Typical properties of some heat treatable aluminum alloys [5].
\r\n\tThe present book intends to provide to the reader a comprehensive overview of the state of art in empathy studies, embracing the different theoretical points of view and illustrating the advanced research such as the application of new technologies to promote perspective-taking. The critical aspects and the future directions of the study on empathy will also be presented.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-612-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-611-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-613-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c1042dfe15aa9cea6019524c4cbff38",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sara Ventura",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg",keywords:"Theoretical Model, Skill, Perspective Taking, Training Programs, Practical Implications, Advanced Research, Future Directions, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, New Trends, Assistive Technology",numberOfDownloads:19,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Passionate researcher in the application of new technologies to psychological treatments, neuro-rehabilitation, human behavior, and the evolution of the human-computer interaction. In 2017 Dr. Ventura won a competitive grant (Santiago Grisolia) at the University of Valencia at LABPSITEC group, where she was awarded her Ph.D. degree, supervised by Prof. Rosa Baños at the University of Valencia, and co-directed by Prof. Giuseppe Riva of the Catholic University of Milan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227763/images/system/227763.jpg",biography:"Sara Ventura gained a B.Sc in Psychology at the University of Padua (Italy) in 2013 and an M.Sc. in Ergonomic Psychology at the Catholic University of Milan (Italy) in 2015. In 2016, she carried out a postgraduate training at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (Mexico) at the Ciberpsychology lab, working on a rehabilitation protocol for people with acquired brain injury through Virtual Reality. In 2020, Sara gained the Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology at University of Valencia (Spain) working with the LabPsitec group and focusing her research on the study of embodiment and empathy with the support of Virtual Reality. Actually, she is working both with Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna (Italy), and the University of Valencia (Spain) on the fields of embodiment, stroke rehabilitation, empathy and patient care. Her research interests mainly focus on the adoption of new technologies, particularly Virtual/Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence for the psycho-social wellbeing with clinical and non-clinical populations, the study of human-computer interaction, and the user experience. She is the author of several scientific papers and various presentations at national and international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Valencia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"82719",title:"Empathy as a High-Performance Competency",slug:"empathy-as-a-high-performance-competency",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82888",title:"From Empathy to the Aggression–Compassion Continuum",slug:"from-empathy-to-the-aggression-compassion-continuum",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"191531",title:"Dr.",name:"Neil E.",surname:"Grunberg",slug:"neil-e.-grunberg",fullName:"Neil E. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"70514",title:"Introductory Chapter: Structural Aluminum Alloys and Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90569",slug:"introductory-chapter-structural-aluminum-alloys-and-composites",body:'\nAluminum is a metal of great importance because of its excellent corrosion resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity, good reflectivity and very good recycling characteristics. Aluminum atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure with a melting point of 660°C. There are nine different series of aluminum, which will be discussed later in this section, four of which are referred to as heat-treatable aluminum alloys, and these alloys are so-called because of the potential to increase the mechanical properties by precipitation strengthening [1, 2].
\nThe properties of heat treatable Al-alloys can be further enhanced by the inclusion of a reinforcing phase that increases the mechanical properties of the overall composite. Metal matrix composites (MMC) are usually manmade materials that consist of two or more distinct phases; a continuous metallic phase (the matrix) and a secondary reinforcing phase. The secondary phase may take the form of continuous or discontinuous reinforcement as particles or fibers. When this phase is introduced into the matrix the overall impact is an improvement of the mechanical properties of the material [3]. The properties of MMCs are comparatively superior to those of the unreinforced alloys [4, 5].
\nThe properties of discontinuously reinforced aluminum MMCs containing particles or short fibers are modest compared to the continuous fiber reinforced MMCs, however, these materials are less expensive to fabricate and have more flexibility in production making them more cost-effective [6, 7, 8]. The reinforcements used in fabricating the composites are dependent on the desired material properties, ease of processing, and part fabrication.
\nThe stability of the reinforcement/metal matrix interface and the differences in properties such as the coefficient of thermal expansion and thermal conductivity are limiting factors that affect the compatibility of the materials used to make the composite. The quality of the bond is dependent on adequate interaction between the reinforcement and the matrix.
\nOver the last two decade, the application of nano and micro-sized ceramics such as alumina (Al2O3), MgO nanoparticle [9], boron carbide [10] and silicon carbide (SiC) [11] to aluminum metal matrix composites have become popular reinforcing phases, since these hard phases can lead to an increase in flow stress from the matrix by load transfer across a strong interface from the matrix to the reinforcement [12]. An example of the typical microstructure of a particle reinforced aluminum metal matrix composite is presented in Figure 1 and shows an Al2O3 particulate reinforced Al-6061 MMC. The properties of these reinforcements include high strength, high modulus of elasticity and high thermal and electrical resistance. The constraint imposed by the ceramic reinforcements on the plastic deformation of the matrix is large tensile hydrostatic stresses.
\nSEM micrographs of Al-6061 MMC showing Al2O3 particulate reinforcements.
Recently, researchers have explored the use of graphene as a reinforcing phase within an aluminum metal matrix as a method of improving the mechanical properties of the composite [13]. The results of the study showed that the hardness, tensile strength, and ductility of the aluminum-graphene composite were approximately 2–3 times higher than the properties of the unreinforced aluminum alloys. The authors also demonstrated that the enhancements of the mechanical properties of the aluminum-graphene composite were proportional to the concentration of graphene added. Similar findings were published by Kumar et al. [14] and Jauhari et al. [15] who produced Al 6061 MMC reinforced with graphene by ultrasonic liquid processing and microwave sintering respectively.
\nMetal matrix composites (MMCs) find application extensively in the design and construction of engineering components that require a lightweight material with superior mechanical properties such as high tensile strength, high Young’s modulus, good wear resistance [16], and good elevated temperature properties. Al-MMCs are used extensively in industries such as aerospace, automotive, sports goods, and marine.
\nNumerous processes have been investigated for producing aluminum MMC. These include various casting techniques [17] and powder metallurgy approaches [18]. Currently, several additive manufacturing techniques are used to develop rapidly deposit aluminum alloys and composites [19, 20]. From the list available additive manufacturing techniques; selective laser melting (SLM), and wire arc additive manufacturing have shown the greatest promise for producing aluminum alloys and composites [19, 21].
\nAluminum is a nonferrous and relatively low-cost material with a high strength to weight ratio. These characteristics make aluminum alloys and composites very attractive and competitive structural materials in several industries. For applications requiring greater mechanical strength, aluminum is alloyed with metals such as copper, zinc, magnesium, and manganese. The alloying components determine the series assigned to the aluminum alloy. The possible series categories range from 1xxx to 9xxx. Aluminum alloys can be further divided into two categories: heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable alloys. Heat-treatable alloys are those in which strength is developed by precipitation hardening [22].
\nThese alloys are found in the 2xxx (aluminum-copper), 6xxx (aluminum-magnesium-silicon), and 7xxx (aluminum-zinc-magnesium) series [23]. In non-heat-treatable alloys, strength is developed mainly by solid solution strengthening and strain hardening. The non-heat treatable alloys are found in the 1xxx (Al), 3xxx (Al-Mn), 4xxx (Al-Si) and 5xxx (Al-Mg) aluminum series. The Gibbs free energy curves recorded at a 700°C for Al-Mn, Al-Mg, Al-Cu, and Al-Zn are shown in Figure 2 and suggest the formation of various intermetallic compounds having a hexagonal close pack (HCP) crystal structure within the aluminum matrix having a face-centered cubic structure (FCC). The 2xxx series which consists of Al-Cu is a heat-treatable alloy that strengthens due to the precipitation of copper aluminides within the aluminum matrix [23].
\nGibbs free energy curve plotted at a temperature of 700°C for (A) Al-Mg, (B) Al-Cu, (C) Al-Mn, (D) Al-Zn alloys.
Ternary systems of Al-Mg-Si and Al-Mg-Zn which are found in the 6xxx or 7xxx series respectively are other heat treatable aluminum alloys that are used in many applications within the aerospace and automobile industries. The high strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance of heat-treatable aluminum alloys make them a very attractive class of materials. The phase diagrams presented in Figure 3 show the relationship between temperature and composition for the 6xxx series.
\n(A) Isothermal section of the Al-Mg-Si ternary phase diagram at 700°C and (B) pseudo-binary phase diagram of Al-6061.
The research on aluminum alloys and composites has seen substantial development in several new methods of fabricating components using aluminum as the base metal and combining the metal with new forms of reinforcements for various new applications. In a recent study, it was demonstrated that a 3D self-assembly of aluminum nanoparticle can be used for plasmon-enhanced solar desalination and [24]. Table 1 shows a summary of the properties of various heat treatable aluminum alloys. These properties justify the pervasive use of aluminum in automotive, aerospace and explosive mixtures for underwater propulsion. Among the available aluminum alloys, the 2xxx series, 6xxx series, and 7xxx series are used frequently in the aerospace and defense sectors, transportation, automotive, medical appliances, dental implants, sports, mobile phones, etc. [1, 2, 11, 25, 26].
\nAlloy | \nYS (MPa) | \nUTS (MPa) | \nElongation (%) | \nE (GPa) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
6061 (T6) | \n275 | \n310 | \n20 | \n69 | \n
2014 (T6) | \n476 | \n524 | \n13 | \n73 | \n
2124 (T6) | \n325 | \n470 | \n12 | \n72 | \n
2618 (T6) | \n370 | \n470 | \n9 | \n74 | \n
7075 (T6) | \n505 | \n570 | \n10 | \n72 | \n
8090 (T6) | \n415 | \n485 | \n7 | \n80 | \n
A356 (T6) | \n205 | \n280 | \n6 | \n76 | \n
Typical properties of some heat treatable aluminum alloys [5].
Given the low melting point (660°C) and density (2.7 g/cm3) aluminum is now a key material used in metal additive manufacturing processes such as selective laser melting (SLM), these processes are largely termed layered manufacturing process in which the subject material is deposited in layers and build up to the required dimension [20]. Given the high strength-to-weight ratio and low melting temperature of aluminum, this material is used to fabricate various near-net-shape complex structures by additive manufacturing. Though additive manufacturing has seen extensive development over the last 5 years, there are several areas of the technology that will require significant research investment and investigation [20]. As the technology matures for depositing aluminum alloys will focus on process optimization to remove weaknesses such as oxide film formation on the surface of the metal powder, improve thermodynamic stability of the aluminum oxide and reduce the difficulty of finding low melting point binders to be used with aluminum powders [27, 28, 29].
\nWire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) using gas metal arc welding (GTAW) has been used successfully to deposit AA5183 aluminum alloy [21]. The technique demonstrated the potential of rapidly depositing large metal structures [30]; however, there is still the need for further development to optimized materials properties, surface texture and internal defects within the components produced.
\nThe development of new aluminum alloys and composites is expected to continue to lower production costs and increasing the strength-weight ratio. These improvements in the properties of MMCs have made these materials important alternatives to traditional materials for high-temperature applications. Increasingly, aluminum MMCs containing SiC are used in engines (engine block and pistons), drive shafts and disc brakes (including rail type). It has been reported in the scientific literature that when MMCs are used to make drive-shafts the increase in stiffness, increases the maximum attainable rotation. The application of aluminum MMCs to the construction of pistons is one of the most significant developments in the automotive industry. In the electronics industry, the new generation of advanced integrated circuits generates more heat than previous types given the increase processing power. Therefore, the dissipation of heat has become a major concern. Thermal fatigue may also occur due to a small mismatch of the coefficient of thermal expansion between the silicon substrate and the heat sink. These problems can be solved by using MMCs with matching coefficients (e.g., Al with boron [10] or graphite fibers and Al with SiC particles [11]).
\nIn addition, Al-based MMCs can be used in situations in which an “adjustable” coefficient of thermal expansion is required. This is possible because the coefficient of thermal expansion is dependent upon the volume fraction of the fibers or particles added. Components produced using Al-MMCs are not only significantly lighter than those produced from aluminum metal alloys, but they provide significant cost savings through net-shape manufacturing [31].
\nThe research shows that the primary challenges affecting aluminum alloys and composite are directly linked to the properties of the material. An example can be seen in additive manufacturing where the growth in the application of aluminum in additive manufacturing has been driven by several important factors which include; low melting point, corrosion resistance, good strength-to-weight ratio. On the other hand, an important hurdle is finding suitable binders with the appropriate melting point to be used with powdered aluminum metals. The technology is also constrained by several other factors such as the need for a better understanding of the material properties, poor reproducibility, the need for additional material, lack of training and education of users and finally the unavailability of standards and certification.
\nMost manufacturers are cautious about using additive manufacturing as a viable manufacturing process due to the lack of repeatability and consistency of the manufactured parts. Manufacturers are also skeptical of the structural integrity of the finished products as compared to conventional manufacturing processes [12]. The primary challenge, however, is that materials produced using these processes contain numerous defects that limit the application.
\nThe verification and validation of the relationships between the process parameters and the finished product have been hampered by the lack of available data, poor understanding of the causes of internal defects, and uncertainty in detecting the critical flaw. These gaps in the existing knowledge limit the wide-scale application of additive manufacturing technology. Research into this area will aim to bridge the gap by quantifying the relationship between the process parameters, surface quality and defects present within the finished products.
\nAluminum alloys and composites (Al-MMCs) are of interest to the automotive and aerospace industries, because of comparably high strength-to-weight ratio, formability, and corrosion resistance. However, despite the unique properties of these materials, the lack of a reliable joining method has limited their use to engineering applications where joining is unnecessary. This can be seen as another major hurdle affecting the proliferation of aluminum alloys as an important material in achieving lightweighting objectives [34, 35].
\nOver the last two decades, numerous joining techniques have been extensive studied to identify a process that can be successfully used for dissimilar joining of aluminum alloys and composites by minimizing undesirable interfacial reactions between the materials being joined. Some of the processes that have been studied include fusion welding [36], brazing [37], friction stir welding [38], solid-state diffusion bonding [39] and transient liquid-phase (TLP) bonding [35, 40]. The key findings have shown that the inclusion of nanoparticles within the joint regions has the capability of significant increases in joint strength while minimizing unwanted interfacial reactions. The procedure has been applied to the diffusion bonding of aluminum alloys to magnesium as showing in see Figure 4 and diffusion bonding of Al-MMCs as shown in Figure 5. Application of the concept to resistance spot welding also proved successful as shown in Figure 6 which demonstrates that Al and Mg can be successfully welded together without the formation of undesirable compounds.
\nEutectic microstructure formed at the joint interface during TLP bonding: (A) eutectic microstructure formed using Cu/Al2O3 interlayer; and (B) EDS spectrum of region-2 [
(a) SEM micrograph of joint bonded with a 15 μm Ni-Al2O3 coating for 1 min. (b) DS analysis of nano-Al2O3 particle.
SEM micrograph showing: (A) Al/Ni-Al2O3/Mg spot weld; (B) microstructure of point-6; (C) weld nugget/Al interface; and (D) microstructure of point-7 [
This introductory chapter presents a brief overview of the state of science and the application of aluminum alloys and composites. Particular attention is paid to the application of new/novel methods of producing aluminum alloys while highlighting the future direction of the technology and some of the key challenges that affect the use of these materials. The book contains seven chapters that have been divided into two sections.
\nThe first section of the text is focused on evaluating the types and properties of advanced aluminum alloys and composites. The chapters in this section provide a comprehensive overview of the processing, processing, formability, chemical composition of advance aluminum alloys and composites and the development of new types of alloys.
\nThe second section of the text contains chapters that are focused on exploring processing, characterization, and testing of aluminum alloys and composites such as wear testing. The advantage of this text is that it provides a detailed review of major advances that have occurred in the development and application of aluminum alloys and composites while outlining a development strategy for these materials.
\nThe canine elbow joint is a complex joint, whose musculoskeletal anatomy is well investigated. However, the in vivo function of the elbow joint, the individual movement of the humerus, radius and ulna relative to each other and the load distribution within the joint is still subject of present and future research. Especially pathophysiological motion of the elbow joint, leading to a mechanical overload of certain joint compartments, is not well understood and an interesting field of present veterinary research. Canine developmental elbow disease (DED), in particular medial coronoid disease (MCD), is one of the most common reasons for forelimb lameness in the dog and therefore this topic has not only academic, but also clinical relevance.
The canine elbow joint is composed of the humerus proximally and the radius and ulna distally, and can be divided into three joint compartments: the humero-ulnar, humero-radial and proximal radio-ulnar joint [1, 2]. The humero-ulnar joint is formed by the humeral trochlea and intercondylar region of the condyle and the ulnar trochlear notch, which extends from the anconeal process to the radial incisure, and continues to the medial coronoid process of the ulna. The humero-radial joint is formed by the capitulum of the humeral condyle and the radial head. The radial incisure and the medial aspect of the radial head form the proximal radio-ulnar joint. Altogether the elbow joint acts as a hinge joint (ginglymus) with extension and flexion being the main motion pattern and some amount of pronation and supination, mainly taken over by the radio-ulnar joint [1].
In healthy canine elbows the radio-ulnar joint shows a congruent shape without any step formation between the ulnar and radial joint surface, at least under static conditions. However, the humero-ulnar joint is not perfectly congruent even in healthy dogs [3, 4, 5, 6]. The radii of curvature of the humeral condyle and ulnar trochlear notch show different values along their curvilinear course, resulting in reduced contact in the central notch region [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The trochlear notch shows a slightly elliptical shape, so that the anconeal process and distal aspect of the notch as well as the coronoid process are in contact with the humeral condyle. This kind of physiological humero-ulnar incongruence was first described in humans and could be detected in the canine elbow joint, too [4, 5, 6, 8, 9].
The maximum range of motion (ROM) varies between 110 to 150 degrees, with breed-specific maximum flexion of 25 to 49 degrees and maximum extension of 155 to 175 degrees [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. The main extensor muscle of the elbow joint is the triceps brachii muscle [1]. Further this muscle prevents flexion of the elbow during the stance phase. The anconeal and tensor fasciae antebrachii muscles are additional extensors of the elbow joint. Flexion is performed by the biceps brachii and brachial muscles. The extensor carpi radialis muscle contributes to flexor function to some amount. The canine antebrachium can be pronated 17 to 50 degrees and supinated 31 to 70 degrees [10, 15]. The supinator and brachioradial muscles are responsible for supination of the antebrachium. The latter contributes only minimal to supination and is missing in some individuals [16]. The pronator teres and pronator quadratus muscles are responsible for pronation and the pronator teres muscle is supposed to contribute to elbow joint flexion as well [1, 2].
Four ligaments support the elbow joint: the medial and lateral collateral ligament, the annular ligament and interosseous ligament/interosseous membrane [1, 2]. The medial and lateral collateral ligaments origin from the medial and lateral humeral epicondyle. The medial collateral divides into two crura. The cranial one is weaker and attaches at the radius, while the stronger caudal one attaches mainly at the ulna and to some amount at the radius. The lateral collateral ligament consists of two crura as well. The cranial part attaches to the radius, and the caudal part attaches to the ulna and colligates with the annular ligament, which can contain a sesamoid bone [2]. The annular ligament runs transversely around the radial head spanning from the lateral to the medial aspect of the radial incisure of the ulna. It runs underneath the medial and lateral collateral ligaments. The radius and ulna are further attached to each other by the interosseous ligament and interosseous membrane, which spans the interosseous space. Distally the radius and ulna are connected to each other by the radioulnar ligament.
Kinematics describe the motion of body segments without measuring the forces acting onto that segments. Kinematic analysis allows evaluation of the range of motion, angular velocities, segmental velocities of each portion of the limb, stride frequency and stride length [17]. Depending on the technique used for the kinematic analysis, motion of bones and joints can be measured with a submillimeter accuracy [18, 19, 20].
Generally two forms of kinematic analysis can be differentiated: the video-kinematography, based on a video motion capture system, and the radiostereometric kinematic analysis (RSA), based on a radiographic system, coupled with high speed video cameras. Video motion capture kinematic systems use skin markers, attached to specific body areas, which are tracked in the generated videos of the moving animal and allow for calculation of the aforementioned parameters. Radiostereometric analysis can be marker based or performed without bone markers [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Furthermore, both kinematic analysis systems can be used to evaluate motion in the two or three dimensional (2D, 3D) space, depending on the technical setup [17].
The most commonly used technique is a video motion capture system based analysis. This technique is non-invasive and allows for evaluation of overall limb, limb segment or body segment motion. However, skin mounted markers do not match exactly the movement of the underlying bones. Movement of the soft tissues results in skin motion artifacts [21, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35], with a difference of 0.4 to 1.2 cm between the skin marker and respective underlying bony landmark in small animals [33]. Especially in the proximal joints of the forelimb skin marker based data differ significantly from fluoroscopically gained kinematic data [28]. Comparison of biplanar fluoroscopy and video-kinematography in hindlimb kinematics revealed significant differences between both techniques, too [21]. Skin marker based data tend to project different trajectories and smaller amplitudes compared to fluoroscopic kinematography with particularly contradictory results, especially in proximal joints, where increased soft tissues can be found [21].
Radiostereometric analysis, also called fluoroscopic kinematography, allows for the most accurate kinematic data acquisition [19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 30]. One or two fluoroscopic units, coupled with high speed video cameras, take x-ray movies of the moving object. Based on these x-ray movies bone movement can be calculated and transferred onto 3D bone models generated from CT scans of the individual animal. Bone motion analysis can be performed using implanted bone markers, which are tracked in one (uniplanar, 2D evaluation) or both (biplanar, 3D evaluation) x-ray movies and 3D coordinates of each marker are then transferred onto the 3D bone models. Alternatively, scientific rotoscoping or autoscoping techniques can be used to track bone movement and transfer this in vivo bone motion from the fluoroscopic images onto 3D bone models [18, 20, 36]. These techniques do not rely on bone markers, rather the shape and edges of each bone are used to project digitally reconstructed radiographs (DRR), generated from the CT scans of each bone, onto the respective bone in the fluoroscopic image. By that the 3D bone model is aligned and animated along the x-ray movies. Scientific rotoscoping is performed manually, while autoscoping is a completely computerized process. Both techniques can be described as morphology based methods of motion analysis. Marker based tacking is the gold standard of kinematic analysis with an accuracy of 0.1 mm and 0.1 degrees [20]. However, scientific rotoscoping and autoscoping show a high accuracy as well, with values ranging from 0.16 to 0.66 mm in translation and 0.43 to 2.78 degrees rotation for scientific rotoscoping and 0.07 to 1.13 mm translation and 0.01 to 3.0 degrees rotation for autoscoping [18, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. Therefore, both techniques result in a highly precise evaluation of bone and joint motion with a substantially reduced invasiveness compared to a bone marker based analysis.
Multiple studies have investigated elbow joint kinematics in healthy dogs and dogs with different joint pathologies. Results have to be interpreted cautiously due to varying breeds, different technical setups and varying gaits and gait velocities, e.g. the walk or the trot, all of which influencing the kinematic pattern. Table 1 gives an overview of previous studies on canine forelimb and elbow joint kinematics.
Study | Technique | Breed | Number of dogs | Gait/Speed |
---|---|---|---|---|
DeCamp et al. [43] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Greyhound | 8 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (walkway) |
Allen et al. [44] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Mixed breed dogs | 14 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (overground) |
Hottinger et al. [45] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different large breed dogs | 15 | walk, 0.9–1.1. m/s (overground) |
Gillette and Zebas [46] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever | 16 | trot, 2.8 m/s |
Nielsen et al. [47] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion), stance phase only | Mixed breed dogs | 6 | walk, 0.8–1.0 m/s (overground) |
Owen et al. [48] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Greyhound | 11 | trot, 2.2–2.4 m/s (treadmill) |
Clements et al. [49] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever | 10 | trot, 2.0 m/s (treadmill) |
Feeney et al. [50] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever | 10 | walk, velocity not documented (overground) |
Burton et al. [51] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 7 (unilateral elbow disease) | trot, velocity not documented (treadmill) |
Holler et al. [52] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 8 | walk, 0.89–1.1 m/s (treadmill, normal, uphill, downhill, obstacle) |
Agostinho et al. [53] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever Rottweiler | 20 (10 each) | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Guillou et al. [54] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography | Fox hound | 4 | walk & trot, velocity not documented |
Angle et al. [55] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Greyhound | 7 | Movement initiation up to 3.52 m/s (overground) |
Jarvis et al. [56] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion), stance phase only | Different breeds | 40 (24 healthy, 16 front limb amputee dogs) | trot, 2.2–2.6 m/s (walkway) |
Brady et al. [57] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different breeds | 16 | trot, 1.8 m/s & 2.5 m/s (walkway) |
Miqueleto et al. [58] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | German Shepherd | 20 (10 hip dysplasia, 10 healthy dogs) | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Galindo-Zamora et al. [59] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 20 (unilateral elbow disease) | walk, 0.65–1.1 m/s (treadmill) |
Caron et al. [60] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 3D evaluation | Labrador Retriever | 26 (13 healthy, 13 dogs with coronoid disease) | walk, 0.7 m/s (treadmill) |
Fischer & Lilje, [61] | 3D marker based video- & fluoroscopic kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | 32 different breeds | 327 | walk & trot, 0.54–5.56 m/s (treadmill) |
Catavitello et al. [62] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever Golden Retriever | 6 (3 each breed) | walk, 2 m/s, trot, 4 m/s & running, 9.5 m/s (overground) |
Duerr et al. [63] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) and inertial measurements unit | Different mid to large breed dogs | 16 | trot, 2.4–2.5 m/s (overground) |
Andrada et al. [28] | 3D marker based video- & fluoroscopic kinematography (scientific rotoscoping), 3D evaluation | Beagle | 5 | walk, 0.98 m/s & trot, 2.2 m/s (treadmill) |
Lorke et al. [64] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Beagle | 10 | trot, 1.7–1.8 m/s (treadmill) |
Rohwedder et al. [22] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography (first third of stance phase only) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 11 (5 healthy, 6 dogs with coronoid disease) | walk, 0.6–0.9 m/s (treadmill) |
Kopec et al. [65] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 8 | walk, 1.01–1.45 m/s (overground & stair exercise) |
Rohwedder et al. [23] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography (first third of stance phase only) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 11 (5 healthy, 6 dogs with coronoid disease) | walk, 0.6–0.9 m/s (treadmill) |
Rohwedder et al. [24] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography & joint contact pattern evaluation | Labrador Retriever | 1 (before and after DPUO*) | walk, 0.6–0.9 m/s (treadmill) |
Humphries et al. [66] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever German Shepherd | 24 (12 each breed) | trot, 2.19–2.45 m/s (walkway) |
De Souza et al. [67] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | American Pit Bull Terrier | 11 | walk, 1.17 ± 0.17 m/s trot, 2.04 ± 0.33 m/s (overground) |
Summary of studies investigating canine forelimb and/or elbow joint kinematics.
DPUO: dynamic proximal ulnar osteotomy.
Most studies on elbow joint kinematics are based on video-kinematographic analysis and have investigated the motion of the elbow only in the sagittal plane [43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63, 65, 68, 69]. Caron et al. were the first to describe the real 3D kinematics of the canine forelimb of healthy Labrador retrievers and dogs with medial coronoid disease using video-kinematographic analysis [60]. Another study evaluated the 3D motion of orthopedic healthy canine forelimbs using video-kinematography and compared that data to fluoroscopically gained motion analysis, which was additionally calculated in one of the dogs [28].
One complete gait cycle consists of the swing and the stance phase. The swing phase starts when the paw breaks contact with the ground and ends with first ground contact of the paw. The time between initial ground contact and paw lift is defined as the stance phase. The ratio between swing and stance phase depends from the gait pattern and the dog’s velocity [28, 29, 70, 71]. At the walk the swing phase of the forelimb accounts for 39 to 43% of the whole gait cycle [60] and increases to approximately 50% to two thirds of the whole gait cycle during the trot, depending from the trotting speed [28, 43, 45, 58, 62, 64, 66]. During running the swing phase is further prolonged and accounts for approximately 75% of the gait cycle [62]. Conversely, with increasing speed the stance phase decreases [45, 70, 71].
The sagittal plane range of motion of the elbow joint (flexion-extension) is between 48.1 degrees and 70 degrees during one complete gait cycle when the dog is moving on a flat surface (Table 2), with the majority of motion occurring during the swing phase [28, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67]. Range of motion is influenced by different parameters like breed, limb and body segment length, gait, velocity, exercise, age, contralateral limb amputation and concurrent orthopedic disease. With increasing speed of the gait the range of motion of joints increases [29, 45, 57, 62, 66, 68, 69]. Obese dogs show an increased range of motion as well, especially during the stance phase [57]. However, increasing age leads to an decrease in total range of motion, even in orthopedic healthy dogs [64]. Further, different exercises like descending stairs, uphill and downhill walking influence the range of motion, with descending stairs, obstacle exercises and uphill walking increasing the range of motion, while downhill walking decreases the amount of sagittal motion in the elbow [52, 65].
Study | Breed | Range of motion (°) | Flexion/Extension (°) | Gait/Speed |
---|---|---|---|---|
DeCamp et al. [43] | Greyhound | 53.7 | 86.8/140.5 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (walkway) |
Allen et al. [44] | Mixed breed dogs | 55.8 | 93.7/149.5 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (overground) |
Hottinger et al. [45] | Different large breed dogs | 48.1 | — | walk, 0.9–1.1. m/s (walkway) |
Gillette and Zebas [46] | Labrador Retriever | right: 69.1 left: 66.1 | — | trot, 2.8 m/s |
Nielsen et al. [47] | Mixed breed dogs | — | 111.7 ± 12/136.3 ± 10.4 (stance phase only) | walk, 0.8–1.0 m/s (overground) |
Owen et al. [48] | Greyhound | 49.35–49.59 | 100.98–102.7/150.57–152.05 | trot, 2.2–2.4 m/s (treadmill) |
Clements et al. [49] | Labrador Retriever | 59.3 (SD 5.5) | — | trot, 2.0 m/s (treadmill) |
Feeney et al. [50] | Labrador Retriever | 54.8 ± 17.9 | 91.4/146.3 | walk, velocity not documented(overground) |
Holler et a. [52] | Different mid to large breed dogs | normal: 52.9 ± 7.0 uphill: 54.2 ± 7.4 downhill: 43.1 ± 5.8 obstacle: 57.0 ± 6.9 | — | walk, 0.89–1.1 m/s (treadmill, normal, uphill, downhill, obstacle) |
Agostinho et al. [53] | Labrador Retriever Rottweiler | 63.77 ± 4.83 54.86 ± 5.16 | 90.52 ± 11.66/154.28 ± 9.64 93.99 ± 10.19/148.85 ± 9.15 | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Jarvis et al. [56] | Different breeds | stance phase only: control: 33.3 ± 8.6 amputee: 39.7 ± 10.4 | control: 123.0 ± 12.9/ 156.4 ± 12.2 amputee: 119.2 ± 12.8/ 158.9 ± 12.5 | trot, 2.2–2.6 m/s (walkway) |
Brady et al. [57] | Different breeds | lean: 52.5 (1.8 m/s) obese: 65.0 (1.8 m/s) lean: 54.0 (2.5 m/s) obese: 62.0 (2.5 m/s) | lean: 95 ± 7/147 ± 17 obese: 90 ± 11/155 ± 9 lean: 93 ± 8/147 ± 9 obese: 88 ± 14/150 ± 18 | trot, 1.8 m/s & 2.5 m/s (walkway) |
Miqueleto et al. [58] | German Shepherd | healthy: 68.15 ± 7.19 hip dysplasia: 63.54 ± 13.53 | healthy: 61.99/131.77 ± 7.60 hip dysplasia: 69.09/133.68 ± 11.37 | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Galindo-Zamora et al. [59] | Different mid to large breed dogs | healthy: 54.18 ± 8.62 MCD: 51.45 ± 7.27 | healthy: 82.36 ± 6.02/136.54 ± 9.16 MCD: 87.1 ± 10.8/138.55 ± 13.03 | walk, 0.65–1.1 m/s (treadmill) |
Duerr et al. [63] | Different mid to large breed dogs | 63.4 ± 7.7 | 82.1 ± 8.6/145.5 ± 10.8 | trot, 2.4–2.5 m/s (overground) |
Lorke et al. [64] | Beagle | young: 68.8 ± 2.7 old: 62.9 ± 5.1 | young: 83.2/152.0 ± 10.5 old: 76.8/139.6 ± 12.4 | trot, 1.7–1.8 m/s (treadmill) |
Kopec et al. [65] | Different mid to large breed dogs | flat: 65.81 desc. Stair: 80.43 desc. Ramp: 67.95 | 66.23/132.03 34.36/114.79 46.0/113.95 | walk, 1.01–1.45 m/s (overground & stair exercise) |
Humphries et al. [66] | Labrador Retriever German Shepherd | left: 70.63 right: 67.13 left: 67.13 right: 67.94 | 77.21/147.84 77.21/144.34 75.45/142.58 74.37/142.31 | trot, 2.19–2.45 m/s (walkway) |
De Souza et al. [67] | American Pit Bull Terrier | walk: 45.22 trot: 52.39 | walk: 111.25/167.65 trot: 110.14/163.00 | walk, 1.17 ± 0.17 m/s trot, 2.04 ± 0.33 m/s (overground) |
Summary of the values for range of motion in sagittal plane and flexion and extension angles of the canine elbow joint from different kinematic studies. All values are expressed in degrees and were calculated, if necessary, based on data of each study to allow comparison between studies. 180 degrees represent maximum extension and 0 degrees maximum flexion.
The stance phase is mainly characterized by continuous extension of the elbow joint until lifting of the paw from the ground. Some studies have shown flexion of the elbow joint just after weight bearing [43, 45, 47, 53, 58, 60, 64], resulting in two peaks of extension during the gait cycle. The first peak of extension occurs during the late swing phase and the initiation of ground contact and a second peak occurs at the end of the stance phase. The amount of this flexion differs between studies by several degrees. Further, this movement has not been described using fluoroscopic kinematography, what represents the gold standard of kinematic gait analysis [28]. This might be due to breed and inter-individual differences in the gait, due to the different techniques used for kinematic analysis or due to a soft tissue artifact, which occurs with skin mounted markers, and does not represent the in vivo motion of the bony cubital joint, but the movement pattern of the complete limb including the soft tissues [28, 32, 33]. Maximum extension of the elbow joint is reached at the end of the stance phase and is followed by continuous flexion during the swing phase. The peak flexion of the elbow joint is reached at approximately the middle of the swing phase and is followed by continuous extension of the elbow joint as a preparation for paw strike [53, 60, 64].
Besides flexion and extension, which represent the main motion pattern of the elbow joint, supination and pronation of the antebrachium and abduction and adduction of the humerus and antebrachium occur during the regular locomotion. In healthy Labrador retrievers the antebrachium is positioned in mild supination at the initial stance phase and shows minimal pronation during the remainder stance phase with a mean supination of the antebrachium of 3 ± 9 degrees [60]. In healthy Beagle the forelimb is placed onto the ground in mild pronation and is kept in this position during two thirds of the stance phase and then externally rotated during the last third of stance [28]. During the initial swing phase the antebrachium is supinated and maximum supination (mean 19 ± 9 degrees) occurs at the middle of the swing phase, together with maximum flexion of the elbow joint, in healthy Labrador retrievers [60]. In orthopedic sound Beagle a similar motion pattern is present during the swing phase, with supination of the antebrachium occurring during the first third of the swing phase [28]. Prior to foot strike rapid pronation of the antebrachium occurs and the limb is placed on the ground in a slightly supinated position in Labrador retrievers and slight pronation in Beagle [28, 60].
Three dimensional micromotion of the humerus, radius and ulna relative to each other was measured in different studies using marker based fluoroscopic kinematographic analysis [22, 23, 24, 54, 72]. Results of these studies show that the bones of the antebrachium have a complex motion pattern and radius and ulna cannot be seen as one single object. At the walk and the trot an axial movement between radius and ulna occurs in healthy and MCD affected elbows [22, 54]. In healthy canine elbow joints the radius shows an mean axial movement of 0.7 (SD 0.31) mm to 0.8 mm in relation to the ulna. This axial motion was detected in different mid to large breed dogs, like Fox hounds, Australian shepherd, Labrador retriever, Eurasian, German shepherd, Bernese mountain dog and mixed breeds [22, 54]. After the initiation of ground contact the radius moves proximally and remains in a slightly elevated position relative to the ulna, resulting in a dynamic negative radio-ulnar incongruence (RUI) [22, 72]. These results correspond with data from an in vitro study, which investigated the effects of limb loading and flexion and extension onto the radio-ulnar joint conformation and intra articular contact areas and which showed, that elbow extension leads to a relative lowering of the ulna in relation to the radius [73]. Extension is the main motion of the elbow during the weight bearing phase and therefore the induction of a dynamic negative RUI might be seen as a adaption to joint loading [72]. Further, internal and external rotation between the radius and ulna occurs during the walk. Prior to foot strike the radius is in an externally rotated position relative to the ulna und shows internal rotation during the first third of the stance phase. Mean range of motion of the in vivo internal-external radial rotation is 11.4 (SD 2.0) degrees during the initial weight bearing phase [74]. No data exist investigating the in vivo radio-ulnar movement during the later stance phase and the swing. Therefore, the in vivo motion of the antebrachial bones and the dynamic changes within the radio-ulnar joint during the complete gait cycle are still unknown.
The in vivo humero-ulnar micromotion has only been investigated in one study so far [23]. Movement between the humerus and the ulna is characterized by flexion and extension, but rotational movement of the humerus relative to the ulna takes also place during locomotion [23]. At the walk the humerus shows an relative external rotation of 2.9 (SD 1.1) degrees during the first third of the stance phase in healthy humero-ulnar joints [23, 28]. These data imply that the elbow joint is not completely restricted to sagittal motion only. One study, investigating the 3D kinematics of the whole canine forelimb showed, that at the moment of ground contact the humerus is in an internally rotated position, which is slightly less at the trot compared to the walk (mean segment angle, walk: −34 degrees; trot: −25 degrees) [28]. During the walk the humerus shows internal and external rotation and only external rotation during the trot throughout the complete stance and swing phase, with a net external rotational movement during the stance phase [28]. This external rotational motion of the humerus is contrary to the internal rotation (pronation) of the antebrachium, which occurs prior to paw strike and is maintained during the stance [28, 60].
When kinematics of the diseased canine elbow joint are evaluated two different types of changes in the kinematic pattern have to be differentiated. First, changes attributed to pain and lameness, i.e. altered kinematics as a result of the disease. Second, changes in elbow joint kinematics, which represent a causative factor of the disease process.
Due to pain, caused by different joint pathologies in the elbow with DED, multiple adaptive mechanisms occur in the affected forelimb. Decreases in stance time, angular displacement and net joint moments can all be seen in the diseased elbow joint [51].
A reduced range of motion in the sagittal plane (flexion-extension) is present in dogs with MCD [51, 59, 60]. In particular flexion of the joint is decreased and the elbow kept in a more extended position during the gait. In Labrador retrievers with MCD a faster extension of the cubital joint occurs during late swing phase and the elbow is more extended by 9 degrees (mean) during initial ground contact and the early stance phase compared to orthopedically healthy elbows [60]. This more extended gait is a compensating mechanism and aims to reduce pressure at the medial joint compartment [7, 73, 75]. At the end of the stance and beginning of swing phase the elbow joint is more rapidly flexed in affected dogs. However, no active push off occurs at the end of the stance phase indicating that the affected limb is pulled off the ground by the proximal musculature [51]. Reduction in active push off aims to reduce the pressure acting on the joint surface. The elbow is held 16 degrees more externally rotated during the end of swing and initial stance phase and the antebrachium is in average 2 degrees more abducted throughout the gait cycle and 9 degrees more supinated during the paw strike and early stance phase [60]. These changes have to be assumed as compensating mechanisms as well. Supination leads to caudal displacement of the peak pressure at the medial ulnar joint surface and by that to a release of pressure and potentially pain at the diseased medial coronoid process. Besides the Labrador retriever a more extended elbow joint is present in other breeds with MCD, e.g. Rottweiler, Staffordshire Bullterrier, Airdale terrier, Golden retriever, Polish Lowland sheepdog, German wirehaired pointer, Belgian malinois, Irish setter and mixed breed dogs [51, 59, 60]. Therefore, these changes in the kinematic pattern represent a general secondary adaption to intra articular pathologies and the corresponding pain in canine elbow joints with MCD.
Primary changes in the kinematics of the radius, ulna and humerus are assumed to play an role in the pathogenesis of MCD. Altered kinematics in the proximal radio-ulnar joint, were suggested by different researchers to be one potential factor influencing the development of MCD [76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90]. One proposed mechanism was an increased axial translation of the radius relative to the ulna leading to an dynamic radio-ulnar incongruence. Translational movement between the radius and ulna occurs in elbows with and without MCD in vivo [22, 54], with no significant difference in the total amount of movement between both groups [22]. Therefore, increased axial movement between the radius and ulna and induction of a dynamic RUI under weight bearing conditions could be excluded as an primary factor. However, the direction of radial motion is different between normal and diseased joints, with a negative RUI being induced during the initial stance phase in healthy elbows and no significant change in the radio-ulnar joint conformation in MCD affected joints [72]. Based on the results of that study dogs with a static RUI are not able to compensate the radio-ulnar step formation by radio-ulnar translation and dogs with MCD, but without a static RUI, do not show the same amount of negative dynamic RUI as measured in healthy canine elbow joints [72]. The induction of a negative radio-ulnar step during weight bearing might be a protective mechanism in healthy canine elbow joints. Lowering of the ulna or elevation of the radius during extension of the elbow joint was previously described in vitro and leads to a decrease of intra articular pressure at the medial joint compartment [73]. The inability of the diseased canine elbow joint to adjust the radio-ulnar joint conformation during loading might be one potential biomechanical factor in the pathogenesis of MCD. Especially in dogs without a measurable static incongruence, which account for 40% of all patients with MCD [76], the insufficient adaption to intra articular joint loads can lead to mechanical overload at one distinct joint compartment. Increased radio-ulnar rotation was proposed as another potential cause of mechanical overload along the radial incisure of the medial coronoid process and subsequent cartilage and bone damage [82, 87, 88, 89, 90]. The only study comparing in vivo radio-ulnar rotational movement in healthy joints to joints with MCD showed no significant difference in the total amount of radial rotation and in the motion pattern of the radius [74]. The radius starts in an externally rotated position during the late swing phase just before paw strike and rotates internally in relation to the ulna during the early weight bearing phase. At approximately 30 to 40% of the stance phase the radius shows an external rotation again. Values of total rotational movement and internal/external movement of the radius show no significant difference between normal and affected elbow (internal radial rotation, healthy: 5.7 [SD 2.1] degrees; MCD: 5.3 [SD 2.6] degrees; p = 0.1727; external radial rotation, healthy: - 5.8 [SD: 1.3] degrees; MCD: - 4.5 [1.7] degrees; p = 0.7705; total rotation, healthy: 11.4 [SD: 2.0] degrees; MCD: 9.8 [SD: 3.2]; p = 0.2904) [74]. Absence of increased radio-ulnar rotational motion does not exclude an biomechanical overload along the lateral aspect of the medial coronoid process of the ulna caused by interaction with the radial head. An abaxial attachment of the tendon of the biceps brachii muscle at the ulna was detected in dogs with MCD [90]. The pull of the biceps brachii muscle on the ulna could potentially lead to increased pressure between the medial coronoid and the radial head without altering the kinematics. However, no studies have investigated the forces acting between radius and ulna and compared these data between healthy and MCD affected dogs.
Another significant difference can be seen in the humero-ulnar rotational movement between healthy and MCD affected joints. Increased external rotation of the humeral condyle in relation to the ulna occurs at the first third of the stance phase in cubital joints with MCD (humeral rotation, healthy: 2.9 [SD 1.1] degrees; MCD: 5.3 [SD 2.0] degrees; p = 0.0229) [23]. This rotation of the humeral condyle leads to compression of the joint space between the medial coronoid process and the humeral trochlea, and might potentially lead to mechanical overload at the coronoid process and consequently to cartilage and subchondral bone damage (Figure 1). Therefore, increased humero-ulnar rotation has to be considered as one dynamic factor in the pathogenesis of MCD. If this increased humero-ulnar rotational movement is caused by soft tissue laxity, like in the dysplastic hip joint, altered muscle function or due to bony differences altering the joint function has not been investigated so far. The influence of a static positive radio-ulnar incongruence onto the contact areas and pressure distribution within the humero-ulnar joint is known [91, 92, 93]. However, the literature is lacking kinematic analysis investigating the influence of a static RUI on elbow joint motion, particular the humero-radio-ulnar micromotion. In the cited study on humero-ulnar kinematics the MCD group consisted of dogs with and without a static positive RUI [23]. Due to the small sample size no correlation could be found between the presence of static RUI and the amount of humeral rotational motion. Therefore, the influence of this significant bony deformity on the kinematics of the elbow joint remains unknown.
Image sequence of the in vivo humero-ulnar joint motion during the late swing phase (f0), at the moment of weight bearing (f30) and the first third of the stance phase (f60 – f150). (A) Healthy joint; (B) MCD affected joint; relative external rotation of the humerus occurs just after ground contact, when the joint gets loaded. External rotation of the condyle leads to a craniolateral shift of the trochlea, impinging on the lateral aspect of the medial coronoid process [
The mean body weight distribution between fore- and hindlimbs is approximately 60% : 40% in dogs [56, 94]. A large study investigating 123 different breeds found that the grand mean proportion of mass was 60.4% on the forelimbs (range: 47.6 to 74.4%) [94]. Only sex was shown to be a significant factor altering that ratio, with females being below the mean value throughout different breeds [94]. Another study comparing kinematic and kinetic data of orthopedic healthy Labrador retrievers and German shepherds reported that Labrador retrievers carry a higher percentage of the weight on their forelimbs compared to the German shepherd (69% vs. 62%, p < 0.001) [66]. If this breed specific mechanical overload plays a role in the pathogenesis of DED and contributes to the high rate of Labrador retrievers with developmental elbow disease, in particular MCD, is not known.
Within the elbow joint load and forces are not homogenously distributed throughout the whole joint surface. It was believed that the radial joint surface is the main weight bearing surface of the radio-ulnar joint. However, more recent studies have shown, that the radius takes 51 to 52% of load [73, 75, 91]. Therefore the ulna plays a more important role in weight bearing than previously assumed. Despite an overall equal load and force distribution between the radius and the ulna, not every part of the joint surface represents an active joint contact area. Within the combined radio-ulnar joint surface three distinct contact areas can be found: the craniolateral aspect of anconeal process, the joint surface of the radial head, and the medial coronoid process [7, 24, 73]. There is no particular contact at the medial aspect of the anconeal process and the center of the trochlear notch (Figure 2). The latter one might be explained by the slight physiological humero-ulnar incongruence leading to a bicentrical contact pattern [6, 7, 9, 73, 95]. When the elbow joint is loaded the force applied by the humeral condyle is distributed along the anconeal process and the coronoid region. With increasing load the concave ulnar notch is stretched and these pressure forces are partially transformed to traction forces [8, 95, 96, 97]. Therefore this physiological incongruence leads to a more even stress distribution within the humero-ulnar joint. In human elbow joints the proximal and distal contact area confluent when high loads are acting onto the ulnar joint surface [98]. This load dependent change in contact pattern has not been described in canine elbows so far [7].
Colored animation of the in vivo humero-ulnar joint contact pattern at the ulnar joint surface at the beginning of weight bearing in a healthy canine elbow joint (red: Humero-ulnar contact). Joint contact is present along the medial coronoid process and the lateral and proximal aspect of the trochlear notch. The radius is not shown in this animation.
The presence of these three contact areas within the elbow joint is further supported by increased subchondral bone density measurements at these anatomic areas [95, 99]. Bone is a dynamic tissue which has the ability to remodel in response to mechanical load (Wolff’s law) [100]. Therefore, increased bone density can be found in areas with increased load. Increased subchondral bone densities are present at the disto-medial and cranial aspect of the humeral trochlea and in the olecranon fossa, the anconeal and medial coronoid processes of the ulna and the cranio-medial region of the joint surface of the radius [95]. The same study showed a significant age-dependent increase in the subchondral bone density of the joint surfaces of all three bones, representing continuous adaption of the bone to mechanical stress with increasing age [95].
Though increased loading of the ulnar joint surface does not result in confluence of the bicentric contact pattern, other factors can influence the joint contact patterns of the humero-ulnar and humero-radial joint surfaces. An in vitro study investigated the influence of positive radio-ulnar incongruence (short radius) on joint contact patterns. Presence of a positive RUI leads to a shift of the contact area at the medial coronoid process towards the cranio-lateral aspect of the coronoid process and reduction of the anconeal contact area [93]. Other in vitro studies show similar results. After induction of a 1.9 mm positive RUI medial compartment contact area decreases significantly while the lateral contact area increases. Likewise the mean contact pressure and peak contact pressure increase within the medial compartment and decrease in the lateral part [91, 92]. Therefore, presence of a static positive RUI has to be assumed as an important factor in the disease process of developmental elbow disease and a correlation between the severity of cartilage damage and static RUI has been shown in affected elbows [76, 77, 101]. In vivo evaluation of the ulnar joint contact pattern during the walk in a dog with positive static RUI before and after bi-oblique dynamic proximal ulnar osteotomy (DPUO) confirmed the results of different in vitro studies [24]. Following DPUO positive static RUI decreased, leading to a significant increase of the contact area at the medial coronoid process and to a shift of the contact area from the cranio-lateral aspect (tip and radial incisure) towards the medial aspect and the base of the medial coronoid process (Figure 3) [24]. This positive effect of different forms of ulnar and humeral osteotomies onto humero-radio-ulnar contact and force distribution has previously been shown in vitro [75, 91, 92]. Whether a static RUI changes the kinematic pattern of humero-radial, humero-ulnar or radio-ulnar motion and by that the intra articular contact areas and pressure distribution or has a purely mechanical influence without dynamic changes has not been investigated so far.
Humero-ulnar joint contact pattern at the ulnar joint surface at the beginning of weight bearing in a canine elbow joint with MCD (red: Contact area). (A) Contact pattern before bi-oblique DPUO; focal concentration of joint contact at the medial coronoid process (MCP) and slight contact at the medial and lateral aspect of the anconeal process is present. (B) Contact pattern 12 weeks postoperative; joint contact is more homogenously distributed throughout the ulnar joint surface and the craniolateral aspect of the MCP is even not in contact with the corresponding humeral trochlea [
Further, joint contact areas change during the regular locomotion. Pronation leads to reduction of the contact area in the medial and to a lesser amount in the lateral compartment of the radio-ulnar joint surface. The effect of pronation is further influenced by the elbow joint angle, with significant reduction of the medial contact area by 23% at 135 degree of flexion, what represents the average flexion angle during the stance phase [73]. A reduced contact area will result in increased pressure when the same load is applied to the joint. Further, pronation of the antebrachium leads to a shift of the peak contact pressure towards the apex of the medial coronoid process. Otherwise supination of the antebrachium leads to caudal displacement of the peak contact pressure on the medial coronoid process [73, 75]. This might explain that dogs with medial coronoid disease show a more supinated stance to release pressure from the apex of the medial coronoid [60]. Moreover, flexion and extension, the main motion pattern during the normal locomotion, influence the intra articular pressure distribution. Flexion increases peak pressure at the medial radio-ulnar joint compartment and extension decreases pressure [73]. It is assumed that this change is due to dynamic changes within the radio-ulnar joint surface in healthy canine elbows [72, 73]. In a cadaveric study extension of the elbow joint induced lowering of the radius and ulna, however more pronounced in the ulna (3.8 mm) compared to the radius (1.9 mm). This corresponds to findings of the in vivo investigation of the radio-ulnar joint cup conformation in healthy elbow joints during the walk, where a negative RUI (short ulna) was induced during weight bearing [72]. This lowering of the ulna relative to the radius might protect the medial coronoid process from mechanical overload during locomotion in healthy canine elbows. In contrast, altered radio-ulnar kinematics preventing elevation of the radius might lead to continuous excessive mechanical overload and subsequent joint pathologies.
Considering the changes of intra articular contact areas and pressure distribution as a function of limb position might explain the typical clinical signs in dogs with developmental elbow disease. Affected dogs stand with the elbow slightly abducted and the antebrachium in slight external rotation (supination) [102]. Furthermore, the elbow joint is more rapidly extended during the swing phase and kept in a more extended position during weight bearing [60]. This motion pattern aims to reduce the contact and pressure at the medial coronoid process, where most commonly lesions attributed to developmental elbow disease occur [90, 103].
Canine elbow joint kinematics are more complex than flexion and extension of the joint and influenced by multiple factors like breed, limb length, gait, exercise and joint pathologies. The precise interaction of the three joint forming bones is essential for physiologic joint contact and intra articular force and pressure distribution. Based on the current literature an significantly increased humero-ulnar rotational movement as well as an reduced adjustment of the radio-ulnar joint during the regular locomotion of the dog seem to be two essential pathological factors influencing the development of MCD. This kind of movement is only measurable using laborious techniques like 3D fluoroscopic based kinematography. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to evaluate the complex kinematics of the healthy and the diseased canine elbow joint and to understand the effect of different kinematics onto kinetics.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf964c52f9e653fac20a7fcab58070e5",slug:"advanced-topics-of-topology",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11195",title:"Recent Advances in Biometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"35",title:"Entomology",slug:"entomology",parent:{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:6,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:166,numberOfWosCitations:75,numberOfCrossrefCitations:72,numberOfDimensionsCitations:139,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"35",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10423",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",subtitle:"Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2746b4288e78c8688d1be1bd9d99a127",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10423.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8929",title:"Modern Beekeeping",subtitle:"Bases for Sustainable Production",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbf5aca68ed2c6690ad99f68aaaddcaf",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8929.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7561",title:"Beekeeping",subtitle:"New Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c47c831256fe10ff19fb10f490930fc",slug:"beekeeping-new-challenges",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7561.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6619",title:"Insect Science",subtitle:"Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08241b041b2072a88452041f8fdebe7e",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah and Umar Sharif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6619.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5163",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",subtitle:"Advances in Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc469ff4d2cf6651cfdbf3c5cf90a469",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",bookSignature:"Emerson Dechechi Chambo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5163.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94059",title:"Dr.",name:"Emerson",middleName:"Dechechi",surname:"Dechechi Chambó",slug:"emerson-dechechi-chambo",fullName:"Emerson Dechechi Chambó"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:6,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50073",doi:"10.5772/62487",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3427,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"59212",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73864",title:"Insect Conservation for the Twenty-First Century",slug:"insect-conservation-for-the-twenty-first-century",totalDownloads:1968,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Insects have been immensely successful as an animal group. They dominate compositional diversity of all but the saltiest and coldest parts of the planet. Yet today insects are declining at a precipitous rate. This is of great concern in terms of impoverishment of Earth, and is also dire for us. Insects contribute to the maintenance of terrestrial and freshwater systems, their service delivery and their resilience. The meteoric impact of humans is challenging this dominance, yet so few people realize that the very fabric of life on which they depend is being unraveled at an alarming rate. Action is required, as are new perspectives, if we are to maintain insect diversity and services through the twenty-first century. Here, we review how we should view and act to have more effective insect diversity conservation based on six themes: (1) philosophy (establishing the ethical foundation), (2) research (the finding out), (3) policy (the framework for action), (4) psychology (understanding how to engage humans in insect conservation action), (5) practice (implementation of action), and (6) validation (establishing how well we are doing at conserving insects). We then overview some emergent challenges and solutions at both the species and landscape operational levels in agricultural, forestry, and urban environments.",book:{id:"6619",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",title:"Insect Science",fullTitle:"Insect Science-Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition"},signatures:"Michael J. Samways",authors:[{id:"233323",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Samways",slug:"michael-samways",fullName:"Michael Samways"}]},{id:"79121",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100416",title:"Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control of Insects and Pests",slug:"botanical-insecticides-are-a-non-toxic-alternative-to-conventional-pesticides-in-the-control-of-inse",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Insect control for crops is one of the most critical global concerns. Pest management is an economic and ecological problem worldwide due to the human and environmental risks raised by most synthetic pesticide products. Botanical insecticides have resurfaced in popularity due to their low cost and low environmental impact, rather than their negative effects on human health. Botanical insecticides destroy only the insects they are meant to kill, leaving no residue on food or in the environment. Botanicals have long been used to combat pests. The compounds have many environmental advantages. However, as opposed to other bio-control pests and pathogens, their use was minimal during the twentieth century. In developing countries, botanical insecticides are well adapted for use in organic food production. Nonetheless, they may play a far bigger role in developed countries’ food production and post-harvest food protection. Consequently, the current chapter briefly addresses botanicals with active ingredients with insecticidal, antifeedant, or repellent properties.",book:{id:"10739",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",title:"Global Decline of Insects",fullTitle:"Global Decline of Insects"},signatures:"Nazeer Ahmed, Mukhtar Alam, Muhammad Saeed, Hidayat Ullah, Toheed Iqbal, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Kiran Shahjeer, Rafi Ullah, Saeed Ahmed, Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed, Hanem Fathy Khater and Muhammad Salman",authors:[{id:"97300",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid Awadh",middleName:"Al-Mutairi",surname:"Al-Mutairi",slug:"khalid-awadh-al-mutairi",fullName:"Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi"},{id:"191884",title:"Dr.",name:"Toheed",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"toheed-iqbal",fullName:"Toheed Iqbal"},{id:"263876",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"hidayat-ullah",fullName:"Hidayat Ullah"},{id:"263877",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Alam",slug:"mukhtar-alam",fullName:"Mukhtar Alam"},{id:"355528",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazeer",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"nazeer-ahmed",fullName:"Nazeer Ahmed"},{id:"420069",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kiran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahjeer",slug:"kiran-shahjeer",fullName:"Kiran Shahjeer"},{id:"420070",title:"Mr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"saeed-ahmed",fullName:"Saeed Ahmed"},{id:"420221",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",slug:"muhammad-saeed",fullName:"Muhammad Saeed"},{id:"420222",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafi",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"rafi-ullah",fullName:"Rafi Ullah"},{id:"436507",title:"Dr.",name:"Nibal Abd Aleem",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan Ahmed",slug:"nibal-abd-aleem-hassan-ahmed",fullName:"Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed"},{id:"436596",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:null,surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"},{id:"485113",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"muhammad-salman",fullName:"Muhammad Salman"}]},{id:"50307",doi:"10.5772/62654",title:"From Extraction to Meliponiculture: A Case Study of the Management of Stingless Bees in the West-Central Region of Mexico",slug:"from-extraction-to-meliponiculture-a-case-study-of-the-management-of-stingless-bees-in-the-west-cent",totalDownloads:2745,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Currently, stingless bees' populations are declining due to environmental degradation. In this context, the authors have developed a research project in the central-western region of Mexico with the goal to generate strategies for conservation and sustainable management of stingless bees. The chapter aims to present the process of this investigation and its main results in terms of a) local knowledge and management strategies of stingless bees, and b) the social process of technological appropriation of meliponiculture by beekeepers. We recognized specific knowledge on the biology and ecology of stingless bees that result in a system for identifying species and management strategies of wild populations of these bees based on the extraction of nests. The implementation of an innovative productive activity based on the principles of meliponiculture and current techniques has been well received by producers, which has led to the formation of the Meliponicultores Michoacanos del Balsas Association, which grows five species of stingless bees. The research suggests that conservation associated with the use of bees (integral meliponiculture) can be enhanced in the region. Faced with the loss of biodiversity and environmental crisis, it is essential to maintain and enhance local knowledge of stingless bees and management practices. This represents an alternative to develop management schemes that allow the raising and breeding of these bees, while its products are obtained.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Alejandro Reyes-González, Andrés Camou-Guerrero and Salvador\nGómez-Arreola",authors:[{id:"179951",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Camou-Guerrero",slug:"andres-camou-guerrero",fullName:"Andres Camou-Guerrero"},{id:"185413",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-González",slug:"alejandro-reyes-gonzalez",fullName:"Alejandro Reyes-González"},{id:"192049",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Arreola",slug:"salvador-gomez-arreola",fullName:"Salvador Gómez-Arreola"}]},{id:"50683",doi:"10.5772/63145",title:"Advances in Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Composition of Propolis Produced in Americas",slug:"advances-in-pharmacological-activities-and-chemical-composition-of-propolis-produced-in-americas",totalDownloads:2583,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Propolis is a resinous material produced by bees from the selective collection of plant exudates that are subsequently mixed with beeswax and salivary bee secretions. Propolis has been used in folk medicine, and certainly, several studies have validated its biological properties. The chemical composition and pharmacological activities of propolis collected through North (including Central America and Caribbean) and South America have been studied in the last years, and several papers have reported differences and similarities among the analysed geographical samples. Propolis has been classified according to its aspect and plant source; however, the ecological diversity present along the Americas provides a plethora of botanical resins. Herein, we summarize and discuss most of the studies performed at present on this profitable product for apiculture, attempting to compare the bioactivity, phytochemical diversity and botanical sources of honeybee propolis produced in Americas.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Efrain Alday, Moisés Navarro-Navarro, Adriana Garibay-Escobar,\nRamón Robles-Zepeda, Javier Hernandez and Carlos Velazquez",authors:[{id:"96966",title:"MSc.",name:"Moises",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Navarro",slug:"moises-navarro-navarro",fullName:"Moises Navarro-Navarro"},{id:"180409",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velazquez",slug:"carlos-velazquez",fullName:"Carlos Velazquez"},{id:"186351",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Zepeda",slug:"ramon-robles-zepeda",fullName:"Ramón Robles-Zepeda"},{id:"186352",title:"MSc.",name:"Efrain",middleName:null,surname:"Alday",slug:"efrain-alday",fullName:"Efrain Alday"},{id:"186353",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez",slug:"javier-hernandez",fullName:"Javier Hernandez"},{id:"189161",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Garibay-Escobar",slug:"adriana-garibay-escobar",fullName:"Adriana Garibay-Escobar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50170",title:"A Comprehensive Characterization of the Honeybees in Siberia (Russia)",slug:"a-comprehensive-characterization-of-the-honeybees-in-siberia-russia-",totalDownloads:2302,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"A comprehensive study of some populations of honeybee (332 colonies) in Siberia (Tomsk region, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Yenisei population), Altai) using morphometric and molecular genetic methods was conducted. Infestation of bees (132 colonies) by Nosema has also been studied. Three variants of the COI-COII mtDNA locus were registered: PQQ, PQQQ (typical for Apis m. mellifera), and Q (specific for southern races). It was established that 64% of bee colonies from the Tomsk region and all colonies studied from the Krasnoyarsk and the Altai territories originate from Apis m. mellifera on the maternal line. According to the morphometric study, the majority of bee colonies of the Tomsk region are hybrids; in some colonies the mismatch of morphometric and mtDNA data was observed. Moreover, the majority of bee colonies infected by Nosema were hybrids. Yenisei population may be considered as a unique Apis m. mellifera population. Microsatellite analysis (loci А008, Ap049, AC117, AC216, Ap243, H110, A024, A113) showed the specific distribution of genotypes and alleles for some loci in the bees, which differ by geographical location. Loci A024 and Ap049 are of considerable interest for further study as candidate markers for differentiation of subspecies; locus A008 can be considered informative for determining of different ecotypes of Apis m. mellifera.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Olga L. Konusova, Aksana N. Kucher\nand Igor V. Sharakhov",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",middleName:null,surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"180343",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Sharakhov",slug:"igor-sharakhov",fullName:"Igor Sharakhov"}]},{id:"70501",title:"Southeast Asian Meliponiculture for Sustainable Livelihood",slug:"southeast-asian-meliponiculture-for-sustainable-livelihood",totalDownloads:1262,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) are one of the most important pollinators of native plants and economic crops in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. They not only establish large perennial colonies with complex social organization but also have a diverse nesting biology. The economic utilization of a total of 60 stingless bee species in Asia has been reported. The current status of meliponiculture in Southeast Asia is mainly focused on pollination utilization and honey and propolis production. This chapter shows that small-scale beekeeping of stingless bees, which is suitable for the flowering pattern in the tropics, is one of the best potential alternative opportunities. The cost-effectiveness analysis based on production yield, investment cost, and profit-return rate is reviewed. Finally, a sustainable utilization of stingless bees is considered to be an enhancer of pollination services both in an agricultural crop and natural ecosystem.",book:{id:"8929",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",title:"Modern Beekeeping",fullTitle:"Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production"},signatures:"Atsalek Rattanawannee and Orawan Duangphakdee",authors:[{id:"283087",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Atsalek",middleName:null,surname:"Rattanawannee",slug:"atsalek-rattanawannee",fullName:"Atsalek Rattanawannee"},{id:"306411",title:"Dr.",name:"Orawan",middleName:null,surname:"Duangphakdee",slug:"orawan-duangphakdee",fullName:"Orawan Duangphakdee"}]},{id:"50073",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3419,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"74836",title:"Chironomidae: Biology, Ecology and Systematics",slug:"chironomidae-biology-ecology-and-systematics",totalDownloads:474,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The family of Chironomidae is a group of Diptera insects belonging to the suborder of Nematocera, commonly called “non-biting midges” in the adult stage and “bloodworms” in the larval stage. The Chironomidae are often the most abundant group of macroinvertebrates, in number of species and individuals, encountered in all aquatic environments of freshwater, brackish, terrestrial and even the sea. Likewise, Chironomidae occur in all the continents. The Chironomidae family is divided into 11 sub-families that have diffrent ecological statues. Despite the wealth of data on Chironomidae in the Holarctic region, other parts of the world are poorly studied and few guides to identifying Chironomidae have been produced. This chapter includes a theoretical synthesis on the Chironomidae, it deals with the Biology (life cycle and description of different stages), description of all subfamilies and the ecology of this important family of Diptera.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Zerguine Karima",authors:[{id:"334825",title:"Dr.",name:"Karima",middleName:null,surname:"Zerguine",slug:"karima-zerguine",fullName:"Karima Zerguine"}]},{id:"75438",title:"Characteristics of Dipteran Insects",slug:"characteristics-of-dipteran-insects",totalDownloads:510,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Diptera means two wings (Di: two, pteron: wing). They have complete metamorphosis and they are holometabolous insects which means there are 4 stages (egg, larvae, pupae and adult). The name of larval stage is “maggot”. Some of the dipteran insects cause damage in agricultural production. Some are harmful for humans. Dipteran insects have two wings. Hind wings are reduced and they are called “halteres”. Function of halteres is balancing when the insects fly. Except mosquitoes, dipteran insects have sponging-sucking mouthparts. Important examples for dipteran insects are Olive fruit fly and Medfly which cause damages in agricultural production. OFF is the most destructive pest in olive growing areas and Mediterranean fruit fly cause damages in fruit production.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Murat Helvacı",authors:[{id:"301984",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Helvaci",slug:"murat-helvaci",fullName:"Murat Helvaci"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"35",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"83075",title:"Practices and Challenges of Community Services at Debre Markos University, Ethiopia: A Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105896",signatures:"Adane Mengist",slug:"practices-and-challenges-of-community-services-at-debre-markos-university-ethiopia-a-case-study",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82858",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility a Case of the Provision of Recreational Facilities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105608",signatures:"Peter Musa Wash, Shida Irwana Omar, Badaruddin Mohamed and Mohd Ismail Isa",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility-a-case-of-the-provision-of-recreational-facilities",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82405",title:"Does Board Structure Matter in CSR Spending of Commercial Banks? 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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