hypertensive response.",signatures:"Maria Angeles Aller, Javier Blanco-Rivero, Ana Arias and Jaime Arias",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66451",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66451",authors:[{id:"287050",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Arias",slug:"jaime-arias",fullName:"Jaime Arias"},{id:"287064",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Arias",slug:"ana-arias",fullName:"Ana Arias"},{id:"288136",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Angeles",surname:"Aller",slug:"maria-angeles-aller",fullName:"Maria Angeles Aller"},{id:"288154",title:"Prof.",name:"Javier",surname:"Blanco-Rivero",slug:"javier-blanco-rivero",fullName:"Javier Blanco-Rivero"}],corrections:null},{id:"70170",title:"Review and Implications of Traditional Indian Medicine for Inflammatory Bowel Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89465",slug:"review-and-implications-of-traditional-indian-medicine-for-inflammatory-bowel-disease",totalDownloads:712,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of intestinal disorders that cause prolonged inflammation of digestive tract. Chronic inflammation results in Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). There is a disruption of homeostasis of various regulatory factors, for example, cohesive functioning of intestinal epithelial barrier, macrophages, and cellular mediators such as cytokines and chemokines. Natural products derived from plants based on traditional system of medicine have exhibited efficacy for UC and CD in experimental models and clinical trials. In the present review, current developments of natural products and herbs for the treatment of IBD in the context of Indian traditional medicine have been highlighted. Two classes of Ayurvedic formulation, fermented preparations (Asava and Arishta) and Ghrita (preparations involving butter), are employed for the maintenance of intestinal disorders. Here, we discuss mainly about the fermented preparations, their main constituents, and correlations with modern findings. The way these fermented formulations are processed also affects the extraction of constituents in them. So, the correlation between the chemistry of the plant material (their constituents as well) with the IBD was done. These correlations may serve as a step forward to reduce the gap between modern system of medicine and traditional system of medicine.",signatures:"Uma Ranjan Lal and Inder Pal Singh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70170",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70170",authors:[{id:"208194",title:"Dr.",name:"Uma",surname:"Ranjan Lal",slug:"uma-ranjan-lal",fullName:"Uma Ranjan Lal"},{id:"315800",title:"Dr.",name:"Inder Pal",surname:"Singh",slug:"inder-pal-singh",fullName:"Inder Pal Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"66963",title:"Immuno-Oncology, Imaging Biomarkers and Response to Chemotherapy in Cancer Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84690",slug:"immuno-oncology-imaging-biomarkers-and-response-to-chemotherapy-in-cancer-treatment",totalDownloads:846,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Immuno-oncology is a young and growing field in cancer therapy. It stimulates immune system to target and attack the tumor or inhibiting the immune response. Recent findings in cancer immunotherapy has revealed that the immune system can control many cancers across various histologies, producing durable responses in a way which not seen with many small molecule drugs. Advances in understanding the role and molecular mechanisms of immunotherapy are revolutionizing clinical practice in cancer treatment. Immunotherapy is being intensively explored with the aim of improving primary response rates or prolonging overall survival. The purpose of this chapter is to review the different aspect of immunotherapy including blockade of immunological checkpoints, immuno-oncology and imaging biomarkers, immune response, therapeutic resistance and combination therapy, while several additional immuno-therapeutic strategies are also highlighted.",signatures:"Alireza Ziaei and Forough Kheiry",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66963",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66963",authors:[{id:"271630",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",surname:"Ziaei",slug:"alireza-ziaei",fullName:"Alireza Ziaei"},{id:"300612",title:"Dr.",name:"Forough",surname:"Kheiry",slug:"forough-kheiry",fullName:"Forough Kheiry"}],corrections:null},{id:"66299",title:"TLR4-Induced Inflammation Is a Key Promoter of Tumor Growth, Vascularization, and Metastasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85195",slug:"tlr4-induced-inflammation-is-a-key-promoter-of-tumor-growth-vascularization-and-metastasis",totalDownloads:1070,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) is a powerful pathway best known for inducing inflammation in response to bacteria-produced lipopolysaccharide. TLR4 is also activated by endogenous ligands produced by host-damaged cells and a chemo-drug paclitaxel. Under normal conditions, TLR4 is expressed mainly in macrophages and, at a lower level, in epithelial, endothelial, and stromal cells. Activated TLR4 significantly increases inflammatory cytokines and enhances cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and survival. While these functions in normal cells are essential for host defense and tissue repair, TLR4 overexpression in malignant cells promotes tumor growth and metastasis. This is because pro-oncogenic effects of activated TLR4 in tumor cells are amplified by similar event in TLR4-positive tumor-associated cells including endothelial cells and their mobilized progenitors. The collective activation of multiple cell types within the tumor promotes chemoresistance and metastasis. Here, we summarize the current knowledge of the TLR4 pathway and its functional outcomes in normal and tumor cells. We also discuss its underappreciated role in supporting tumor progression through vascular activation and recruitment of endothelial progenitors. The review considers several open questions regarding the impact of TLR4-mediated pro- and antitumor effects, structural requirements for recognition of the TLR4 complex, and a potential contribution of chemotherapy to tumor spread.",signatures:"Sophia Ran, Nihit Bhattarai, Radhika Patel and Lisa Volk-Draper",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66299",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66299",authors:[{id:"79980",title:"Dr.",name:"Sophia",surname:"Ran",slug:"sophia-ran",fullName:"Sophia Ran"},{id:"294697",title:"BSc.",name:"Nihit",surname:"Bhattarai",slug:"nihit-bhattarai",fullName:"Nihit Bhattarai"},{id:"294698",title:"BSc.",name:"Radhika",surname:"Patel",slug:"radhika-patel",fullName:"Radhika Patel"},{id:"294699",title:"MSc.",name:"Lisa",surname:"Volk-Draper",slug:"lisa-volk-draper",fullName:"Lisa Volk-Draper"}],corrections:null},{id:"65944",title:"The Potential Contribution of Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84776",slug:"the-potential-contribution-of-nanoparticles-in-the-treatment-of-inflammatory-diseases",totalDownloads:958,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The scope of this chapter is to review the significant effect that nanomedicine has had in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Nanotechnology has been widely studied in the last decade and proved to be an encouraging strategy in the healthcare system and the medical field. This novel technology provides a vast number of nanomaterials and tools that could actually diagnose and treat different inflammatory disorders and conditions. An enormous amount of in vivo and in vitro research was conducted by many groups to validate the positive contribution that nanoparticles have in regard to the treatment of inflammation and its associated illnesses. This contribution is due to the fact that nanoparticles could be modulated to pass through metabolic barriers and specifically targeted to deliver drugs to the required sites without affecting healthy cells and tissues. This makes them a promising therapeutical choice for the treatment of inflammatory diseases in the future.",signatures:"Mona A. Elsayed and Ayman Norredin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65944",authors:[{id:"283226",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mona A.",surname:"Elsayed",slug:"mona-a.-elsayed",fullName:"Mona A. Elsayed"},{id:"290741",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayman",surname:"Noreddin",slug:"ayman-noreddin",fullName:"Ayman Noreddin"}],corrections:null},{id:"66248",title:"Exploring Epigenetic Drugs in the Regulation of Inflammatory Autoimmune Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85168",slug:"exploring-epigenetic-drugs-in-the-regulation-of-inflammatory-autoimmune-diseases",totalDownloads:1141,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During recent years, numerous studies have shown that epigenetics, heritable changes that do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence, play an important role in the development, function, and regulation of the immune system as well as in the onset and progress of autoimmune diseases. For that reason, in the following chapter, we will review some of the most important concepts about epigenetics and how they modulate the development and function of immune cells, specifically macrophages, dendritic cells, and T cells. Moreover, we will review the role of epigenetics on autoimmune diseases, as well as the use of pharmacological modulation of the epigenetic machinery, as an innovative way to approach a potential new treatment or improve the current treatments of autoimmune diseases.",signatures:"Cristian Doñas, Alejandra Loyola and Mario Rosemblatt",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66248",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66248",authors:[{id:"283197",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Rosemblatt",slug:"mario-rosemblatt",fullName:"Mario Rosemblatt"},{id:"283198",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristian",surname:"Doñas",slug:"cristian-donas",fullName:"Cristian Doñas"},{id:"283199",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",surname:"Loyola",slug:"alejandra-loyola",fullName:"Alejandra Loyola"}],corrections:null},{id:"66824",title:"The Experimental Bioengineering of Complete Spinal Cord Injury in Adult Rats",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85353",slug:"the-experimental-bioengineering-of-complete-spinal-cord-injury-in-adult-rats",totalDownloads:893,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter is devoted to the research of experimental complete mechanical spinal injury in adult rats and attempts at bioengineering restoration of the structure and function of the spinal cord using a protein-polysaccharide construct that includes bovine collagen, highly purified crab chitosan ascorbate, nanostructuring additives in the form of sodium chondroitin sulfate, sodium hyaluronate, heparin sulfate in the presence of complete nutrient medium DMEM, neural supplement N2, conditioned nutrient medium, obtained about brain cell mouse embryos and mouse embryonic stem cells, retinoic acid, and mouse neural progenitor cells derived from embryonic stem cells. After a complete intersection of the spinal cord at the level of the ninth thoracic vertebra, the authors directly implanted a collagen-chitosan construct into the gap between the ends of the spinal cord. Analysis of the recovery of motor and sensory and vegetative functions of the spinal cord for 20 weeks after surgery using the cytological immune-fluorescent method showed a high viability of the transplanted neural cell precursors during the entire observation period and the early emergence of activity of mediators of nerve signal transmission in the implantation zone of the structure with accompaniment active dynamics of reducing neurodeficiency.",signatures:"I.N. Bolshakov, A.V. Svetlakov, A.V. Eremeev and Yu.I. 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Using biodegradation processes represents an opportunity to turning waste into a resource, as they do in nature, achieving a circular and bio-based economic strategy. Natural processes are, now, economically more valuables than in the past.
\r\n\tThe discussion will include between others topics: biodegradation processes of by-products coming from food-processing industries, tertiary treatment of wastewaters with microalgae coupled with the generation of potentially commercial interest compounds, biotechnological processes to improve lignocellulosic waste treatment or potential use of fungi in the degradation of environmental pollutants.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in biodegradation processes that contribute to a sustainable and circular bioeconomy giving added value compounds from waste and by-products, up to now hidden, and reducing waste generation at the same time.
The poultry industry has witnessed significant improvements over the past several decades achieving higher market weight with improved feed efficiency, thus reducing production cost. During the past 60 years, the amount of time and quantity of feed per pound of meat required to reach broiler market weight had been reduced by 50% [1]; furthermore, according to the National Chicken Council [2], modern broiler chickens can achieve market weight 16 days earlier with 35% higher weight compared to the 1960s broiler chicken. These improvements have resulted from a combination of genetic improvement and progress in nutrition and poultry management.
The U.S. is considered the world’s largest producer of poultry meat; the U.S. provides approximately 17% of the global poultry meat output, followed by Brazil and China, mainly dominated by broiler meat followed by turkey meat and a small fraction for other poultry meat. The production and consumption of poultry meat have increased rapidly worldwide and are expected to continue to grow [3] due to its relatively low price compared to other meats, the absence of cultural or religious obstacles, and its dietary and nutritional properties as it has lower fat, cholesterol, and sodium content [4] with an increased preference of white chicken meat [5, 6].
Additionally, consumers have shifted from the consumption of whole chicken toward portioned (especially breast fillets) and further processed products [7, 8]. These changes were driven by the need for convenience with meal preparation in a fast-paced industrialized era and meeting consumer preference of specific carcass parts. The poultry industry has responded to these changing demands by further enhancing genetic selection for increased breast yield, faster growth rate, and improved feed efficiency. Meanwhile, feed cost has increased, and ethanol production has forced producers to use alternative feed ingredients such as the distiller\'s dried grains with solubles (DDGS) produced as byproducts of ethanol production. However, since the selection of broiler chickens initially focused on increasing growth performance and improving body composition [9], this has led to indirect and often deleterious effects on meat quality traits, such as excessive deposition of abdominal fat, the formation of which represented the inefficient use of feed [10, 11]. Coincidently, several studies have shown an increased incidence of abnormalities, mainly in breast muscles [12, 13]. In the early 1980s, Wight and Siller [14] recognized an abnormal condition in the pectoralis minor, in which the muscle is basically “suffocated” leading to ischemic necrosis; this condition known as deep pectoral muscle myopathy is only the first in a list of fast-growth-related muscle abnormalities that eventually affect meat quality and its functional properties.
In poultry meat, appearance and texture have been considered the two most important attributes responsible for initial consumer meat evaluation and final product acceptance [15], so consumers are expected to reject meat with observed defects such as bruises and hemorrhages. Several appearance defects have been reported in the poultry industry, such as pinking of raw and cooked meat, bone darkening, red/bloody discoloration, white striping, wooden breast, spaghetti meat, and pale, soft, exudative appearance of breast meat. However, many of the underlying causes of appearance defects have not been fully explained. Understanding the structural organization of the muscle fibers and physiology can help in explaining some of these defects.
The basic structural unit of a muscle has been defined as the muscle fiber, which is constituted of several myofibrils (contractile units). Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a connective tissue called the endomysium; muscle fibers are then grouped into fascicles and surrounded by another layer of connective tissue called the perimysium. Then, the whole muscle is made up of a group of fascicles and surrounded by epimysium that connected the muscle to bones. Collagen is the major constituent of these connective tissues. These connective tissues influenced muscle development and subsequent meat quality.
Skeletal muscles growth was achieved by increasing the size of preexisting muscle fibers (hypertrophy). The number, size, and type of fibers vary with the function and anatomical location of the muscle. Meat quality is also affected by these factors. A muscle that contained high proportion of oxidative fibers tends to have red color due to a greater amount of myoglobin (e.g., thigh muscles) as compared to glycolytic fibers, which tended to appear white in color, which affected the appearance of muscle/meat (e.g., chicken breast muscle). Glycolytic fibers are larger and have lower rate of protein turnover. Therefore, the white muscles are larger and more efficient. In poultry, genetic selection for increased breast yield resulted in pale breast meat color in broilers [16], ducks [17], and turkeys [18], which could result in poor meat quality.
Collagen is the most abundant protein in the body and in connective tissues. The structure of collagen supports its function of providing strength to muscle and other tissues with more than 20 different types of collagen identified in vertebrates [19]. Glycine constitutes about one-third of all the amino acids found in collagen, while proline, which has been classified as an imino acid, and its analog hydroxyproline also constituted about one-third of all amino acids in collagen [20]. Lysine has been considered to be another constituent of collagen where both proline and lysine are covalently modified to hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine, respectively. A collagen molecule (tropocollagen) is composed of three left-handed polypeptide helices coiled around each other to form a right-handed supercoil where glycine is found at every third residue [19].
The strength of the collagen fibrils is due to the covalent bonds formed between and within tropocollagen triple helices, where collagen is cross-linked by lysine side chains that contribute to the strength of the collagen in meat, which has an essential role in the development of meat tenderness [21]. Furthermore, in a recent study, it has been shown that muscle with spaghetti meat abnormality had an altered immunoreactivity to specifically procollagen type III (precursor of collagen type III) suggesting a possible defect in the collagen turnover and synthesis process [22], while Sanden et al. [23] reported that spaghetti meat has poorly packed thin, loose, and immature collagen fiber bundles.
The process of converting muscle to meat in poultry starts immediately upon sacrificing the bird. Exsanguination results in blood/oxygen supply removal, during which the muscle tries to maintain its functions even after oxygen depletion through the anaerobic glycolysis of its glycogen reserves to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), but in the absence of blood supply to remove waste, the accumulated heat and lactic acid in the muscle decreases the pH. Owing to ATP depletion, the muscle remains contracted due to actin and myosin binding that leads to muscle stiffness (rigor mortis). This marks the onset of rigor mortis and the conversion of muscle to meat, where muscle proteins start to denature due to high temperature and low pH. Temperature and pH are the main postmortem factors influencing meat quality through affecting the onset and progression of rigor mortis and subsequent resolution [24, 25, 26, 27]. During resolution, the proteolysis of Z-disk proteins takes place, and myofibrillar proteins degrade into myofibrillar fragments by proteolytic enzymes that affect meat tenderness. In chickens, the process of converting muscle to meat has been found to start immediately after slaughter and be resolved within 2–4 h. The extent of meat tenderization postmortem could be altered by the conditions under which the meat is processed. Factors include temperature and chilling duration, deboning time, postchill aging/holding duration, and marination.
Meat quality is a collective term used to describe the indicators of a meat product wholesomeness and freshness, such as color, texture, flavor, pH, and juiciness. The two most important quality attributes for poultry meat are appearance and texture since they influence the initial consumer selection of a product as well as final satisfaction [15]. Appearance quality attributes include skin color, meat color, and appearance defects such as bruises and hemorrhages. Any deviation from a normal appearance would result in meat product rejection, subsequently leading to consumer complaints. Despite the importance of these quality attributes, the poultry grading system used is still based on aesthetic attributes, such as conformation, presence or absence of carcass defects, bruises, missing parts, and skin tears, without taking into consideration the functional properties of meat [28], which have been important for the further processing industry that was mainly interested in the functional properties of meat; the importance of incorporating functional properties and quality indicators is becoming increasingly important as the recent muscle myopathies not only affect consumer acceptance based on appearance but also the quality of further processed meat manufactured using meat with such defects.
Many factors influence poultry meat quality, including sex, strain, age, environmental factors, exercise, diet, and processing practices mainly focused on chilling, deboning time, marination, and electrical stunning [29, 30, 31, 32].
Another important quality attribute that influences customer perception is the tenderness of the meat. This attribute comes second after appearance; consumers usually correlate acceptable appearance with better quality and tenderness. Tenderness development is a function of myofibrillar protein denaturation, connective tissue content, and juiciness. Deboning time, age, and strain are some of the major factors that affect poultry meat tenderness [31, 33]. Lyon and Lyon [34] reported that as the time before deboning increased from 0 to 24 h postmortem, consumer acceptability of the meat texture increased, with fillets deboned at 0 and 2 h postmortem considered tough by a consumer panel, and samples deboned at 6 and 24 h postmortem considered slightly tender to moderately tender. Liu et al. [35] reported a decreased shear force of chicken breast as deboning time increased from 2 to 24 h postmortem. Similar results were also reported by Cavitt et al. [33].
Furthermore, Mehaffey et al. [8] reported that fillets deboned 2 or 4 h postmortem from broilers raised to 7 weeks were significantly tougher than those raised to 6 weeks, indicating that age affected tenderness when deboning was performed shortly after harvest. Northcutt et al. [31] reported that breast fillets harvested at less than 2 h postchill aging were tenderer when taken from broilers slaughtered at 42 or 44 days of age than those harvested from birds 49 or 51 days of age, irrespective of any sex effect. On the other hand, Young et al. [36] reported that females had greater fillet yields than males.
Connective tissue content has been reported to increase with age and is correlated with tenderness; as mentioned earlier, collagen is the most abundant protein in the body, making up the majority of the connective tissue proteins [37, 38]. In young broilers (6–8 weeks), it is expected that connective tissue would not affect tenderness since mature cross-links should have not yet formed between tropocollagen molecules, which are the structural units of the collagen fibril. On the other hand, the contraction of myofibrillar protein, which depends upon time and rate of rigor mortis development after the bird is sacrificed, is related to processing rather than intrinsic factors [15]. Furthermore, tenderness, indirectly associated with connective tissue, is one of the quality attributes that are negatively affected by the emerging muscle myopathies emphasizing the importance of further investigating and attempting to mitigate the negative impacts.
Another important meat quality attribute is meat juiciness, or water-holding capacity, which refers to the ability of raw meat to retain its inherent water during force application and/or processing [39]. Water in muscle has been divided into three general types: bound, immobilized, and free. Bound water is held tightly via myofibrillar protein charges and represents 4–5% of water in muscle [39, 40]; it is resistant to freezing and could only be removed by severe drying processes, not including conventional cooking [41]. Immobilized water is found within the muscle ultrastructure (within the space between actin and myosin), but it is not bound to myofibrillar proteins as in the case of bound water. Immobilized water accounts for the largest portion of muscle-bound water (88–95%). Finally, free water is held within muscle by weak capillary forces [42].
Poultry has been determined to be the only species known to have muscles/parts with apparent differences in color, as meat from poultry has been classified as either white or dark. In chicken, fresh raw breast meat is expected to have a pale pink color, while the raw thigh and leg meat are darker and redder. Meat color plays a significant role in consumer purchase decisions [43, 44, 45]. Consumers tend to associate color with flavor, tenderness, safety, storage time, nutritional value, and satisfaction level [46], and as an indicator of freshness and wholesomeness.
Meat color is what the human eye sees as light is reflected from the meat surface. Poultry meat absorbs most blue and green color spectra and reflects most of the yellow, orange, and red color spectra, which is what the human eye perceives.
The most commonly used colorimetric scale is the CIE Lab [47], even though other color scales have been used, such as the Hunter L, a, b, and YXZ space. However, the accuracy of these instruments has depended upon thickness, background color, and illuminant wavelengths [48, 49].
The CIE Lab system components measures include L* that refers to lightness and has a range from 0 to 100 (black to white), component a* had a range from –60 to +60 (green if negative to red if positive), and b* has the same range as a* (blue if negative to yellow if positive) [50, 51]. Another more recent system used for color measurement is the computer vision system, which has been shown to give reproducible results with the ability to measure the color of the entire sample instead of specific spots, as has been the case with widely used colorimeters [52]; in fact, Tomasevic et al. [53] recommended using computer vision program as a superior approach for poultry color determination.
Meat color is mainly related to the myoglobin pigment present in the muscle fibers. Myoglobin consists of a protein (globin) and a nonprotein heme ring, which has an iron molecule in its center. Iron can bind one of several ligands (e.g., oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitric oxide) on its sixth coordination site. The forms of myoglobin (deoxymyoglobin, oxymyoglobin, carboxymyoglobin, and metmyoglobin) differ depending upon the ligand bound to iron and on the redox state of the iron. Thus, myoglobin and iron states are the two main ways through which meat color changes.
Myoglobin (or deoxymyoglobin) has a red-purple color in its nature when not bound to any ligands; the state of myoglobin changes to oxymyoglobin when oxygen is present and to carboxymyoglobin when carbon dioxide is present. In both the forms, the color is bright red (bloom), and iron is in the reduced ferrous form (Fe++). The oxidation of myoglobin changes the form to metmyoglobin and the iron to the oxidized ferric form (Fe+++), which has a brown color. These myoglobin color changes are reversible; however, if heat-treated, metmyoglobin becomes denatured and color changes irreversibly to grayish-brown. Curing with nitrites/nitrates causes an irreversible color change to red color that, upon heating, converts to pink. The replacement of iron with zinc results in a stable red color of myoglobin due to the formation of Zn-protoporphyrin IX (ZPP), which has been shown to give Parma ham its stable, bright red color [54, 55]. Within a chicken carcass, chicken breast muscles are mainly composed of white fibers (glycolytic) that have low myoglobin content. Thus, breast meat appears white, while thigh muscles are composed of red fiber (oxidative) and appears darker. Fleming et al. [56] reported a myoglobin concentration of 0.16 and 0.30 mg/g in broiler breast and thigh muscles, respectively. Furthermore, Miller [57] said a lower myoglobin content of 0.01 and 0.40 mg/g in white and dark meat of 8-week-old broilers, respectively.
Froning [58] classified the factors influencing meat color into three main categories (Table 1). Smith et al. [59] investigated the effect of age, diet (carbohydrate source), and feed withdrawal on broiler meat color by slaughtering birds each day from 42 to 45 and 49 to 52 days of age with a carbohydrate source that was either corn, milo, or wheat, with feed withdrawal times of either 0 or 8 h. Color was not affected by age. Still, feed withdrawal increased fillet lightness (L*) from an average of 46.1 to 48.9, decreased redness (a*) from 4.1 to 3.1, and increased yellowness (b*) from 2.8 to 3.7. Fillets from the birds fed the wheat diet were lighter than fillets from the corn or milo fed birds. The milo diet resulted in redder fillets than corn or wheat diets, while the corn diet produced more yellow fillets than milo or wheat diets.
Heme pigments |
|
Preslaughter factors |
|
Slaughter, chilling, and further processing |
|
Factors influencing poultry meat color [58].
In addition to meat color, skin color has been considered a critical quality attribute, mainly in a whole carcass and skin-on cuts sale. The color of poultry skin has varied from cream-colored to yellow. This variation is primarily the result of genetic variation and natural pigments in feed. Birds had differed in their ability to deposit the black melanin pigment in the epidermis and dermis layers of the skin and varied in their ability to deposit carotenoids from the feed as the combinations of different amounts of melanin and carotenoids produced different skin colors. However, in commercial strains, the ability to deposit melanin has been eliminated through genetic selection. Different skin colors as adopted from [60] are illustrated in Table 2.
Skin color | Dermis | Epidermis |
---|---|---|
White | None | None |
Black | Melanin | Melanin |
Yellow | None | Xanthophyll |
Green | Melanin | Xanthophyll |
Blue (Slate) | Melanin | None |
Combination of possible skin colors due to dietary xanthophyll deposition in epidermis or melanin production in either dermis or epidermis [60].
However, considerable variation in color and discoloration of poultry meat has occurred and remains of great concern for the industry. Discoloration may occur in the entire muscle or only in a portion of a muscle due to bruising or broken blood vessels [58]. Possible poultry color defects are presented in Table 3.
Defect | Description | Possible causes |
---|---|---|
Bruises and hemorrhages | Classic bruises, pin-point blood spots in meat, blood accumulation along bones and in joints | Physical trauma, nutrient deficiencies, mycotoxins, stunning |
Overscalding | Incomplete removal of epidermis, cooked discoloration on surface of meat | Too high scalding temperature, too long in scalder |
Surface drying | Mottled appearance of skin or meat due to surface dehydration | Incomplete removal of epidermis, exposed meat, poor packaging, freezer burn |
Heme reactions | Normal color ranges from raw pink meat, tan to brown raw meat, grey to brown cooked meat, pink cooked meat, cured meat color | Oxidative or redox state of the myoglobin, myoglobin complexing with nitrates/nitrites or other compounds such as carbon monoxide |
Dark meat | Darker than normal appearing meat, possible mottling | High muscle pH due to antemortem depletion of muscle glycogen |
Light meat | Pale breast meat | Low muscle pH (PSE-like condition) |
Dark bones | Dark brown to black bones | Freezing, blood accumulation around bone |
Summary of poultry color defects [60].
The pinking of cooked white meat has been an undesirable color defect found in poultry; its occurrence was noticed sporadically and has negatively influenced consumer purchasing decisions (Maga, I994). According to Maga [61], pink color might have resulted from the presence of high levels of myoglobin that were not completely denatured during heat processing, incidental nitrate/nitrite contamination either in feed or water or during processing. The presence of carbon monoxide and nitric oxide gases in oven gas while roasting has caused pink color on the surface of turkey meat, with carcasses from younger turkeys more susceptible than older ones [62]. The proposed mechanism for pink color development of fully cooked is related to the ligands to which the denatured myoglobin was bound, such as amino acids, denatured proteins, and nitrogen-containing compounds that form denatured hemochromes globin. Therefore, depending on the ligand to which the denatured heme will bind, different pink shades would result.
Binding of nitric oxide to myoglobin from preslaughter contamination (feed and water and gases from the truck exhaust) or during/after processing (processing water, ice, spice mix, and oven gas) has formed the pink nitric oxide myoglobin that, upon cooking, was converted to pink nitrosohemochrome. Furthermore, carbon monoxide binding to myoglobin has led to pink carboxymyoglobin developing upon cooking in oven gases or during irradiation.
Cooking meat harvested from birds before rigor mortis resolution could also cause pink color when meat is cooked when pH was higher than 6.0. At this high pH, myoglobin is not denatured, and cytochrome C (electron transport protein), which is heat stable, increases and contributes to the delayed denaturation of myoglobin since cytochrome C is still able to deliver electrons to myoglobin. Ahn and Maurer [63] showed that a pH above 6.4 leads to binding of myoglobin and hemoglobin with most naturally present ligands, such as histidine, cysteine, methionine, nicotinamide, and solubilized proteins, which leads to pink color of the meat. At high pH, amino acids and protein ligands can donate electrons to Fe, resulting in stable pink ferrohemochrome. High pH also reduces the susceptibility of meat pigments and lipids to oxidation resulting in a cooked pink color [64].
Bone darkening has been described as a dark reddish brown or black discoloration on the surface of bone and muscle adjacent to the bone after cooking. The darkening was due to bone marrow passing from inside the bone onto the bone surface and adjacent tissue, usually after freezing the meat [65, 66] and after cooking of the frozen meat [67]. Lyon and Lyon [30] described the variation in bone discoloration due to different preparation methods (precook, freeze, and reheat). They found that freezing before cooking increased the severity of discoloration more than cooking followed by freezing and reheating. Lyon et al. [65] demonstrated that meat and bone darkening of thigh pieces was related to pigment migration from the femur to muscle tissue. The commercial further processing industry has reported that redness was usually accompanied by blood in bone-in chicken carcasses and parts, which consumers could reject as the product appears undercooked and unsafe for consumption [59].
The migration of pigments from the femur to muscle tissues has created darkening that was more prevalent in younger birds since their bones were less calcified, were more porous, and had more red marrow than older birds. The epiphysis of long bones in older birds is more calcified than young birds, so the pigment is more difficult to escape from bones onto surrounding tissue. However, bone darkening only affects the appearance and not the organoleptic properties of the meat product [67].
Smith and Northcutt [59] studied discoloration prevalence in commercially fully cooked breasts, thighs, and drumsticks from various market sources. They speculated that about 11% of products could face consumer complaints or rejection since they were severely discolored. Furthermore, cooking chicken breast samples with bone marrow collected from femurs increased the darkness and redness of both raw and cooked broiler meat [68].
Red and/or bloody discoloration of poultry meat, raw or cooked, has been a chronic yet sporadic problem for the poultry industry. Raw breast meat with red discoloration is objectionable to many customers, and cooked white or dark meat with red defect is unacceptable to consumers due to the perception that it is undercooked. Red discoloration of white meat is closely related to bone darkening but with higher redness. Little research has been available concerning this red discoloration defect in poultry meat [59]. According to Smith and Northcutt [66], bone marrow is an effective inducer of red, bloody discoloration in breast meat samples. In a previous investigation conducted concerning the color of different parts of chicken, Lyon et al. [65] reported that the initial color of breast was lighter and less red than thighs because breasts had a lower proportion of total bone area to muscle mass, fewer large, calcified bones, a lower proportion of blood vessels per muscle mass (less hemoglobin), or lower myoglobin content than thighs or drums [66].
The bright red color development has been investigated in Parma ham, where this north Italian traditional dry-cured ham “Prosciutto di Parma (Parma ham)” has been made from only the legs of fattened pigs and was salted with sea salt, dried, and matured over 1 year [69]. It was initially postulated that sea salt used was contaminated with nitrate/nitrite. However, that was later investigated, and results showed that this pigment was also formed in a nitrate/nitrite-free environment and that endogenous enzymes as well as microorganisms were involved in this pigment formation [54, 55]. These results suggested that the bright red color in Parma ham is caused by Zn-protoporphyrin IX (ZPP), in which the iron in heme was substituted by zinc heme separated from the native heme protein. Investigations on this lipophylic myoglobin derivative showed that it was a stable red pigment that increased with aging [70]. This process has now been patented for producing red pigments for food use that were heat-stable [71]. The addition of salt accelerated the reaction and increased redness [72]. The process has also occurred in live animals, including humans, as lead poisoning and iron deficiency caused an increase of ZPP in blood as zinc replaced the iron in hemoglobin. The level of ZPP can be evaluated with a simple screening test using a hematofluorometer. The measurement of ZPP has been used with ducks to test for lead poisoning [73]. An increased ZPP/heme ratio indicates that Zn has replaced Fe in the heme, thus changing the color of hemoglobin and myoglobin. Based on findings in Parma ham, ZPP may be responsible for the red discoloration in poultry meat, which could be formed in myoglobin found in muscles or hemoglobin stored in bone marrow. Thus, ZPP leaking out of the bones could cause the increased stable redness observed in white meat.
Green discoloration of live muscles, raw meat, and cooked deli products can be produced by various mechanisms that lead to condemnation by the industry and consumers. In live muscles, green muscle disease (deep muscle myopathy) is caused by the lack of blood supply to the deep pectoral muscle that results in the death of the muscle fibers, thus giving the muscle a green appearance. The bruising of live birds has caused a rupture of blood capillaries and blood accumulation under the skin or in the meat. The color of the bruise subsequently developed over time and turned either yellow or green depending upon heme degradation. Using lactic acid as a decontamination approach resulted in the greening of chicken skin color [74]. The irradiation of fresh beef and pork meat has been thought to affect the stability of iron in the myoglobin and cause the breakdown of the porphyrin molecule and/or the formation of sulfmyoglobin that caused green pigments to appear [75].
In cooked meat, contamination with microorganisms such as Pseudomonas fluorescens has produced a shiny transparent greenish exudate on the meat surface due to microbial degradation of the heme pigment. In sausage-type products, the presence of green rings is an indicator of microbial contamination where the microorganisms oxidized the heme pigment before applying thermal treatment.
Iridescence, which is the appearance of a green-orange color on the surface of meat products such as deli meat, is mainly associated with the meat surface microstructure that could be interpreted as a color diffraction problem related to the ability of certain muscles to split the white light into its component. Thus, the reflection of the meat surface would appear in green-orange. If a sharp knife was used to cut the meat, the smooth surface resulting from the cut causes this color diffraction, but if a dull knife was used instead, this problem would be eliminated.
Deep pectoral muscle myopathy, also known as green muscle disease and Oregon disease, was first identified in turkeys [76] and later in broiler breeders [77] and 7-week-old broiler chickens [78]. This disease affected the wing elevating muscle (
The pectoralis minor muscle is confined in a tight space between the sternum and the pectoralis major muscle (large breast fillet). It is also encased in a rigid fibrous sheath that restricts any increase in muscle volume in response to any physiological changes caused by muscle exercise such as wing-flapping [79] which requires increased blood flow to supply the oxygen and nutrients needed by the muscles. The incidence of green muscle disease has also been reported to be higher in high yielding crosses, especially males.
On the other hand, the incidence of focal pectoral myopathy has increased, and it has been associated with increased growth rate and muscle size [12, 80]. Further investigation is required to determine the causes of this muscular defect since focal myopathy has an even more detrimental effect on the poultry industry. It has affected the pectoralis major muscle leading to consumer complaints and industry economic loss.
The incidence of pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) meat has been well-documented in swine, where meat has a very light gray color, soft texture, and cannot hold water [81, 82]. This condition has been associated with heavy muscling [83]. In poultry, similar PSE characteristics have been reported in turkey meat [84, 85], chickens [86, 87], and ostriches [88]. However, it is more difficult to distinguish and identify these characteristics in poultry meat compared to pork. This condition has been referred to as PSE since characteristics were similar to PSE in pork, which is misleading since both conditions were not exactly the same. Poultry researchers have preferred to refer to the condition in poultry as “PSE-like” or “Pale poultry muscle syndrome” [86, 89]. The PSE and PSE-like conditions are detrimental to the industry profitability since it affects important meat quality attributes involved in the production of value-added products and further processed meat. Affected muscles have been reported to lose their rheological properties and become unable to hold water. For example, mortadella prepared with PSE-like chicken meat has reduced water-holding capacity, altered texture, diminished emulsion stability, and required additives to restore the functional properties of normal meat [90]. In addition, poultry processors have been concerned with the appearance of PSE-like meat in fresh tray packs. The pale color affected color uniformity within the package and, thus, consumer acceptance. The occurrence of PSE-like in poultry meat has been believed to be the result of accelerated postmortem glycolysis (rapid pH decline), while the carcass was still warm [91]. In poultry, normal pH values at 15 min postmortem (pH15) are around 6.2–6.5 [92, 93], whereas normal ultimate pH (pHu) values are approximately 5.8 [60, 88, 94]. If the pH15 value is low (below 6.0) when the muscle is still warm, the proteins are subject to denaturation, which leads to a decreased water-holding capacity and a lighter color of the meat.
The reasons for PSE-like condition have remained unclear, but up to 30% of broiler breast meat and up to 40% of turkey breast meat have shown this defect in commercial processing plants [95, 96, 97]. Furthermore, it has been reported that the occurrence of PSE-like meat in birds may be affected by alteration to the intracellular calcium homeostasis caused by a mutation in the ryanodine receptor gene, which is different from the ryanodine receptor gene in swine, and also depends upon the several aspects of preslaughter and postslaughter management practices [98, 99]. It is thought that the application of “snow chilling” with carbon dioxide intensified meat quality abnormalities [100]. In addition, other factors have been thought to contribute to this problem, such as heat stress during the finisher period or the preslaughter period [86], and stress and struggling before slaughter [101].
Differentiating PSE-like meat from normal meat has been based on the instrumental or visual assessment of color lightness (L*). However, the cutoff value for classifying meat as PSE-like has differed among researchers. Petracci et al. [102] considered an L* value of 56 as the cutoff, while Barbut [28, 103, 104] suggested classifying turkey breast meat as PSE-like when L* values were greater than 52 at 24 h postmortem. Fraqueza et al. [105] classified breast meat as PSE-like when the L* was greater than 50 and pHu was less than 5.8, while Woelfel et al. [106] used L* values greater than 54 in broilers as their standards.
Using L*
White striping, woody breast, and spaghetti meat can be collectively referred to as the myopathies of modern broiler. These nomenclatures were simply based on the appearance of the defective muscles. White striping is a condition described in broiler chickens and characterized by white striations parallel to the direction of muscle fibers on both breast fillets and thighs of broilers. White striping is considered to be an emerging issue by the poultry meat industry that could be associated with enhanced growth rate and heavier body weight in birds [110, 111, 112], especially in the age of 6–8 weeks [110], and higher fat content in broiler breast fillets [111]. The incidence of white striping was evaluated under commercial conditions, and the overall incidence in broiler breast meat was 12.0%, of which 3.1% had severe striping [113]. It is possible that the intense selection for rapid growth rate in birds could have accidentally been accompanied by the selection for inadequate capillary/fascial growth or muscle fiber defects leading to myopathic changes referred to as growth-induced myopathy [13], under which these three different myopathies can be classified.
The precise etiology of white striping has not been defined yet [114]; however, several speculations have been reported. In turkeys, Wilson et al. [80] reported that rapid growth rate may have led to the limited ability of muscle support systems leading to a condition called focal myopathy, which affected the major pectoral muscle.
Ischemia could also result from a rapid growth rate and lead to muscular damage in turkeys [115]. It is also possible that reduced oxygen supply to breast muscle resulted from lower capillary density in fast-growing chickens [116]. A higher growth rate could also lead to defective cation regulation in muscles leading to an increased sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium in muscle tissue [117]. An increased level of calcium in muscle tissue could initiate several tissue changes, including the activation of intracellular proteases or lipases resulting in myopathic changes [13, 118, 119, 120]. Kuttappan et al. [114] reported that breast fillets showing severe white striping had reduced protein content and myopathic lesions, while Petracci et al. [113] observed poor cohesion beneath the striation area.
Poultry producers started noticing and complaining about woody breast in the late 1990s [12, 121]. The woody breast muscle is usually characterized by increased firmness in all or parts of the pectoralis major muscle that can start in the live birds and can be detected by palpating the breast muscle. Sihvo et al. [121] reported that woody breast might result from fibrosis, which leads to an accumulation of interstitial connective tissue. This myopathy affects consumer acceptability and meat quality; even when trying to mitigate by diverting to further processed poultry products, woody breast meat is still required to be mixed with normal meat to maintain the quality of the further processed product [122, 123].
Spaghetti meat, or previously known as mushy breast, is the most recent emerging myopathy of breast meat in poultry. As the name implies, the breast muscle loses its structure and firmness. One distinct feature the spaghetti meat has that would differentiate it from white striping and woody breast is the loss of endomysial and perimysial connective tissue that compromises the fiber bundles cohesion, coupled with a loose connective tissue deposition [124] leading to the separation of the fascicles into “spaghetti” strings.
Sanden et al. [23] investigated the collagen of muscles with either woody breast or spaghetti meat abnormalities. They showed that collagen in woody breast muscle was a mix of thin and thick fibers, whereas spaghetti meat had thinner, fewer, and shorter. However, both myopathies generally resulted in a higher content in connective tissue (mainly in perimysium) compared to normal muscle.
Several researchers have investigated these myopathies to understand their etiology and effect on meat products quality [114, 121, 124, 125]. It is believed that cellular stress and hypoxia (ischemia) caused by muscle hypertrophy are the main triggering factors behind white striping and woody breast, in addition to being strapped within a relatively rigid connective tissue that limits the hypertrophy capabilities. However, what is interesting is that spaghetti meat, where the opposite issue is faced concerning connective tissue, started appearing. It is possible that geneticist, while trying to reduce the rigidness of the connective tissue, led to the emergence of the most recent abnormality of spaghetti meat, which is worth investigating in the future with poultry strain companies.
Researchers have investigated multiple factors that may have either contributed or helped in eliminating the emerging myopathies starting at different incubation conditions [126] all the way to management during growing [127, 128] and nutritional manipulations [129, 130, 131, 132, 133].
Several white muscle defects and myopathy have been reported. According to the literature, these problems spiked in the 1970s and 2000s concurrent with increased feed prices. It was suggested that producers were driven to use less expensive feed and use alternative feed ingredients (e.g., DDGS) to control costs. One significant consequence of feeding less expensive feed was that the essential amino acids (e.g., lysine and methionine) became a primary concern when formulating these diets, while the nonessential amino acids (e.g., arginine, glycine, and proline) were neglected despite their essential role in connective tissue formation, which may have contributed to the emerging of muscle defects as genetics for enhanced growth and muscle accretion were improved even further.
The spectacular advancements in genetics witnessed by the broiler industry have resulted in broilers with a higher growth rate, while the role of nutrition has become even more critical in supporting the increased growth demands of what may have become a relatively fragile animal. Profit-driven decisions about formulating feed in a least-cost manner while neglecting the essentiality of nonessential amino acids in nutrition would eventually be evidenced by increased condemnation at the processing plant and increased consumer complaints.
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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