\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"17",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Herbicides and Environment",title:"Herbicides and Environment",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Herbicides are much more than just weed killers. They may exhibit beneficial or adverse effects on other organisms. Given their toxicological, environmental but also agricultural relevance, herbicides are an interesting field of activity not only for scientists working in the field of agriculture. It seems that the investigation of herbicide-induced effects on weeds, crop plants, ecosystems, microorganisms, and higher organism requires a multidisciplinary approach. Some important aspects regarding the multisided impacts of herbicides on the living world are highlighted in this book. I am sure that the readers will find a lot of helpful information, even if they are only slightly interested in the topic.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-476-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4531-8",doi:"10.5772/550",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"herbicides-and-environment",numberOfPages:762,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:null,bookSignature:"Andreas Kortekamp",publishedDate:"January 8th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/17.jpg",numberOfDownloads:132280,numberOfWosCitations:255,numberOfCrossrefCitations:48,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:11,numberOfDimensionsCitations:253,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:16,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:556,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 9th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 9th 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 8th 2010",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"14108",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",middleName:null,surname:"Kortekamp",slug:"andreas-kortekamp",fullName:"Andreas Kortekamp",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14108/images/2370_n.jpg",biography:"Curriculum vitae\n\nAndreas Kortekamp, PhD, was born in 1970 in Germany. After the first education steps and civilian service, he studied biology at the University of Karlsruhe and got his PhD in natural sciences in 2001. He has worked as a visiting scientist at the University of Kaiserslautern, University of Halle, and at the Federal Centre for Breeding Research on Cultivated plants (now Julius-Kühn-Institute) during his postdoctoral studies, and as assistant professor at the University of Hohenheim. \nSince 2009 Dr. Kortekamp is the head of the mycology and bacteriology department at the State Service Center Rheinpfalz for Research, Teaching and Consulting in Viticulture, Horticulture and Rural Development. He has served on the editorial board and as a reviewer of several international journals and is a member in several national and international scientific societies. Dr. Kortekamp teaches biochemistry, plant pathology, and viticulture at the graduate level. He is mainly interested in plant diseases, especially diseases of grapevine, mycology, microbiology, plant physiology, and in the effect of agrochemicals on crop plants.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Dienstleistungszentrum Ländlicher Raum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"842",title:"Biodiversity",slug:"biodiversity"}],chapters:[{id:"12580",title:"Herbicides: the Face and the Reverse of the Coin. 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The role of nano-catalysts in the form of metal nanoparticles (MNPs), such as nanoparticles of transition metals and particularly the group VIII metal elements in the fourth period with d-band center electronic structure, is rising significantly in the heterogeneous catalysis, due to their high active surface areas and special electronic properties [1, 2]. For instance, Fe-, Co-, Ni-, Pt-, Rh-, and Pd-based catalysts have been extensively utilized in various processes to produce varieties of fuels and chemicals, consisting of Fischer Tropsch Synthesis, steam and dry reforming, methanation, and CO oxidation [1]. MNPs expose influential activities in various catalytic reactions. One of the main difficulties in using the MNPs is their weak stability in the practical catalytic processes. In recent years, an exquisite and effective strategy has been applied to optimize the performance of MNPs by encapsulating them that provides unique advantages toward catalysis, particularly under harsh conditions by restricting the aggregation and sintering of MNPs. The concept of the encapsulated metals nanoparticles that improve a wide range of catalytic reactions, especially under rough environments has been presented as “chainmail nano-catalyst” in some of the literatures [3].
In addition, Encapsulation adjusted the energy distinctions between the highest occupied molecular orbital to the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital [4]. In fact, inside the encapsulated structure of MNPs, the electron of MNPs can penetrate through the shell to enhance the catalytic performance on the external surface. Therefore, the shell is able to restrict the medium of reactants and products from direct contact by the MNPs and protect the MNPs from damage in harsh conditions. Overall, these encapsulated MNPs represent impressive catalysts that can be applied in numerous catalytic reactions under harsh conditions and also propose a tunable structure alongside unique electronic properties [3].
In this chapter, a comprehensive and compressed presentation of the encapsulated MNPs advantages, a categorization of the encapsulating layers, and some methods of encapsulated nano-catalysts preparation are reported, respectively.
In view of an increasing range of recent research, implementing an encapsulated structure for nano-catalysts is the efficient way to protect these catalysts’ properties from any deactivation agents and prevent them from the decrease of catalytic activity. The advantages of encapsulated structure can be expressed as follows and in going into detail their effective specifications and involved parameters in this structure will be explained.
Provide effective metal-support interactions (MSI)
Prevent from the coalescence nanoparticles
Protect from catalyst deactivation by stabilizing the active metal species in catalysts against sintering
Tandem reactions can be enabled and promoted by encapsulated configuration
Improvement of catalytic selectivity
One of the most crucial characteristics of the encapsulated nano-catalysts is the strong interaction between the MNPs and the encapsulating materials. Interactions between MNPs and support materials, metal-support interaction (MSI), can profoundly enhance the catalytic activity and tunability to selective reactions and products [5]. MSI can modify electronic properties, geometric morphologies, or chemical compositions of MNPs to make active sites have specific properties and catalytic activities [6, 7]. The geometric result of MSI is the decoration of the metal surface, partial coverage or total encapsulation of the metal can be conducted by the support. Since morphological modifications can take place on the catalyst as a result of the MSIs and encapsulated structure paves the way to enhance them by contributing a maximal interfacial area through participating the MNPs in close contact with the encapsulating materials [6, 7, 8]. Furthermore, strong metal-support interaction (SMSI) has been mostly applied to develop bifunctionality at the interface of metal–metal oxides systems. The bifunctional outcome leads to a synergistic effect through an improvement of catalyst activity and selectivity by creating new reaction sites at the interface between the metal and the support, and the spillover phenomenon occurs at the interface by transferring reactants from metal or support to the interface, which all of these phenomena are soared at encapsulated structure [6, 7, 8]. Therefore, the optimized catalytic performance can be gained by the unique MSI among the MNPs and the encapsulating materials [5].
Metal nano-catalysts have a high surface-to-volume ratio, which leads to coalescence during catalysis, especially at high reaction temperatures where this is prone to modification, resulting in a noticeable decrease in active surface areas and, eventually, a reduction in catalytic activity and selectivity [2]. In contrast, encapsulation by encasing of MNPs in nano-shells or nanopores prohibits them from coalescence, therefore, the efficiency of the active nano-catalysts surface area is preserved remarkably.
Catalyst deactivation is a principal difficulty in the heterogenous catalytic processes since the catalyst activity and selectivity will be reduced with time on stream and the catalyst regeneration or replacement will be included at a noticeable rate of time and resources [8, 9]. Therefore, a great number of researches have been conducted to gain long-term stability in heterogeneous catalysis, particularly by applying an optimized structure that includes the maximized performance. In the midst of the principal reasons of catalyst deactivation, sintering of MNPs, which occurs by an irreversible mechanism that significantly reduces catalyst recyclability, has attracted more attention toward preventing it from happening. Catalyst sintering reduces the metal’s active surface area and can occur via particle coalescence or Ostwald ripening [10, 11]. Not only may the MNPs engage in migration and coalescence particularly when they are exposed to severe conditions, but also the deactivation of catalysts via sintering can be intensified. Nevertheless, by encapsulating MNPs in a highly nanopores support, this spatial confinement can dramatically suppress their migration and coalescence and can prevent sintering without limiting the catalysis and thus stabilize MNPs under harsh reaction conditions [2, 8, 9, 10, 11].
Chemical processes are conducted by multiple steps. To minimize energy consumption and economic cost, integrating multiple steps of reactions can be a crucial solution. A tandem catalysis reaction engages sequential reactions within one condition through the coupling of appropriate catalysts in which sequential transformation of the substrate is conducted via two or more mechanistically distinct reaction steps [12, 13, 14]. The encapsulated structure of MNPs provides an integration of various interfaces in one nanostructure in a controllable manner that converts them as effective and principal catalysts in the tandem catalysis reactions. Moreover, encapsulating MNPs in porous shells could promote tandem reactions via modifying the reaction sequences or the molecular-sieving effect [2, 15].
Due to preventing the formation of unwanted products, increasing the waste of chemicals, reducing the essential refinement stages, and optimizing the selective products, it is critical to control the chemical reactions. The heart of a chemical reaction is its catalysts so it is crucial to design an appropriate catalyst to enhance the selectivity. The activity and particularly selectivity of heterogeneous catalysts depend on their surfaces structure and their active sites. First of all, the encapsulated structures in various catalysts support by providing their unique morphology and can act as sieves for molecules that allow the transfer of molecules with selective sizes, resulting in high shape selectivity. In addition, catalytic selectivity of the encapsulated nano-catalysts can be improved by utilizing suitable functional groups in their materials that have a significant influence on the reactant adsorption and reduce the mass transfer limitations by increasing their coefficient diffusions. In addition to the controlled porosity of the encapsulated structures, owing to high active surface areas of the encapsulating materials, there are more sites to involve the suitable functional groups to enhance the selectivity of the catalysts [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
Although each one of mentioned nano-catalysts encapsulated structure benefits are effective separately, there is a remarkable relationship among their impacts. Indeed, each of them causes the other one or implements it in parallel and intensifies each other.
In contrast, although the encapsulation structures can enhance the catalytic performances, mass transfer may be restricted by this structure to some extent, which is disadvantageous to the catalytic process. This issue should be modified by the precise sketch through the choice of materials and methods synthesis of the catalysts with encapsulation structures [1]. In this chapter, the classification of the encapsulation of catalysts is undertaken with the type of encapsulating materials because some of them can form into two distinct groups of morphologies or exhibit with an individual structure, such as organic materials. Thus, in follow firstly describe each type of morphology and then the encapsulation of catalysts is presented in three comprehensive parts from the view of encapsulating materials: (1) Inorganic Materials, (2) Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs), and (3) Organic Materials as it is depicted in Figure 1.
Encapsulation of MNPs as catalyst.
Encapsulation provides a unique catalyst immobilization technique that by encapsulating of MNPs with porous layers creates an impressive porosity for the reactants to be able to reach the metal surface. Various strategies and materials have been utilized to make these layers. An encapsulated structure can conduct by designing and fabricating the unique chainmail catalyst via a wide range of shells [3]. As a result, a vast majority of structural designs and strategies in such encapsulated catalysts have been thrived. Although a large range of various materials, such as metallic state of metals, alloys of metals, metal carbides, metal oxides, metal phosphides, and metal nitrides, can be encapsulated, a variety range of coating layers can be utilized for the shells that contain various forms, such as shells, tubes, sheaths, matrices, and films. In this chapter, the encapsulated catalysts structures on the basis of the morphology are categorized into two main groups: (1) Yolk/Core-Shells, and (2) Mesoporous Structures [1, 2, 3], as shown inFigure 1.
Encapsulation compels the complex of support and MNPs to implement a nonplanar geometry, which leads to a higher reactivity. The core-shell morphology is allocated to the encapsulated structure that encases nanoparticles in a confined case by an outer shell [1]. In contrast, another approach to encapsulate MNPs inside an individual architecture shell which is a state of eggs with a void space between the MNP “yolk” and the porous coating “shell,” this structure has added profits due to their specific role as nanoreactors [19]. Although Yolk-shell is a “core-void-shell” structure, which is similar to the core-shell structure, a void space between the core and the shell depicts the distinction between these two structures [1]. Recently, yolk-shell materials have attracted interest due to their particular combination of high thermal stability with monodisperse and narrow particle-size distributions that convert them to an effective catalyst for heterogeneous catalysis. Not only do these specifications have a significant role in catalyst performance, but also they can facilitate kinetic and mechanistic researches [20].
In these yolk/core-shell catalysts, the vast majority of the catalytic attributes of the throughout catalyst are the same and may include a tiny alteration through the change from active particle to active particle. Thus, in these structures the resulting catalytic activity of the system can be the same all over the surface of the catalysts, in comparison, in traditional solid catalysts there are no homogenous sites and to evaluate the activity of the catalysts, an average of all possible morphologies should be considered. Furthermore, the yolk/core-shell structures provide catalytic particles with a uniform size that leads to an effective SMSI for all the particles. They contribute to the new catalytic sites at the interface of themselves and MNPs and modify their actual catalytic characteristics of them. Therefore, these features cause these kinds of encapsulation structures to be placed at the noticeable position as support of MNPs catalysts and remarkable efforts have been done in synthesizing base-metal yolk/core-shell catalysts in recent years [1, 21]. In addition, there are some significant ways toward the improvement of the design and fabrication, in particular, yolk-shells to produce effective catalysts:
Although the encapsulation of nanoparticles by applying an additional coating layer may decline the adsorption of the reactants on the active phase, the porosity of the shells exhibits a crucial role in the improvement of mass transfer across the shells. Therefore, porosity is an essential specification that should be considered when synthesizing yolk/core-shell catalysts. Various methods to make porose yolk/core-shell, such as layer-by-layer deposition techniques and sacrificial templating procedures, in particular for yolk-shells, have been reported that provide adequate stability even under harsh reaction conditions. Moreover, the “surface-protected etching” is a contemporary strategy that outputs catalysts with porous shells and enhanced stability simultaneously. This process protects the oxide shells, in particular the inner part of the shells, by utilizing a suitable layer of the polymeric ligand as an etching agent. Thus, the oxide shells would have their original size and the selective etching of the interior creates the porous structure [22]. On the other hand, this procedure may have a noticeable restriction in which the metal loading of the catalyst in most cases is placed at a low level. To dispel this drawback, first of all, an inert chemical linker should be utilized to fix the MNPs onto the surface of the initial support with another layer of these inert chemical linkers. Next, the surface-protected etching procedure would be utilized to modify the outer shell into a mesoporous shell that exposes the MNPs to the reactant active species. Silica is one of the most popular inert chemical linkers [22, 23, 24, 25].
In most cases, the various yolk/core-shells that are prepared through the sol–gel deposition method are amorphous. Due to the remarkable effects of the crystalline phases on the performance of catalysts, it is essential to enhance shell crystallinity. The effective pathway to modify the amorphous shells to their crystallized counterparts is calcination at high temperatures. Although calcination would improve the crystalline phases of the shell, it might reduce the porosity of the original amorphous shell considerably. Therefore, to prevent this difficulty, first of all, it is important to conduct another inert chemical layer (such as silica layer) on the top of the shell through a sol–gel process, then the calcination treatment should be applied. Eventually, the final porous morphology that will be a yolk-shell structure can be achieved by scarifying the inert chemical layers through chemical etching [22, 23, 24, 25]. Figure 2 depicts the procedure of fabrication of a porous yolk-shell through employing sacrificed layer, calcination, and etching treatment. Two TEM images of a core-shell (a1) and yolk-shell (a2) are also illustrated in Figure 3 [26].
Synthetic procedure of MNP@Void@M’O2 (M’O2: TiO2, CeO2, ZrO2, …) Yolk-Shell in four steps; 1: Encapsulation with sacrificed shell (m-SiO2) nanoparticles, 2: Encapsulation with exterior shell (M’O2), 3: Calcination, and 4: Etching.
TEM images of (a1) MNP@SiO2 core-shell and (a2) MNP@Void@M’O2 Yolk-Shell. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [
Mesoporous materials are special types of nanomaterials with ordered arrays of uniform nanochannels that are fabricated by participating self-assembly of surfactants and framework precursors. Mesoporous materials include pores with diameters in the range of 2–50 nm that by dispersion of MNPs into this porous matrix a range of heterogeneous catalysts can be formed [2]. These structures by supplying a great surface area provide a dramatic spatial dispersion of the MNPs that leads to stability enhancement in contrast to nanoparticle aggregation and coalescence in a catalytic process. In addition, the prominent porosity of these structures in catalysts paves the way to prepare an effective mass transfer that improves the catalytic performance by facilitating the contact of reactants with the MNPs as active sites of catalysts. Furthermore, the appropriate pore size distribution puts the MNPs adjacent to the mesoporous material, which leads to the enhancement of catalytic activity and stability through boosting the strong MSIs. The mesoporous materials have pores with an adequate size that cause the adsorption of pre-synthesized MNPs with small sizes directly [1, 2]. Meanwhile, the size and volume of the mesopores or in overall the size of the whole mesoporous matrix, and metal charge have a significant impact on the immobilization of metals [27]. Eventually, the specific morphology of the pores in these structures exposes the sites of active metals, which leads to facilitating the catalytic process [1, 2]. Thus, these features of mesoporous materials convert them to outstanding supports that can encapsulate the MNPs in catalysts.
Although the incipient wetness impregnation is a popular strategy for the encapsulation of MNPs in the mesoporous materials as heterogeneous catalysts, the self-assembly-based approach is the other useful strategy [2].
In recent decades, noticeable progress in synthesizing various inorganic nanomaterials to encapsulate the nanoparticles with unique catalytic performance, owing to their principal advantages, such as simplicity of fabrication, tunability of formation, and cost-effectiveness, converts them to popular supports. Although inorganic oxides (SiO2, TiO2, CeO2, ZrO2, etc.) are mostly applied as shell structures in the yolk/core-shell morphology, some of them, in particular silica, exist in mesoporous in some cases. In contrast, zeolite mesoporous structures are the common morphology beside the yolk/core-shell structure of them.
Silica has attracted an increasing number of researcher attention owing to its inimitable physicochemical properties, such as tunable morphology, extensive surface area (≈1500 m2 g−1) and pore volume, adjustable sizes (50–150 nm), shapes (hexagonal, wormhole-like, cubic, and lamellar) and morphologies (spheres, helical fibers, tubules, gyroids, crystals), ease of surface functionalization (both interior as well as exterior), unique topology, colloidal and thermal stabilities, and high dispersity [27]. Silica with each of these desirable features can be achieved through tuning the synthesis conditions, such as the temperature, pH, stirring speed, and type of silica source, and particularly the surfactant [27]. Therefore, these unique attributes of silica besides the simplicity in controlling the SiO2 precursors convert it to a principal and useful inorganic shell for the encapsulation of MNPs. Moreover, owing to SiO2 inert chemical features, its structure would be resistant under harsh conditions that lead to the protection of the size of MNPs under this condition. Furthermore, not only would not the chemical inertness of silica that encapsulates MNPs is influenced by the metal-oxide interactions but also intensify their catalytic properties [1, 3]. Although silica supports due to their chemical inertness have a tiny interaction with reactants that may reduce the adsorption of the reactive molecules, their porosity can restrict the effects of their weakness by intensifying their diffusion across the capsule [1]. Moreover, stability of the metal-silica nanoparticles is an outstanding challenge, particularly in catalytic applications that deal with diverse physicochemical properties especially the features of the final catalyst compounds, such as the type of MNPs, particle size, degree of silica condensation, and chemical functionalization [27].
The principal method to form the silica shells is the sol–gel. The synthesis of the silica shell is conducted through a modified Stober procedure, in which the hydrolysis and condensation of tetra ethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) take place in aqueous ethanol in the presence of a base as a catalyst, such as ammonia, to control the growth of silicate on the surface of the MNPs [1, 2]. To coat some unstable metals, such as Ag, with silica, it is essential to utilize the amines, such as dimethylamine or di-ethylamine, instead of ammonia as the base catalyst [2]. Overall, as opposed to mesoporous silica materials to encapsulate the MNP in the shell spheres of mesopores silica, firstly the metal precursors should be dispersed and the surfactant alongside the silica precursor (TEOS) should be added. This core-shell strategy contributes the best results in encapsulating some metal oxides, such as Mn, Co, and Ni [27].
Although the general configuration of silica shells achieved through the sol–gel process is microporous, the mesopore textures could also be formed that are more appropriate for catalysis applications because this shape of texture rectifies the mass transfer limitations [1, 4]. The encapsulated metal-silica nanostructure gaining through the sol–gel pathway makes a thin shell of silica which owing to the high interfacial energy a fragile interaction exists between silica shell and MNPs. Nucleation of silica prevents from occurring a suitable interaction between silica and MNPs. However, to pave the way and achieve an improved interfacial interaction, utilizing some bridging agents as surface primers is essential [4]. Generally, the surface primers are applied for encapsulation of silica over large MNPs (>10 nm) that can refer to some of them, such as amino propyltrimethoxy silane (APS), methoxy poly (ethylene glycol) thiol (MPEG-SH), and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). PVP is applied for the smooth coating of silica on the MNPs [1, 2]. Despite the fact that surface primers have a critical role to create a stable and homogeneous silica coating, in some cases, they can provide a selective silica coating on the surface [4, 28]. Furthermore, the type of the silica source and the added surfactants have a crucial impact on the size of MNPs and the thickness of the SiO2 shell in yolk/core-shell structures. Although some surfactants, such as PVP, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, and chloride (CTAB and CTAC), could not be influential on the dispersion of the MNPs, they could have an enhancement effect on the porosity of the SiO2 shells [1, 4].
On the other hand, ultrasmall MNPs (<10 nm) are unstable and have an aggregate tendency in alcoholic solutions. As a result, the formation of a coating of silica cannot be implemented by an appropriate outcome. To get rid of this imperfection, the silica coating should be conducted in a reverse micelles (or microemulsion) system by using polyoxyethylene nonylphenyl ether (Igepal CO-520) as a surfactant [2]. Mostly, owing to there not adequate interaction between silica and the metal surface this technique of coating may have some weaknesses that may lead to an undesirable and imperfection coating. Liu et al. [29] presented an effective procedure, ship-in-a-bottle, to fabricate a robust thin silica coating on the sub-3 nm MNPs in reverse micelles. In this method, the synthesis of MNPs and silica coating in the presence of water/cyclohexane/reverse micelle system will participate simultaneously. The combination of microemulsion system and ship-in-a bottle technique pave the way to achieve a range of various metal-silica core-shell composites [2].
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles are presented as effective support for the encapsulation of MNPs due to their outstanding specifications, such as well-ordered framework, tunable pores, high surface area, stability, and thermally toughness. In addition, they contribute a well-made 3D matrix that provides a monotonous distribution of MNPs and confinement them from aggregating there that lead to noticeably protect against the sintering of them. Moreover, in contrast to the other inorganic supports through the encapsulation of MNPs, the mesoporous silica nanoparticles can represent a wide range of applicable characteristic surfaces in both the exterior (on the surface) and interior (in the mesopore) space, where MNPs can be organized by a chemical linkage or physically immobilized by electrostatic interactions [27].
The mesoporous silica nanoparticles can be synthesized through cooperative self-assembly of surfactant and silica species. The morphology and dimensions of mesoporous silica nanoparticles are significantly influenced by the factors of reaction kinetics of sol–gel chemistry, such as assembly kinetics, silica condensation, nucleation, growth rates, and surfactant-silica interactions, in addition to pH value of the reaction medium, water content, and temperature. Mobil composition of matter (MCM)-41, and the Santa Barbara amorphous type material (SBA)-15 are the famous mesoporous silica nanoparticles that are synthesized by applying quaternary ammonium salts and Pluronic copolymer-based surfactants, respectively [27].
There are two common techniques to encapsulate the MNPs in mesoporous silica materials. First of all, in the way of an incipient wetness impregnation method dealing with the encapsulation of MNPs, a solution of the metal salt is exposed to a powder of mesoporous silica including the same pore volume as the volume of the metal salt solution. Then, the MNPs are transferred from the metal salt solution into the mesopores by utilizing the capillary force. Finally, the implementation of the calcination and reduction in H2 subsequently will pave the way to achieve a mesoporous silica matrix that encapsulates MNPs. In some cases of the incipient wetness impregnation procedures, electrostatic interactions are the main force to conduct the diffusion of MNPs through the meso-channels that can be implemented by modifying the mesopore surface by positively charged quaternary ammonium groups [2].
The other procedure is the participation of self-assembly of the MNPs and silica precursors with a surfactant-mediated condensation technique. Firstly, a dilution of the silica precursor is mixed with the aqueous ammonia including the CTAB surfactant molecules for initial nucleation and on the contrary of the core-shell silica architecture then the desired metal precursor is subsequently added to the mixture. Eventually, to achieve the desired mesoporous silica material, the surfactant can be eliminated by either calcination procedure at high temperatures (550°C) or a variety of chemical solutions, such as acidic ethanol or ammonia in ethanol/isopropanol. Although isopropanol, as a solvent for ammonium nitrate, can be utilized to extract the surfactant, it is able to save the well-order of the mesostructures and create a dramatic impact on the surface area and pore volume of mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Hence, not only there is not any essential tuning in the pore size or volume of the mesoporous silica nanoparticles, but also there is no noticeable change in the final particle size or pore sizes in the presence of the encapsulated MNPs in the siliceous frameworks that leads to uniform encapsulating of metals in mesoporous silica nanoparticles at the basic PH [2, 27].
Among the non-silica coating materials, titania is the most popular metal oxide. Despite the fact that TiO2 is utilized as a coating layer of MNPs in a wide range of catalysts, this combination has illustrated noticeable synergy in various catalytic reactions. The synthetic routes and precursors are the main effective agents to produce a specific architecture of yolk/core-shell. The encapsulation of MNPs in titania nano-shells is the outcome of the direct coating of TiO2 on them. Similar to the method of silica coating, sol–gel procedure is the major process of titania coating. Thus, through this method by applying titanium alkoxides like tetraisopropoxide (TTIP) in a nonaqueous solution while the existence of water, the TiO2 coating will be implemented. Due to titanium alkoxide hydrolyze in water immediately, applying chelating agents like acetylacetone, which is a chelating agent of titanium butoxide (TBOT), controlled hydrolysis can be provided that leads to fabricate a core-shell nanostructure with a stable coating of titania [2].
To develop stable yolk/core-shells of titania, utilizing appropriate precursors have a crucial role. As evidence, a chelated complex of titanium glycolate, which is formed by reacting titanium alkoxide with ethylene glycol and is much more stable than titanium alkoxide, can provide an outstanding precursor for the titania coating of MNPs that can undertake a very controllable sol–gel process to fabricate identical metal@TiO2 core-shell nanoparticles that are catalyzed by acetone. Moreover, this technique is applicable for a controlled coating of titania on small MNPs with a diameter from tiny sizes to 50 nm [2, 4]. Furthermore, to achieve a uniform and thin shell of titania that can be adjusted with the thickness ranging from 3 to 12 nm in the sol–gel process, an acid catalyst like citric acid to hydrolyze the TBOT at the presence of alcohol can be applied [2].
Another suitable precursor that can slow down the hydrolyze in water, titanium (IV) bis (ammonium lactate) dihydroxide (TALH), can provide the titania coating with shell thickness ranging from sub-50 nm on MNPs. Although the TALH in aqueous solutions at room temperature is stable, it can be hydrolyzed at high temperatures (approximately 65°C) that lead to control of the sol–gel process [2].
Although Zeng et al. [30] fabricated a yolk-shell nanostructure of the Au@TiO2 through the hydrolysis of TiF4 at high temperatures (180°C), the most popular pathway to obtain a metal/TiO2 yolk-shell nanostructure forms a coating layer of titania on metal/SiO2 composites, which the silica will be sacrificed [2]. The principal benefit of this procedure of MNPs encapsulation with titania at the presence of sacrificial silica is the easy formation on the contrary of the direct formation of titania nano-shell. In addition, owing to the chemical sympathy between the two oxides to achieve a suitable coating layer of TiO2, it is not essential to implement any rectification on the silica surface to set up the interactions between titanate species and silica. Despite this coating pathway being a successful process, to improve the coating of titania in this way, utilizing a surfactant such as hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) is presented that enhances the colloidal dispersion of silica nanoparticles [2].
Finally, similar to encapsulation of ultrasmall MNPs with silica nano-shells, titania coating will be conducted in the same way. First of all, in a reverse micelles system nanoparticles are formed and then a coating of silica on the nanoparticles at the presence of TEOS will be done and the last layer, which is titania, will be formed through applying TBOT. Eventually, the yolk-shell nano-capsule can be achieved by thermal reduction and etching of the silica templates [2].
Another metal oxide that attracted significant interest is cerium oxide. The presence of oxygen vacancies at the terminating of its planes is affected considerably on the adsorption of reactant molecules in the catalytic reactions by controlling the energetics of the surface interactions [31]. Despite the fact that the encapsulation of MNPs in CeO2 nano-shells tackle the sintering of MNPs, it provides strong metal-support interactions (SMSI) that lead to enhancing the stability and the performance of the catalysts at the series of catalytic oxidation reactions, particularly at high temperatures [2].
The core-shell nanoparticles of metal@CeO2 could be synthesized based on the self-assembly procedure by applying a supramolecular [2]. Gorte et al. [32] implemented this strategy by applying a capping ligand of a thiolate (11-mercaptoundecanoic acid, MUA) to fabricate Pd nanoparticles that are mixed in tetrahydrofuran (THF) [2]. The carboxylic groups of MUA conducted the self-assembly of the cerium (IV) alkoxides around the Pd nanoparticles directly by exchanging the alkoxy group on the Ce (IV) salt with the carboxylic group on the surface of the Pd nanoparticles as a result of the presence of the carboxylic group, which is a stronger ligand for Ce (IV) than the alkoxy group. Furthermore, various ranges of metal@CeO2 core-shell nanoparticles can be fabricated by controlling and designing precisely the effective parameters of the self-assembly strategy and the sol–gel process, particularly by utilizing the appropriate chelating agent. So, some of these chelating agents and their role in the encapsulation of MNPs by CeO2 yolk/core shells are presented as follows [2].
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is applied as a chelating agent that chelates Ce (III) salt. Although EDTA slows down the hydrolysis of the Ce3+ ions, due to the negative charges of the EDTA-Ce (III) complex, the electrostatic interactions between the Ce complex precursor and MNPs have a significant role in the self-assembly strategy [2]. Moreover, triethanolamine as a chelating agent to achieve a cerium-atrane precursor has exhibited its effect on fabricating the desired metal@CeO2 core-shell nanoparticles by adjusting the sol–gel kinetics. Another chelating agent for the CeO2 coating on MNPs is citric acid. It puts its effects by controlling the self-assembly way through conducting the adsorption of Ce3+ ions on the MNPs that were gradually oxidized to CeO2 nanoparticles [2].
Another principal approach to synthesize metal@CeO2 core-shell nanoparticles is the auto-redox strategy, which is based on the reduction of the high valence metal species and the oxidation of low-valence Ce (III) species. Some of metal@CeO2 core-shell nanoparticles that are synthesized by utilizing this mechanism depict a “rice-ball” shape-like Ag@CeO2. In addition, to encapsulate the ultrasmall MNPs and construct the uniform metal@CeO2 core-shell nanoparticles, the auto-redox strategy could be undertaken in a reverse micelle system. Furthermore, due to any surfactants not engaged in the auto-redox methods, multicore-shell nanospheres with a diameter larger than 85 nm could be formed. Although CeO2-encapsulated bimetallic MNPs can be formed by applying the auto-redox strategy, the self-assembly approach and the salting-out effect can be influenced the formation of these core-shell nanoparticles [2].
Another ideal encapsulation nanostructure with a hollow space between the metal core and the outer porous CeO2 shell is the yolk-shell architecture that has an effective impact on tackling the aggregation and sintering of tiny noble MNPs in catalytic reactions [2]. To implement this kind of encapsulation, a templating method should be conducted by coating a layer of silica firstly, and then the layer of CeO2 could participate on the MNPs through a sol–gel process. Eventually, the metal@SiO2@CeO2 nanospheres can be modified into multi-yolk-shell metal@CeO2 nanospheres by eliminating the silica template. In addition, through this process, multi-yolk-shell structured nano-catalysts can be formed, for instance, Pd@hm-CeO2, which is presented by Zheng et al. [2, 33]. Despite silica being the most popular sacrificial template, polystyrene (PS) fibers and resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) can be utilized as a removable template [2].
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) is a metal-based inorganic material that is presented as an insulator in some applications. Due to the chemical inert feature of ZrO2, it has outstanding resistance to acids and alkalis environments that convert it to crucial catalyst support at harsh reaction conditions. In addition, it has significant heat stability that is suitable for a high thermal catalytic reaction to encapsulate and support the MNPs. Although it has low thermal conductivity and is utilized as thermal barrier coatings, it has a high refractive index, which is well-suited for various optical applications [34].
Recently, zirconia as catalyst support, particularly in the encapsulation shape, attracts numerous interests. In most cases, MNPs are encapsulated in zirconia nano-shells in the form of yolk-shell [25, 35, 36, 37]. Similar to the other yolk-shell nano-catalysts, metal@ZrO2 yolk-shell can be synthesized which this catalyst with robust zirconia shells illustrates noticeable catalytic activity and outstanding anti-aggregation features during the time of the catalytic process and upon thermal treatment or reduction.
Apart from inorganic oxide shells, encapsulating MNPs in carbon nano-shells participated in numerous investigations. Although the core-shell nanostructures manufactured from inorganic oxide have noticeable advantages, in some conditions they illustrate some weaknesses, for instance, the dissolution of silica coatings at strong basic conditions. In contrast, carbon yolk/core-shells can tackle these difficulties and additionally demonstrate some outstanding specifications, such as high physical and chemical stability under harsh conditions, high surface area, tunable electronic structures, high electrical conductivity, good biocompatibility, and relatively low manufacturing costs. Therefore, they can be one of the best materials to encapsulate the MNPs [1, 2, 38]. With regard to the type of crystallinity of carbon shells, this section is allocated into metal @amorphous carbon and metal @graphitic carbon.
Metal @amorphous carbon can be fabricated by encapsulated MNPs through a polymer coating layer. Due to their low cost, rich chelating groups, and high compatibility with MNPs, these polymers are presented as leading carbon precursors that include resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) resin, tannic acid, and polydopamine (PDA) [2]. To fabricate a noticeable-performance M@carbon catalysts, carbon precursors should be utilized through a suitable controlled sol–gel process to provide the target coating layer and then carbonization should be implemented which the output would be a carbon shell with appropriate thickness and tunable pore structure. For instance, the carbon nano-shell with 63 wt% would be formed during the carbonization of the RF coating shell under an inert atmosphere [1, 2]. In addition, to adopt the congruity between the inorganic cores and the RF shells, it is essential to modify the surface with CTAB or 3-aminopropyltriethxoysilane (APS) in the coating process [2].
On the other hand, although conducting the coating process after synthesizing MNPs will be yielded a controllable shell, implementing this process through a one-pot in which the formation of MNPs and the polymer coating will be done in a single step leads to achieving a more convenient pathway to synthesis M@RF core-shell nanospheres in the absence of surfactants. Through this procedure first of all, MNPs are formed from metal salts by adding formaldehyde. Next in the presence of the other precursor, ammonia, the polymerization of the RF precursors on the surface of MNPs will be undertaken. The concentration of resorcinol and formaldehyde can control the size and thickness of the RF shells. Moreover, resorcinol can reduce the surface activity of MNPs and prevent them from aggregating. Eventually, M@carbon core-shell nanospheres with a wide range of metals can be obtained after carbonization [2].
Furthermore, impregnation is another principal approach to synthesizing encapsulated MNPs in amorphous carbon. Overall, in this method firstly metal ions could be adsorbed at the sites of amino groups in pre-synthesized mesoporous aminophenol formaldehyde (APF) nanospheres. To create hollow carbon shells which, encapsulate MNPs before conducting carbonization a mesoporous silica layer should be done. Moreover, yolk-shell structures with MNPs can be achieved by coating another layer of APF on the APF@SiO2 nanospheres. This mechanism is flexible and can be used to fabricate monometallic Au, Pt, Rh, and Ru and bimetallic Au-Pt, Au-Rh, and Pt-Rh nanoparticles [2]. What is more, some other sources of carbon such as D-glucose, saccharides including fructose and sucrose, and dopamine can be involved. Dopamine owing to its catechol and amine groups and the ability to self-polymerize on various substrates is considered as a remarkable carbon source, particularly in synthesizing yolk-shell structures containing MNPs in the yolk that encapsulated with carbon nano-shells [1, 2].
Although amorphous carbon represents significant specification in catalysis applications, graphitic carbon has further conductivity and stability, particularly in electrocatalysis. The high-temperature pyrolysis promotes the crystallization of carbon through the process of fabrication of MNPs encapsulated in graphitic carbon nano-shells (M@GC). One of the most common procedures to fabricate the M@GC is the pyrolysis of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) in an inert or reductive atmosphere directly. During the pyrolysis of MOFs which are the assembly of metal ions as nodes that are linked together through organic ligands as linkers, MNPs are achieved by the reduction of metal nodes, and then these MNPs can catalyze the generation and configuration of graphitic carbon from organic linkers on their surface. In addition, bimetallic alloy nanoparticles could be encapsulated in graphitic carbon through pre-encapsulating noble MNPs or metal salts in MOFs and subsequent pyrolysis [2].
Graphene is a solo layer of graphitic carbon atoms that bonded together in a honeycomb crystal lattice, which this unique structure intensifies its specifications much higher than the other carbon material and converts it to an outstanding material for encapsulating MNPs to improve their catalytic activities. As a result of diffusion restriction and chemical inertness of graphene to a various oxidizing gas, it conducts as a passivation layer to intercept some metal (Cu, Ni, etc.) from oxidation. Although the potential energy surface of graphene can transfer from 0.15 to 1 eV on various metal substrates (Ni, Co, etc.), the principal metal has an influential impact on the electronic structure of the graphene coating layer. The electronic specification of graphitic carbon can exhibit its critical role on the catalytic activity when the shell includes no more than three to four carbon layers. Hence, it is crucial to fabricate carbon encapsulated catalysts with a controllable number of graphene layers which one of the usable procedures is the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique [39].
Although through CVD techniques a thin film can be formed on the substrate surface which has a dramatic influence on the fabrication of carbon nano-shells, these methods have multistep synthesis processes, which lead to being complex, expensive, and difficult to implement large-scale commercialization. In addition, to achieve a graphene shell on MNPs through the CVD procedure, it is essential to provide a high temperature above 800°C, this condition may lead to melting the MNPs and gathering them together [39, 40]. Thus, it is essential to utilize a functional synthesis pathway that is presented by an arc-discharge method. Through this technique, MNPs encapsulated in graphene shells have large sizes and extensive distribution of particle sizes, in some cases empty carbon cages and CNTs were achieved simultaneously. To tackle this difficulty, applying a long pulse laser in methane or a mixture of methane and helium at room temperature are presented, the efficiency of this approach is the formation of an ordinary size of 5 nm and appropriate size distribution of 3–10 nm of core-shell structure M@GC [39, 40, 41].
On the other hand, the metal alloy can be encapsulated in highly nitrogen-doped graphene layers by one-step annealing under a nitrogen flow without adding any other carbon sources by utilizing bimetallic complexes with CN- group linkers in the form of metal–organic framework (MOF) precursors [39]. In addition, electrostatic interactions between negatively charged graphene oxide and positively charged metal oxide nanoparticles can be applied for encapsulating metal oxide in graphene shells, which this method can be followed by chemical reduction. First of all, amino propyl-trimethoxy silane (APS) paves the way for the metal oxide nanoparticles to exhibit an oxide surface positively charged. Then, electrostatic interactions put the modified metal oxide nanoparticles with negatively charged graphene oxide together. Eventually, the accumulation of them will chemically be reduced with hydrazine to gain the metal oxide nanoparticles encapsulated in graphene. Because this mechanism can provide all the applicable features, such as simplicity of operation, low cost, and optimal efficiency, it can be a functional strategy to produce a variety of graphene-encapsulated catalysts on a large scale [39, 40].
Zeolites are presented as highlight catalyst supports due to their highly crystalline, well-distributed pore structure and adjustable acidity. In general cases, the zeolite structure embodies TO4 tetrahedra (T defines Si, Al, and P, etc.). Due to adjusting the T-O-T linkage a wide range of zeolite structures can be formed via tuning the synthesis conditions such as the composition of the gel, the nature of the structure-directing agent (SDA), or the temperature [42, 43].
Although the catalytic activity of the catalysts often depends on the host nanoparticles, it can be modified by the zeolite framework features. In particular, the modification of local geometry around active sites which is derived from steric constraints affected by the size of zeolite cavities can effectively influence the reactivity of catalysts [43]. Zeolites based on the size of their pores can be classified into small, medium, large, and extra-large pores. The catalytic activities of zeolites deeply depend on the structural and compositional features, consisting of pore sizes, channel types, and framework compositions. In comparison with the other catalyst supports, zeolites are presented as a shape selective that can selectively interact with reactants, products, and transition-states that this attribute has a significant impact on the catalytic performance of zeolites [42]. Due to zeolites being composed of tetrahedrally [SiO4]4− and [AlO4]5− primary units, to balance the overall electric charge of the zeolitic skeleton, some free cations are accommodated into the channels of the 3D framework, which can be substituted by other cations. Al content in the zeolite framework has the main effect on the ion exchange capacity of zeolites when the cations of zeolites are exchanged by protons, zeolites conducted as solid Brønsted acid catalysts [44]. In addition, the existence of charges in the zeolite framework, as well as extra-framework cations, can have a significant impact on the electronic and redox properties of the encapsulated complex [43]. Despite the fact that zeolites can apply as a shell through the coating of MNPs with layers of zeolite, in some cases, the encapsulation of MNPs can operate in the regular cavities and nanochannels of zeolites [42]. Hence, the encapsulation of MNPs in zeolites is considered in two parts—yolk/core-shells and mesoporous structures.
In the approach of nanotechnology, zeolites can be utilized to make novel nanostructure synthetic materials, zeolite core-shell structured materials being the outstanding structure among them [45]. The capability to synthesize core-shell zeolite composites has depicted the principal importance of chemical adaptability and structural likeness between core and shell crystals, as well as their close crystallization conditions [46]. On one side, a core-shell structure of zeolite can be formed via crystal overgrowth in which an aluminum-free zeolite (core) was coated with aluminum-containing zeolite (shell). Fluoride ions as mineralizers can conduct the accomplished passivation of acid sites on the external surface to minimize the imperfections of the core-shell zeolite structure, so applying them is essential [47]. To increase the selectivity and catalytic activity of the core-shell zeolite with TON structure, a novel high silica zeolite, for skeletal isomerization of n-tetradecane, it is essential to break needle-like particles for the formation of new acid sites on the pore mouths of smaller broken particles since, the acid sites on the side surface of the needle-like particles, which principally catalyzed the cracking of alkanes, were passivated [47]. In addition, through utilizing the techniques of layer by layer self-assembly of polyelectrolyte the core-shell zeolite-zeolite composites consisting of single-crystal core and polycrystalline shells of various zeolite structure types can be fabricated. This approach occurs based on the coulombic forces that lead to enhancing the surface charge of the core particles by coating the layers of zeolite [45]. Moreover, core-shell structures of zeolites can perform as a multi-purpose catalyst that have several impacts in various functions simultaneously. For instance, the shape-selective attribute of zeolite shell provides this ability that a catalytically active nano/micro-sized core encapsulated with a thin selective zeolite shell can be potentially utilized as a tiny membrane reactor. To achieve this purpose, first of all, the catalytic active materials such as metal oxides will be replaced in the core. Then secondary growth will be conducted through a precursor solution to coat a layer of zeolite, subsequently, the growth of this layer can continue until a dense and well-intergrown zeolite shell is formed that can also play its role as a highly efficient zeolite membrane. Not only does this zeolite shell provide a prominent selective mass transfer between the encapsulated core and the extension, but also the participating catalytic reaction on the core can promote each of such zeolite core-shell structured particles into a tiny membrane reactor which can present appropriate potential in a wide range of reaction systems [45].
On the other hand, the other nano-shell catalyst structure of zeolite which can be pointed to it is the yolk-shell zeolite-based catalysts. This structure can be achieved by silica-zeolite core-shell materials. First of all, silica particles are partially dissolved under high pH conditions, then through controlling the recrystallization of the surface of silica spheres by the zeolite, new agglomerated zeolite nanocrystals can be formed which depict hollow capsules. MNPs prior to recrystallization can be located at the core [43]. Overall, to synthesize spherical hollow zeolitic structures should apply the sacrificial templates such as organic polymers or silica whose particles within the core can be removed in the final step respectively by calcination or etching [45].
Zeolites with a mesoporous matrix are a family of porous materials with an effective crystalline framework containing a finite number of well-defined and small cavities with sub-nanometer to 2 nm size. The most interesting attribute of their structures is the possibility to tune and choose the similar size of their micropores with the size of MNPs that would be encapsulated in them. In addition, it can intensify the catalytic selectivity due to enhance the efficiency of reactants and products diffusions [2]. Meanwhile, by encapsulating the MNPs inside the micropores of the zeolite framework they would be effectively enclosed through their interconnected cavities [42, 48]. Not only can mesoporous zeolites perform as an immobilize or stabilize framework to encapsulate the nanoparticle catalysts, but also they represent as a molecular sieve via molecular selecting with the proper size and shape or as a hybrid catalyst for transforming products formed firstly [43].
There are various procedures to implement the encapsulation of MNPs through the zeolite pores which are selected on the basis of nanoparticle size and their nature [43]. Although the formation of MNPs and the growth of zeolites are two parallel pathways, in most synthesis strategies both of them are simultaneously conducted in one process synthesis, due to the pore sizes of most zeolites being too small, less than 2 nm, which is not appropriate for directly encapsulating MNPs [1, 2]. Here some popular approaches to undertake the encapsulation of MNPs in zeolites are presented.
Hydrothermal synthesis strategy is a common procedure that is done under a thoroughly alkali condition. In this technique the metal precursor is directly added to the synthetic solution, to prevent premature reduction or precipitation of the metal salt through the crystallization of the zeolite, a mercaptosilane ligand like 3-mercaptopropyl tri-methoxy silane (MPTMS) should be applied into the hydrothermal synthetic system. Despite the mercapto groups supporting the metal precursors from reducing untimely through the alkaline synthetic solution, the other group of MPTMS that is alkoxysilane prepares an appropriate condition to fabricate crystalline frameworks with silicate and aluminate. Thus, the MPTMS paves the way to conduct the encapsulation of the MNPs in the mesoporous framework of zeolite monotonously. Eventually, the crystalline framework of metal precursor-zeolite which is gained by this procedure should be calcined in air to eliminate the organic agents and reduced in H2 to create novel MNPs through the micropores of zeolite. In addition, LTA-type zeolites including micropores with the approximate size of 0.41 nm are the appropriate option to encapsulate the MNPs through this hydrothermal synthesis strategy. To enhance this hydrothermal procedure with the highest efficiency (>90%) of zeolite-encapsulated MNPs, initially, alcohol is added to eques mixture of the mercaptosilane and metal salt, then a pre-hydrolyze at low temperature will be performed to achieve a uniform gel [2, 48].
Solvent-free crystallization is another popular strategy to encapsulate MNPs in mesoporous zeolites. By exposing a metal/silica/alumina hybrid in the vapor of water at a high temperature the solid-phase transformation of the amorphous silica and/or alumina into a crystalline zeolite that encapsulates MNPs is initiated. Furthermore, this synthesis method can provide a pathway to fully encapsulate the pre-synthesized MNPs inside the zeolite single crystals more reliably [2]. FAU- and MFI-type zeolites are the main mesoporous zeolite types that are applied for this procedure [2, 43]. In particular, Chen et al. [49] utilized nanocrystals of MFI-type zeolite (silicate-1 or S-1) in a strong alkaline environment. The outstanding feature that promoted the crystallization involved the Kirkendall effect which led to growing the pore size of mesoporous inside the S-1 crystals to around 3 nm and may impact on the enhancement of the mass transfer in catalytic applications [2].
The encapsulation of MNPs in zeolites can be involved in the seeded growth of zeolites on zeolite seeds that already include MNPs. This synthetic strategy is implemented in two steps—first of all, the impregnation of the zeolite seeds with a metal salt is implemented, then desiccated the mixture to achieve a dry powder, and next conducted the reduction process at a high temperature in H2 to convert the metal salts to the MNPs, eventually the achievement products are the zeolite seeds included the MNPs. In the second step, a hydrothermal system in the presence of aluminosilicate or silicate gels and the zeolite seeds including the MNPs are involved. Consequently, the encapsulation of MNPs such as Pt, Pd, Rh, and Ag in zeolites like MFI, MOR, and BEA, particularly at the interface between the zeolite seed and sheath could be effectively conducted. Moreover, a great core-sheath interface can enhance the loading amount of MNPs which can be obtained by employing a zeolite type with a high surface area when providing the metal-containing seeds through the synthesis process [2, 48].
Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are outstanding microporous materials including two major components: bridging organic linkers and inorganic secondary building units (SBUs) of metal ions or oxo-clusters (3d transition metals, 3p metals, or lanthanides). MOFs provide an exceptional combination of inorganic and organic components with synergistic interactions among them which create great usability for a myriad of purposes. These microporous materials are fabricated by gathering metal ions with organic ligands together in appropriate solvents often during a self-assembly strategy. In addition, the organic linkers are di-topic or polytopic organic ligands like carboxylate, nitrogen-donor groups, sulfonate, or phosphonate that are able to bind with metal-containing SBUs to form crystalline framework structures with open pores. Although MOFs present crystalline structures with dramatic large and uniform internal surface areas, their porosity and chemical features can adjust respectively by tuning the pore size and modifying the organic linkers according to our requirements on various catalytic applications. Moreover, the functional groups of organic ligands such as -NH2, -NO2, -SO3H, -Cl, and -OCH3 groups can be linked on the pore walls through the one-step assembly or post-synthetic modification which can impact on the catalytic performance. As a result, more than 20,000 MOFs with various compositions and topologies have been reported in recent decades. Meanwhile, metal nodes can present Lewis acidity features which are emerged by utilizing transition metals, additionally, they can engage in redox catalysis or support the progression of coupling reactions. Furthermore, metal nodes make various coordination positions by the participation of solvent molecules which can be eliminated through a thermal approach while saving their frameworks [50, 51, 52, 53].
Encapsulating guest particles into MOFs provides a wide range of potential for various applications, particularly in catalysis. A great number of particles can be encapsulated such as inorganic MNPs, coordination complexes, quantum dots, polyoxometalates, enzymes, and polymers through a pre- and post-synthetic strategy. In comparison with the other encapsulating materials, MOFs exhibit confinement effects and shape selectivity in a more effective route, and their synthesis conditions are more moderate. In addition, owing to the existence of a wide range of MOF structures, it is simple to adopt a suitable MOF as the encapsulating material. Hence, the encapsulation of MNPs in MOFs converts them to prominent catalysts that attract considerable attention, due to they present the unique attributes of MOFs alongside the chemical and physical properties of MNPs simultaneously. In addition, this combination of active nanoparticles and functional organic linkers of MOFs can facilitate the charge transfer interactions with active components by coordination or π···π forces, which lead to present a significant enhancement in their catalytic performances [50, 51, 52, 53]. The composites of nanoparticles encapsulated in MOFs can be fabricated through two main strategies—(1) stabilizing pre-synthesized nanoparticles in organic or inorganic agents as core and then enclosed in the shell of MOFs which generate a core-shell structure; (2) utilizing MOFs as mesoporous templates to encapsulate nanoparticles within their cavities [50].
Despite the outstanding attributes of the composites of nanoparticles encapsulated in MOFs being able to conduct the effective catalytic activity, some restricting issues still exist that should be noticed. First of all, the pores can be blocked by the encaged nanoparticles during their growth, thus restricting the diffusion of the reaction medium in the catalytic process. Secondly, the loading of guest particles is limited to them which are smaller than the pore dimensions. Furthermore, the other specifications of guest particles like shape and morphology may not have adequate adoption with the host cavities. Moreover, it is not possible to control the deposition of guests mostly and eventually the guest nanoparticles may leach in liquid phase. To tackle these difficulties, the core-shell encapsulation strategy is offered [53].
The core of a core-shell MOFs-based composite can consist of inorganic nanoparticles like metal oxides, carbon materials, and polymers or other MOFs which are encapsulated in a MOF shell. Although the shape, size, morphology, and composition of the core have a significant effect on the catalytic performance of the catalyst, this structure provides effective encapsulation due to the integration of chemical/physical properties of two distinct materials that lead to the synergetic effects. Recently, the yolk-shell or hollow structures attracted further attention because the properties of core-shell MOF-based architecture are optimized in this type of structure that presented added conductivity, hierarchical porosity, and effective diffusion. These structures can be achieved through a controllable etching of the core materials based on core-shell structures. Although carbonizing techniques at high temperature can destroy the MOFs, by employing this approach yolk-shell or hollow structures can be generated in which their porosity and active sites have been maintained [53].
Growth of MOFs on pre-synthesized MNPs is the main approach to encapsulate MNPs in shell of MOFs which are implemented in three main strategies that are presented in follow. Although the prominent benefit of this approach is the participation of MNPs with various sizes and shapes, the control of the assembly of metal-support interface is a noticeable attribute. In addition, the principal role in fabricating an appropriate core-shell MOFs-based composite in this strategy belongs to the consistency and conformity between the MNP core and the MOF shell [2].
First of all, the pre-synthesized core materials and capping agents/surfactants like PVP which is an amphiphilic nonionic polymer, are simultaneously provided earlier the growth of MOF shell around them due to prevent the aggregation of active NPs and/or the self-nucleation of MOF particles [53]. In addition, capping agents intensify the compatibility between the MNPs and the MOF shell. While PVP is the most popular capping agent for encapsulation of inorganic materials in MOFs, depending on the design process of core materials can be utilized the other type of surfactants like cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide (TTAB), cetylpyridinium bromide (CPB), and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). The CTAB is the optimal surfactant in terms of shape/overgrowth control, as well as PVP, owing to the sizes and shapes of the final composite can be adjusted by changing the growth time and the quantity of CTAB in solution. Overall, despite CAAS being a popular method due to the ability to control the shape, size, and chemical nature of the encapsulated core, the multiple steps of this method restricted its utilization [53].
In this method, firstly, the core material is coated by employing an inorganic material like SiO2 as binding sites for shell MOF, or metal oxide as the metal source for the shell MOF growth, and then synthesis of MOF will be implemented. Although in contrast CAAS procedure applying metal oxide prepare some advantages due to their act as metal source or protection of reactive nanoparticles in the core, there are some restrictions to fabricate wrapped nanoparticles owing to the shell MOF chemical stability will be endangered through the etching of the sacrificing metal oxide. Despite the fact that SiO2 can play as a useful protective layer, it can represent as a sacrificial layer to fabricate a yolk-shell structure by conducting selective etching of SiO2. In addition, in some cases, metal oxide/metal(0) nanoparticles have also been utilized as sacrificing agents to fabricate core-shell architectures [53].
EGS is a synthetic strategy to encapsulate MOF particles as a core with the second layer of MOF. In addition, in most cases, the shell MOF topology is similar to the core MOF and active nanoparticles would be placed at the interface of the two layers prior to the epitaxial growth. Overall, this approach leads to effective integration of MOFs because synergies of various MOFs properties are simultaneously presented by an exceptional composite of MOFs @MOFs. Despite this method presenting a wide range of similarities to the CASS strategy, it can enhance the diffusion of the reaction medium toward the active sites due to the ability to fabricate a super-thin shell with a thickness size less than 10 nm [53, 54].
Not only would MOFs provide a fully available pore space to optimize the diffusion of the reaction medium, but they also support the MNPs by enclosing them in their mesoporous matrix that increases the accessibility of active sites and enhances the catalytic activity [53]. Due to MOFs can play the role of host materials and be able to provide confined spaces for nucleation of MNPs, the encapsulation of MNPs into the cavities or channels of MOF matrix can be conducted by impregnating metal precursors in the pre-synthesized MOFs and subsequent reduction of the metal precursors in the micropores of MOFs [2]. Although the precise control of this encapsulation type of MNPs in MOFs seems to be difficult, the most effective pathway can be achieved by the double-solvent procedure prior to the reduction step. As a result of this double-solvent approach, the capillary force intensifies the mass transfer of metal precursors into the micropores of MOFs, which prevents from aggregation of MNPs and minimizes the dispersion of them on the outer surface of MOF [52].
The effective route to utilize noble metals (Pd, Ru, or Pt) in the MOFs-based catalysts is in the form of alloys with low-cost transition metals (Cu, Co, or Ni) owing to decreasing the essential amount of expensive noble metals during the catalyst’s fabrication. Furthermore, the atomic and electronic specifications of their structures can be adjusted which leads to improved catalyst activity. In this approach, firstly low-cost transition MNPs are impregnated in the pre-synthesized MOFs and then are reduced by NaBH4. In the next step, the salts of noble metals were exposed into a solution of MOF in which the galvanic replacement reaction with the transition MNPs with the help of an excitement process like sonication can be started. Finally, it leads to the fabrication of alloy nanoparticles like Co-Ru which is encapsulated in MOF [2, 55].
One of the most effective approaches of ultrasmall MNPs encapsulation with meticulously composed sizes in catalysts is the encapsulation of them in organic materials, which is presented in two parts as follows [2]:
Organic capsules, such as dendrimers, which are a family of hyperbranched polymers, have a spherical structure, which is compressed on the exterior and creates hollow space in the interior. By applying organic groups, such as tertiary amines, the interior cavity can be put into particular operation, such as interception of metal ions from the solution through encapsulating them. In addition, the dendrimers can provide a monodic encapsulation of MNPs due to form mono dispersing of them with appropriate adjustment of ultrasmall sizes. Not only can dendrimers operate as effective encapsulating materials owing to the consuming amount of them being approximately the same as the metal ions amount, but also they are able to present a stable form that is unchanged for some months. Thus, these specifications convert them as useful stabilizers in the catalytic process to prepare a monotonous dispersion of nano-catalysts particles with suitable stability [2].
Polyamidoamine (PAMAM) is the most used dendrimer for encapsulating the ultrasmall MNPs. Not only can dendrimers, particularly PAMAM, provide homogeneous catalysis, but an effectual mass transfer will also happen at their exterior surface that leads to a significant improvement in the catalytic activity of the ultrasmall MNPs. To present applicable heterogeneous catalysts of encapsulated ultrasmall MNPs in dendrimers, it seems essential to utilize mesoporous supports, such as silica. Not only do they supply high surface area, but also they prepare constructive enclosures to intensify the stabilization of ultrasmall MNPs in harsh catalytic processes. When applying the silica mesoporous matrix as support, the electrostatic interaction and hydrogen bonding between silica molecules and dendrimers enforce MNPs@ dendrimers into the mesopores of the silica matrix. Not only do these supported catalysts without removing the dendrimer present highlighted stability, selectivity, and activity in a range of catalysis processes, they illustrate adjustable catalytic specifications that are possible to alter in order to enhance the catalyst activity by modifying the active groups on dendrimers, for instance, the tertiary amines can improve the activity of the catalyst due to their electron enrichment attributes. In addition, the unique spatial morphology of dendrimers in the shape of tree may have a significant impact on the reaction substrate stability, including reactant molecules or intermediate species that can lead to decrement of the level of activation energy and improve the turnover frequency [2, 19, 56]. Furthermore, click dendrimers consist of a great ratio of triazole rings, are the other type of dendrimers that can be fabricated from the azide-alkyne cyclo addition. Their rings provide an appropriate situation to accomplish the encapsulation by adsorbing metal ions and grafting the MNPs. In addition, by adding triethylene glycol (TEG) termini to the click dendrimer convert them to an effective soluble one in aqueous solutions which are suitable to fabricate the encapsulation of ultrasmall monometallic or bimetallic like Pt-Co in water solution. Thus, the yield of catalyst performance in an aqueous solution will dramatically enhance [2].
POCs with intrinsic porosity have prominent attributes, such as high surface areas, shape durability, structural adjustability, and in particular including active practical groups in their cavities that lead them to encapsulate ultrasmall MNPs in an effective way. Moreover, POCs can exhibit either in a crystalline or an amorphous structure. Furthermore, the heterogeneous catalysts that are formed by encapsulating ultrasmall nanoparticles in these POCs would be homogenized in the solutions and have a significant influence on the enhancement of the performance of catalysts. Their specifications can be modified or developed through post-synthetic modification strategies, such as polymorph selection, modular co-crystallization, and the fabrication of composite materials. Not only does the cage wrapping significantly impact porosity, during this route by employing various crystalline polymorphs distinctive physical properties can be exhibited. In addition, to fabricate a cage in the correct form, at least it is essential to provide precursors with proper and precise geometry, for instance, a mild alter in bond angles of the precursors can lead to a distinct cage that might be in size and stoichiometry [2, 57, 58].
To fabricate POGs with polyhedral organic molecules, triamine is utilized to form the top and bottom prism that include a dialdehyde with a long alkyl chain and a thioether group at the three peripheral sides. Although the long alkyl chain provides a cage profoundly soluble in an oil phase due to thriving their hydrophobic properties, the thioether group leads the cage to adsorb the metal ions and prepare suitable sites to graft the MNPs. Therefore, these specifications develop POGs capability to utilize as promising catalysts, particularly in catalyzing organic reactions [2].
A very special thanks to Mohammadreza Joharkesh, who helped to depict schemes 1, and 2.
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With an increasing understanding of clay structure, montmorillonite is realized viable for an enhanced performance in a variety of materials and products in the areas of catalysis, food additive, antibacterial function, polymer, sorbent, etc. Significant development in the use and application of montmorillonite is seen in recent time. This chapter provides an overview of montmorillonite, structure, and properties and particularly discusses its recent utilization in important materials. Montmorillonite is introduced in terms of its natural sources, chemical structure, physical and chemical properties, and functional utilization. The important physical and chemical properties are summarized as particle and layered structure, molecular structure and cation exchange effect, barrier property, and water sorption. This is followed by the important functional utilizations of montmorillonite based on the effects of its chemical structure. The important functional utilization of montmorillonite includes food additive for health and stamina, for antibacterial activity against tooth and gum decay, as sorbent for nonionic, anionic, and cationic dyes, and the use as catalyst in organic synthesis. The environment concerns, to date, do not indicate the adversity for particles used as additive. Studies will be useful which are clearly based on any montmorillonite structure to describe environmental effects.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]},{id:"38850",doi:"10.5772/47790",title:"Clay Minerals from the Perspective of Oil and Gas Exploration",slug:"clay-minerals-from-the-perspective-of-oil-and-gas-exploration",totalDownloads:16109,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:null,book:{id:"2328",slug:"clay-minerals-in-nature-their-characterization-modification-and-application",title:"Clay Minerals in Nature",fullTitle:"Clay Minerals in Nature - Their Characterization, Modification and Application"},signatures:"Shu Jiang",authors:[{id:"138867",title:"Dr.",name:"Shu",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"shu-jiang",fullName:"Shu Jiang"}]},{id:"38859",doi:"10.5772/51237",title:"Vermiculite: Structural Properties and Examples of the Use",slug:"vermiculite-structural-properties-and-examples-of-the-use",totalDownloads:4803,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:null,book:{id:"2328",slug:"clay-minerals-in-nature-their-characterization-modification-and-application",title:"Clay Minerals in Nature",fullTitle:"Clay Minerals in Nature - Their Characterization, Modification and Application"},signatures:"Marta Valášková and Gražyna Simha Martynková",authors:[{id:"128173",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Valaskova",slug:"marta-valaskova",fullName:"Marta Valaskova"}]},{id:"38858",doi:"10.5772/50172",title:"Role of Clay Minerals in Chemical Evolution and the Origins of Life",slug:"role-of-clay-minerals-in-chemical-evolution-and-the-origin-of-life",totalDownloads:4774,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"2328",slug:"clay-minerals-in-nature-their-characterization-modification-and-application",title:"Clay Minerals in Nature",fullTitle:"Clay Minerals in Nature - Their Characterization, Modification and Application"},signatures:"Hideo Hashizume",authors:[{id:"142318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideo",middleName:null,surname:"Hashizume",slug:"hideo-hashizume",fullName:"Hideo Hashizume"}]},{id:"49766",doi:"10.5772/62082",title:"Charging Behavior of Clays and Clay Minerals in Aqueous Electrolyte Solutions — Experimental Methods for Measuring the Charge and Interpreting the Results",slug:"charging-behavior-of-clays-and-clay-minerals-in-aqueous-electrolyte-solutions-experimental-methods-f",totalDownloads:3140,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"We discuss the charging behavior of clays and clay minerals in aqueous electrolyte solutions. Clay platelets exhibit different charging mechanisms on the various surfaces they expose to the solution. Thus, the basal planes have a permanent charge that is typically considered to be independent of pH, whereas the edge surfaces exhibit the amphoteric behavior and pH-dependent charge that is typical of oxide minerals. Background electrolyte concentration and composition may affect these two different mechanisms of charging in different ways. To guide and to make use of these unique properties in technical application, it is necessary to understand the effects of the various master variables (i.e. pH and background salt composition and concentration). However, how to disentangle the various contributions to the charge that is macroscopically measurable via conventional approaches (i.e. electrokinetics, potentiometric titrations, etc.) remains a challenge. The problem is depicted by discussing in detail the literature data on kaolinite obtained with crystal face specificity. Some results from similar experiments on related substrates are also discussed. As an illustration of the complexity, we have carried out extensive potentiometric mass and electrolyte titrations on artificial clay samples (Na-, Ca-, and Mg-montmorillonite). A wide variety of salts was used, and it was found that the different electrolytes had different effects on the end point of mass titrations. In the case of a purified sample (i.e. no acid-base impurities), the end point of a mass titration (the plateau of pH achieved for the highest concentrations of solid), in principle, corresponds to the point of zero net proton and hydroxide consumption, at which in ideal systems, such as oxide minerals, the net proton surface charge density is zero. To such concentrated (dense) suspensions of clay particles, aliquots of salts can be added and the resulting pH indicates the specificity of a given salt for a given clay particle system. In the experimental data, some ambiguity remains, which calls for further detailed and comprehensive studies involving the application of all the available techniques to one system. Although, right now, the overall picture appears to be clear from a generic point of view (i.e. concerning the trends), clearly, in a quantitative sense, huge differences occur for nominally identical systems and only such a comprehensive study will allow to proof the current phenomenological picture and allow the next step to be taken to understand the fine details of the complex clay-electrolyte solution interfaces.",book:{id:"5073",slug:"clays-clay-minerals-and-ceramic-materials-based-on-clay-minerals",title:"Clays, Clay Minerals and Ceramic Materials Based on Clay Minerals",fullTitle:"Clays, Clay Minerals and Ceramic Materials Based on Clay Minerals"},signatures:"Tajana Preocanin, Ahmed Abdelmonem, Gilles Montavon and\nJohannes Luetzenkirchen",authors:[{id:"111676",title:"Prof.",name:"Tajana",middleName:null,surname:"Preocanin",slug:"tajana-preocanin",fullName:"Tajana Preocanin"},{id:"176270",title:"Dr.",name:"Johannes",middleName:null,surname:"Luetzenkirchen",slug:"johannes-luetzenkirchen",fullName:"Johannes Luetzenkirchen"},{id:"180461",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Abdelmonem",slug:"ahmed-abdelmonem",fullName:"Ahmed Abdelmonem"},{id:"180462",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilles",middleName:null,surname:"Montavon",slug:"gilles-montavon",fullName:"Gilles Montavon"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60931",title:"The Importance of Clay in Geotechnical Engineering",slug:"the-importance-of-clay-in-geotechnical-engineering",totalDownloads:5282,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Clay is a very important material in geotechnical engineering, because it is often observed in geotechnical engineering practice. Generally, this soil type has numerous problems due to its low strength, high compressibility and high level of volumetric changes. Clay needs to be improved before it can be used in road construction, dams, slurry walls, airports and waste landfills. Improved gradation, a reduction in plasticity and swelling potential, as well as an increase in strength and workability, generally improve the stability of clay. Clay is a fine-grained soil, but not all fine-grained soils are clay. Clay minerals are very electrochemically active; thus, they affect soil microstructures. Due to these characteristics, many important soil problems related to clay have been observed in the past, the importance of which is understood. In this chapter, the properties of clay, as well as the use of clay in geotechnical engineering and geotechnical studies on clay, are examined.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Nazile Ural",authors:[{id:"227767",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nazile",middleName:null,surname:"Ural",slug:"nazile-ural",fullName:"Nazile Ural"}]},{id:"61845",title:"Montmorillonite: An Introduction to Properties and Utilization",slug:"montmorillonite-an-introduction-to-properties-and-utilization",totalDownloads:5506,totalCrossrefCites:44,totalDimensionsCites:78,abstract:"Clay mineral is an important material available in nature. With an increasing understanding of clay structure, montmorillonite is realized viable for an enhanced performance in a variety of materials and products in the areas of catalysis, food additive, antibacterial function, polymer, sorbent, etc. Significant development in the use and application of montmorillonite is seen in recent time. This chapter provides an overview of montmorillonite, structure, and properties and particularly discusses its recent utilization in important materials. Montmorillonite is introduced in terms of its natural sources, chemical structure, physical and chemical properties, and functional utilization. The important physical and chemical properties are summarized as particle and layered structure, molecular structure and cation exchange effect, barrier property, and water sorption. This is followed by the important functional utilizations of montmorillonite based on the effects of its chemical structure. The important functional utilization of montmorillonite includes food additive for health and stamina, for antibacterial activity against tooth and gum decay, as sorbent for nonionic, anionic, and cationic dyes, and the use as catalyst in organic synthesis. The environment concerns, to date, do not indicate the adversity for particles used as additive. Studies will be useful which are clearly based on any montmorillonite structure to describe environmental effects.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]},{id:"49271",title:"Ceramic Materials Based on Clay Minerals in Cultural Heritage Study",slug:"ceramic-materials-based-on-clay-minerals-in-cultural-heritage-study",totalDownloads:3187,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The artifacts belonging to the ceramic heritage are mostly based on all clay types used by humans over the ages, because the sources of clays were easily available and people were interested to produce ceramics and pottery. This is the reason why the conservation of cultural heritage is of great concern. Ceramics (Greek κεράμιον Keramion) is a material obtained by shaping and firing clay. In the Romanian history, many ceramic pieces, of great diversity, have been discovered, and most of them are used in traditional households. Ceramic materials based on clay minerals in cultural heritage (ceramic heritage) involve techniques of characterization of raw materials and ceramic objects based on clays, discovered in different archaeological sites, leading to some results about the production technology, provenance, authentication, and historical appartenance on Romanian territory. The chemical composition of ancient ceramics and pigments decorating them, excavated from different Romanian archaeological sites, suggested a chemical composition of ceramic based on clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, and smectite), while the pigments belonging to them contained red pigments (hematite or ocher), manganese oxides (brown pigments), and magnetite or carbon of vegetable origin (black-pigmented layers).",book:{id:"5073",slug:"clays-clay-minerals-and-ceramic-materials-based-on-clay-minerals",title:"Clays, Clay Minerals and Ceramic Materials Based on Clay Minerals",fullTitle:"Clays, Clay Minerals and Ceramic Materials Based on Clay Minerals"},signatures:"Rodica-Mariana Ion, Radu-Claudiu Fierăscu, Sofia Teodorescu, Irina\nFierăscu, Ioana-Raluca Bunghez, Daniela Ţurcanu-Caruţiu and\nMihaela-Lucia Ion",authors:[{id:"137269",title:"Dr.",name:"Radu Claudiu",middleName:null,surname:"Fierascu",slug:"radu-claudiu-fierascu",fullName:"Radu Claudiu Fierascu"},{id:"171504",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodica-Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Ion",slug:"rodica-mariana-ion",fullName:"Rodica-Mariana Ion"},{id:"176479",title:"Dr.",name:"Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Teodorescu",slug:"sofia-teodorescu",fullName:"Sofia Teodorescu"},{id:"176480",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Fierascu",slug:"irina-fierascu",fullName:"Irina Fierascu"},{id:"176481",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioana Raluca",middleName:null,surname:"Bunghez",slug:"ioana-raluca-bunghez",fullName:"Ioana Raluca Bunghez"},{id:"176482",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Turcanu-Carutiu",slug:"daniela-turcanu-carutiu",fullName:"Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu"},{id:"176483",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela-Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Ion",slug:"mihaela-lucia-ion",fullName:"Mihaela-Lucia Ion"}]},{id:"62742",title:"Development of Clay Nanoparticles Toward Bio and Medical Applications",slug:"development-of-clay-nanoparticles-toward-bio-and-medical-applications",totalDownloads:1963,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Clay nanoparticles are among the most applicable and cost-affordable materials, all of which have a variety of applications in case of medical science. In this chapter, key characteristics of the clay nanoparticles along with their major groups, structure, morphology, and physicochemical properties were evaluated. Thereafter, the applications of clay nanoparticles in the field of nanocomposite, polymeric matrices, and medicine were investigated, while specimen production procedures were also reviewed. The main focus of this chapter is to investigate the applications of clay nanoparticles in bio- and medical science. In fact, organically modified clay nanoparticles (organoclays) are an attractive class of hybrid organic–inorganic nanomaterials with potential applications in case of polymer nanocomposites, rheological properties modification, and drug delivery carrier.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Seyyed Mojtaba Mousavi, Seyyed Alireza Hashemi, Sarvenaz Salahi,\nMojgan Hosseini, Ali Mohammad Amani and Aziz Babapoor",authors:[{id:"208535",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Seyyed Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Hashemi",slug:"seyyed-alireza-hashemi",fullName:"Seyyed Alireza Hashemi"},{id:"217960",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Mousavi",slug:"seyyed-mojtaba-mousavi",fullName:"Seyyed Mojtaba Mousavi"},{id:"217961",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Amani",slug:"ali-mohammad-amani",fullName:"Ali Mohammad Amani"}]},{id:"38850",title:"Clay Minerals from the Perspective of Oil and Gas Exploration",slug:"clay-minerals-from-the-perspective-of-oil-and-gas-exploration",totalDownloads:16117,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:null,book:{id:"2328",slug:"clay-minerals-in-nature-their-characterization-modification-and-application",title:"Clay Minerals in Nature",fullTitle:"Clay Minerals in Nature - Their Characterization, Modification and Application"},signatures:"Shu Jiang",authors:[{id:"138867",title:"Dr.",name:"Shu",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"shu-jiang",fullName:"Shu Jiang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"669",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 1st, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA and her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). 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She is a member of the Coordination and Scientific Committees of the doctoral program “Tropical Knowledge and Management” (NOVA), Master in Biotechnology (UEM), and Master in Conservation Biology (GNP); and a national expert for Food and Nutrition Security and Sustainable Agriculture - High-Level Policy Dialogue EU-Africa. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. 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She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. Mothupi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"337613",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tshakane",middleName:null,surname:"R.M.D. Ralephenya",slug:"tshakane-r.m.d.-ralephenya",fullName:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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