Current CO2 pipelines. The first long distance CO2 pipeline was in the 1970s. Main utilisation of the natural & anthropogenic CO2 is EOR activities [8].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"},{slug:"suf-and-intechopen-announce-collaboration-20200331",title:"SUF and IntechOpen Announce Collaboration"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3500",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mechanism of Sedimentary Basin Formation - Multidisciplinary Approach on Active Plate Margins",title:"Mechanism of Sedimentary Basin Formation",subtitle:"Multidisciplinary Approach on Active Plate Margins",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is devoted to the mechanisms of sedimentary basin formation on active plate margins, which show enormous diversity reflecting complex tectonic processes. Multidisciplinary approach pursuing basin-forming mechanism is based on geology, sedimentology, geochronology and geophysics. Some chapters are dedicated to the genetic analysis of sedimentary basins in wrench deformation zones in forearc and intra-arc regions. Another block of chapters deals with basin formation in peripheral regions of Eurasia and intra-arc / foreland basins under the influence of the fluctuation of stress regimes. Finally geophysical approaches to basin analyses are shown in some chapters from microscopic to regional scales. Diverse contents of the chapters provide the audience with the present accomplishments of basin researches on active margins by Earth scientists.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1193-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5046-6",doi:"10.5772/50016",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"mechanism-of-sedimentary-basin-formation-multidisciplinary-approach-on-active-plate-margins",numberOfPages:318,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"2fd3f21dd336e27a0dd0eb68d6165921",bookSignature:"Yasuto Itoh",publishedDate:"August 28th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3500.jpg",numberOfDownloads:37875,numberOfWosCitations:42,numberOfCrossrefCitations:50,numberOfDimensionsCitations:105,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:197,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 29th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 29th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 31st 2013",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 17th 2013",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 9th 2013",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"46893",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuto",middleName:null,surname:"Itoh",slug:"yasuto-itoh",fullName:"Yasuto Itoh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/46893/images/system/46893.jpg",biography:"Yasuto Itoh was born in Osaka. He received his PhD degree in Kyoto University. Now, he is a professor of the Graduate School of Science of Osaka Prefecture University. He conducts wide-range research into tectonics, stratigraphy, and paleomagnetism and has published more than 100 papers in the field of back-arc opening process, deformation mode of convergent plate margins, quantitative assessment of active faults, paleoenvironment of East Asia, and geochemical modeling of burial history of sedimentary basins. His professional memberships include the American Geophysical Union, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Japan Geoscience Union, and Japanese Association for Petroleum Technology. He is also a member of the Integrated Research Project for Active Fault Systems by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Japan.",institutionString:"Osaka Prefecture University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"12",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Osaka Prefecture University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"668",title:"Sedimentary Basin",slug:"sedimentary-basin"}],chapters:[{id:"45453",title:"Characteristic Basin Formation at Terminations of a Large Transcurrent Fault — Basin Configuration Based on Gravity and Geomagnetic Data",doi:"10.5772/56702",slug:"characteristic-basin-formation-at-terminations-of-a-large-transcurrent-fault-basin-configuration-bas",totalDownloads:3396,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Yasuto Itoh, Shigekazu Kusumoto and Keiji Takemura\nVI Contents",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45453",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45453",authors:[{id:"46893",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuto",surname:"Itoh",slug:"yasuto-itoh",fullName:"Yasuto Itoh"}],corrections:null},{id:"45342",title:"Strike-Slip Basin – Its Configuration and Sedimentary Facies",doi:"10.5772/56593",slug:"strike-slip-basin-its-configuration-and-sedimentary-facies",totalDownloads:6626,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,signatures:"Atsushi Noda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45342",authors:[{id:"161716",title:"Dr.",name:"Atsushi",surname:"Noda",slug:"atsushi-noda",fullName:"Atsushi Noda"}],corrections:null},{id:"45498",title:"East Asia-Wide Flat Slab Subduction and Jurassic Synorogenic Basin Evolution in West Korea",doi:"10.5772/56770",slug:"east-asia-wide-flat-slab-subduction-and-jurassic-synorogenic-basin-evolution-in-west-korea",totalDownloads:2954,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,signatures:"Kosuke Egawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45498",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45498",authors:[{id:"162584",title:"Dr.",name:"Kosuke",surname:"Egawa",slug:"kosuke-egawa",fullName:"Kosuke Egawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"45500",title:"Early Continental Rift Basin Stratigraphy, Depositional Facies and Tectonics in Volcaniclastic System: Examples from the Miocene Successions Along the Japan Sea and in the East African Rift Valley (Kenya)",doi:"10.5772/56804",slug:"early-continental-rift-basin-stratigraphy-depositional-facies-and-tectonics-in-volcaniclastic-system",totalDownloads:3315,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,signatures:"Tetsuya Sakai, Mototaka Saneyoshi, Yoshihiro Sawada, Masato\nNakatsukasa, Yutaka Kunimtatsu and Emma Mbua",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45500",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45500",authors:[{id:"167627",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsuya",surname:"Sakai",slug:"tetsuya-sakai",fullName:"Tetsuya Sakai"},{id:"168875",title:"Prof.",name:"Mototaka",surname:"Saneyoshi",slug:"mototaka-saneyoshi",fullName:"Mototaka Saneyoshi"},{id:"168876",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshihiro",surname:"Sawada",slug:"yoshihiro-sawada",fullName:"Yoshihiro Sawada"},{id:"168877",title:"Prof.",name:"Masato",surname:"Nakatsukasa",slug:"masato-nakatsukasa",fullName:"Masato Nakatsukasa"},{id:"168878",title:"Prof.",name:"Yutaka",surname:"Kunimatsu",slug:"yutaka-kunimatsu",fullName:"Yutaka Kunimatsu"},{id:"168879",title:"Dr.",name:"Emma",surname:"Mbua",slug:"emma-mbua",fullName:"Emma Mbua"}],corrections:null},{id:"45499",title:"Tectonic Process of the Sedimentary Basin Formation and Evolution in the Late Cenozoic Arc-Arc Collision Zone, Central Japan",doi:"10.5772/56805",slug:"tectonic-process-of-the-sedimentary-basin-formation-and-evolution-in-the-late-cenozoic-arc-arc-colli",totalDownloads:3280,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Akira Takeuchi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45499",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45499",authors:[{id:"164278",title:"Prof.",name:"Akira",surname:"Takeuchi",slug:"akira-takeuchi",fullName:"Akira Takeuchi"}],corrections:null},{id:"45402",title:"Foreland Basins at the Miocene Arc-Arc Junction, Central Hokkaido, Northern Japan",doi:"10.5772/56748",slug:"foreland-basins-at-the-miocene-arc-arc-junction-central-hokkaido-northern-japan",totalDownloads:2229,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Gentaro Kawakami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45402",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45402",authors:[{id:"162858",title:"Dr.",name:"Gentaro",surname:"Kawakami",slug:"gentaro-kawakami",fullName:"Gentaro Kawakami"}],corrections:null},{id:"45449",title:"Late Cenozoic Tectonic Events and Intra-Arc Basin Development in Northeast Japan",doi:"10.5772/56706",slug:"late-cenozoic-tectonic-events-and-intra-arc-basin-development-in-northeast-japan",totalDownloads:2590,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:17,signatures:"Takeshi Nakajima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45449",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45449",authors:[{id:"161971",title:"Dr.",name:"Takeshi",surname:"Nakajima",slug:"takeshi-nakajima",fullName:"Takeshi Nakajima"}],corrections:null},{id:"45304",title:"Neotectonic Intra-Arc Basins Within Southwest Japan — Conspicuous Basin-Forming Process Related to Differential Motion of Crustal Blocks",doi:"10.5772/56588",slug:"neotectonic-intra-arc-basins-within-southwest-japan-conspicuous-basin-forming-process-related-to-dif",totalDownloads:2438,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Yasuto Itoh, Keiji Takemura and Shigekazu Kusumoto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45304",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45304",authors:[{id:"46893",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuto",surname:"Itoh",slug:"yasuto-itoh",fullName:"Yasuto Itoh"}],corrections:null},{id:"45340",title:"Tectonic Basin Formation in and Around Lake Biwa, Central Japan",doi:"10.5772/56667",slug:"tectonic-basin-formation-in-and-around-lake-biwa-central-japan",totalDownloads:2547,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Keiji Takemura, Tsuyoshi Haraguchi, Shigekazu Kusumoto and\nYasuto Itoh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45340",authors:[{id:"167628",title:"Dr.",name:"Keiji",surname:"Takemura",slug:"keiji-takemura",fullName:"Keiji Takemura"}],corrections:null},{id:"45213",title:"Rock Magnetic Properties of Sedimentary Rocks in Central Hokkaido — Insights into Sedimentary and Tectonic Processes on an Active Margin",doi:"10.5772/56650",slug:"rock-magnetic-properties-of-sedimentary-rocks-in-central-hokkaido-insights-into-sedimentary-and-tect",totalDownloads:1816,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Yasuto Itoh, Machiko Tamaki and Osamu Takano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45213",authors:[{id:"46893",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuto",surname:"Itoh",slug:"yasuto-itoh",fullName:"Yasuto Itoh"},{id:"161720",title:"Dr.",name:"Osamu",surname:"Takano",slug:"osamu-takano",fullName:"Osamu Takano"},{id:"169106",title:"Dr.",name:"Machiko",surname:"Tamaki",slug:"machiko-tamaki",fullName:"Machiko Tamaki"}],corrections:null},{id:"45477",title:"Variation in Forearc Basin Configuration and Basin-filling Depositional Systems as a Function of Trench Slope Break Development and Strike-Slip Movement: Examples from the Cenozoic Ishikari–Sanriku-Oki and Tokai-Oki–Kumano-Nada Forearc Basins, Japan",doi:"10.5772/56751",slug:"variation-in-forearc-basin-configuration-and-basin-filling-depositional-systems-as-a-function-of-tre",totalDownloads:4478,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:32,signatures:"Osamu Takano, Yasuto Itoh and Shigekazu Kusumoto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45477",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45477",authors:[{id:"46893",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuto",surname:"Itoh",slug:"yasuto-itoh",fullName:"Yasuto Itoh"},{id:"161720",title:"Dr.",name:"Osamu",surname:"Takano",slug:"osamu-takano",fullName:"Osamu Takano"},{id:"51974",title:"Dr.",name:"Shigekazu",surname:"Kusumoto",slug:"shigekazu-kusumoto",fullName:"Shigekazu Kusumoto"}],corrections:null},{id:"45448",title:"Numerical Modeling of Sedimentary Basin Formation at the Termination of Lateral Faults in a Tectonic Region where Fault Propagation has Occurred",doi:"10.5772/56558",slug:"numerical-modeling-of-sedimentary-basin-formation-at-the-termination-of-lateral-faults-in-a-tectonic",totalDownloads:2208,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,signatures:"Shigekazu Kusumoto, Yasuto Itoh, Osamu Takano and Machiko\nTamaki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/45448",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/45448",authors:[{id:"46893",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuto",surname:"Itoh",slug:"yasuto-itoh",fullName:"Yasuto Itoh"},{id:"161720",title:"Dr.",name:"Osamu",surname:"Takano",slug:"osamu-takano",fullName:"Osamu Takano"},{id:"169106",title:"Dr.",name:"Machiko",surname:"Tamaki",slug:"machiko-tamaki",fullName:"Machiko Tamaki"},{id:"51974",title:"Dr.",name:"Shigekazu",surname:"Kusumoto",slug:"shigekazu-kusumoto",fullName:"Shigekazu Kusumoto"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5690",title:"Dynamics of Arc Migration and Amalgamation",subtitle:"Architectural Examples from the NW Pacific Margin",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fd5d7ea19c6bceff9299bb14d167d3a8",slug:"dynamics-of-arc-migration-and-amalgamation-architectural-examples-from-the-nw-pacific-margin",bookSignature:"Yasuto Itoh, Osamu Takano, Reishi Takashima, Hiroshi Nishi and Takeyoshi Yoshida",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5690.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"46893",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuto",surname:"Itoh",slug:"yasuto-itoh",fullName:"Yasuto Itoh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"5615",title:"Evolutionary Models of Convergent Margins",subtitle:"Origin of Their Diversity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"315039e7d089e246a15380d9be8faab2",slug:"evolutionary-models-of-convergent-margins-origin-of-their-diversity",bookSignature:"Yasuto Itoh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5615.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"46893",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuto",surname:"Itoh",slug:"yasuto-itoh",fullName:"Yasuto Itoh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66301",slug:"corrigendum-to-denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",title:"Corrigendum to: Denim Fabrics Woven with Dual Core-Spun Yarns",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66301.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66301",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66301",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66301",chapter:{id:"63209",slug:"denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",signatures:"Osman Babaarslan, Esin Sarioğlu, Halil İbrahim Çelik and Münevver\nArtek Avci",dateSubmitted:"February 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 13th 2019",book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",email:"teksob@cu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178353",title:"Dr.",name:"Halil",middleName:"İbrahim",surname:"Çelik",fullName:"Halil Çelik",slug:"halil-celik",email:"hcelik@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"216179",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Sarıoğlu",fullName:"Esin Sarıoğlu",slug:"esin-sarioglu",email:"sarioglu@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"245674",title:"Mrs.",name:"Münevver",middleName:null,surname:"Ertek Avci",fullName:"Münevver Ertek Avci",slug:"munevver-ertek-avci",email:"Munevver.ErtekAvci@calikdenim.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63209",slug:"denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",signatures:"Osman Babaarslan, Esin Sarioğlu, Halil İbrahim Çelik and Münevver\nArtek Avci",dateSubmitted:"February 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 13th 2019",book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",email:"teksob@cu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178353",title:"Dr.",name:"Halil",middleName:"İbrahim",surname:"Çelik",fullName:"Halil Çelik",slug:"halil-celik",email:"hcelik@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"216179",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Sarıoğlu",fullName:"Esin Sarıoğlu",slug:"esin-sarioglu",email:"sarioglu@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"245674",title:"Mrs.",name:"Münevver",middleName:null,surname:"Ertek Avci",fullName:"Münevver Ertek Avci",slug:"munevver-ertek-avci",email:"Munevver.ErtekAvci@calikdenim.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8807",leadTitle:null,title:"Organic Synthesis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tOrganic synthesis has always been one of the central topics of research for the scientific community in the academic laboratories and industrial world. Many striking journal articles and remarkable reviews and books have been published in the past year describing the practicability and applications of the subject demonstrating the importance of organic synthesis. In the present book, we will be putting together the topics in organic synthesis which may include but not limited to, (1) the basic terms and concepts, (2) various organic reactions including reduction, oxidation, addition, elimination, rearrangements, and cycloadditions, (3) Total Synthesis of Natural products, (4) transition metal catalysts, organocatalysts, enzymes and biotransformations, (5) applications in medicinal chemistry and drug design and development, (6) purification methods and characterization techniques, etc. To set a limit and to increase the scope of the book, author(s) are encouraged to send the chapters that include selected examples with practical applications and good yielding reactions reported within the past decade. Older topics with significant findings or their essence to prepare the foundation may be included in the chapter are welcomed as well.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3bbbd989d0896f142d317ccb8abcc35",bookSignature:"Dr. Prashant S Deore",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8807.jpg",keywords:"Natural Product Synthesis, Organic Reaction Mechanism, Stereoselective synthesis, Chirality, C-H Functionalization, Cross-Coupling Reactions, Heterogeneous Catalysis, Homogeneous Catalysis, Green Synthesis, Green Solvents and Reagents, Bioorganic synthesis, Click Chemistry",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"December 10th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 14th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 15th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 20th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 19th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"251769",title:"Dr.",name:"Prashant",middleName:"S",surname:"Deore",slug:"prashant-deore",fullName:"Prashant Deore",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251769/images/system/251769.png",biography:"Dr. Prashant S. Deore was born in India. He received a Master’s degree in organic chemistry from Pune University in 2007. In the same year, he qualified with the SET and CSIR-NET (JRF) and joined in the group of Prof. Narshinha P. Argade for the doctoral studies in National Chemical Laboratory, India. In 2014, he awarded with a Ph. D. in Chemistry and was a recipient of the 2nd prize in “2014 Eli Lilly and Company Asia Outstanding Thesis Awards”. In July 2014 he moved to Canada and joined as a postdoctoral researcher in the group of Prof. Richard Manderville at the University of Guelph, Canada. Presently, Dr. Deore is working on the collaborative project between the University of Guelph and Aterica health Inc., and providing consulting to the company. His research interest includes organic synthesis, fluorescent probes development, nucleic acid synthesis and modifications, and aptasensor development for proteins and food toxins.",institutionString:"University of Guelph",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270935",firstName:"Rozmari",lastName:"Marijan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270935/images/7974_n.png",email:"rozmari@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50153",title:"Greenhouse Gas Emissions – Carbon Capture, Storage and Utilisation",doi:"10.5772/63154",slug:"greenhouse-gas-emissions-carbon-capture-storage-and-utilisation",body:'The Fifth Assessment Report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change states that human influence on the climate system is clear [1]. The CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is continuously growing. The latest value is 402.52 ppm (January 2016, Mauna Loa Observatory), which is 2 pmm higher than the value registered in January 2015 [1].
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a way of ‘decarbonising’ fossil fuel power generation. It involves capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted from high-producing sources, transporting it and storing it in secure geological formations deep underground, to mitigate the effect of greenhouse emissions on climate change [2].
The transported CO2 can also be reused in processes such as enhanced oil recovery (EOR) or in the chemical industry, a process sometimes known as carbon capture and utilisation (CCU). CCS can be applied to fossil fuel power plants (coal and gas-fired power stations) and to industrial CO2-emitting sources such as oil refineries or cement, chemical and steel plants. Rather than being a single technology, CCS is a suite of technologies and processes. While some of these have been operated successfully for decades, progress in applying large-scale CCS to power generation globally has been slow (Figure 1).
Shares of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) and world CO2 emissions from fuel combustion by fuel (Mt of CO2) [3, 4].
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is likely to be a crucial part of the least-cost path to decarbonisation. It can provide a back-up role for variable renewables and help to manage swings in demand. CCS also has a crucial role in decarbonising heavy industry where there are limited options, and in the longer term would help to maximise the emission reduction obtained from scarce supplies of sustainable bioenergy as well as opening up other decarbonisation pathways.
The European Commission has also emphasised that ‘CCS may be the only option available to reduce direct emission from industrial processes at the large scale needed in the longer term’.
In this chapter, authors review the carbon capture, storage technology (including the CO2 transport through pipeline), and CO2 utilisation technologies.
This process consists of the separation of CO2 from flue gas produced during the combustion of fossil fuels and can be applied to large flue gas stationary sources as thermal power stations and industrial processes.
Current CO2 capture technology (first generation) is adapted from gas separation processes already in industrial use. There are several technologies and strategies to capture CO2 from stationary sources: pre-combustion, post-combustion and oxy-fuel (Figure 2).
Summary of CO2 capture technologies (adapted from IPCC) [2].
Post-combustion capture follows the conventional application of a specific purification unit applied for a particular pollutant removal (CO2 in this case). Figure 3 illustrates a typical block diagram of the post-combustion process that offers a great feasibility and versatility in terms of operating conditions and process integration.
Simplified scheme of a fossil-fuel power plant using a post-combustion capture unit [5].
CO2 concentration in the flue gas from a combustion process varies from 4 to14% in natural gas and coal-power plants, while other industries such as cement, iron and steel and petrochemical produce flue gas ranging between 14 and 33%. The key drawbacks hindering the large-scale implementation of this technology lies in the large volume of gas that should be treated and the low CO2 concentration of the flue together with high energy requirements, mainly related to CO2 desorption process. The presence of large amounts of dust, O2, SOx, NOx and trace pollutants such as Hg and the relatively high temperature of the flue gas, typically between 120 and 180°C, are also design challenges that have significant impact on the capture costs.
The technologies currently available for post-combustion capture are classified into five main groups: absorption, adsorption, cryogenics, membranes and biological separation. The most mature and closest to market technology and so, the representative of first generation of post-combustion options, is capture absorption from amines.
Post-combustion capture using chemical absorption by aqueous alkaline amine solutions has been used for CO2 and H2S removal from gas-treating plants for decades [6]. Amines react rapidly, selectively and reversibly with CO2 and can be applied at low CO2 partial pressure conditions. Amines are volatile, cheap and safe in handling. They show several disadvantages as they are also corrosive and require the use of resistant materials. Furthermore, amines form stable salts in the presence of O2, SOX and other impurities such as particles, HCl, HF and organic and inorganic Hg trace compounds that extremely constrain the content of those compounds in the treated gas.
The most widely used amine is monoethanolamine (MEA), which is considered as a benchmark solvent because of its high cyclic capacity, significant absorption-stripping kinetic rates at low CO2 concentration and high solubility in water. Some other amine-based solvents such as diethanolamine (DEA), triethanolamine (TEA), diglycolamine (DGA), N-methyldiethanolamine (MDEA), piperazine (PZ), 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP) and N-(2-aminoethyl)piperazine (AEP) have also traditionally been utilised.
A typical chemical absorption scheme is shown in Figure 4. A low CO2 concentrated flue gas is introduced in the absorber in crosscurrent with lean solvent from the stripper at 50–55°C and ambient pressure. CO2 reacts with amines in the absorber according to the overall reaction:
As CO2 is absorbed, rich amine from the absorber bottom is fed into a cross-exchanger with lean amine before it is introduced into the stripper. The stripping temperature varies between 120 and 150°C, and the operating pressure reaches up to 5 bar. A water saturated CO2 stream is released from the top and is subsequently ready for transport and storage, while lean amine leaving the stripper is pumped back into the absorber.
Diagram of a conventional CO2 capture process using amine-based chemical absorption.
The high energy penalty related to amines regeneration (a high-intensive energy process because of the stripper operating conditions and solvent used) and solvent degradation are the issues most hindering a large deployment of this technology.
In pre-combustion CO2 capture, CO2 separation occurs prior to fuel combustion and power generation (Figure 5). The fuel reacts at high temperature and pressure with either oxygen or/and steam under sub-stoichiometric conditions, and thereby a gas stream primarily composed of CO and H2 is obtained. This CO/H2 gas mixture is commonly known as synthesis gas or syngas.
In general, steam is utilised in case fuel is solid, namely gasification, whereas sub-stoichiometric oxygen is used with liquid and gaseous fuels. Both reactions occur at elevated temperature (1,400°C) and pressure (3–7 Mpa), as seen in Equations 2 and 3.
Steam reforming:
Partial oxidation:
Steam reforming needs a secondary fuel to provide the energy supply necessary for the reaction that occurs and a catalysts to improve the kinetic of this process. In Equation (3), the primary fuel is partially oxidised by a limited amount of oxygen. Partial oxidation produces less H2 per fuel unit than stream reforming, but the kinetic reaction is faster, it requires smaller reactors and neither catalyst nor energy supply from a secondary fuel.
Once particulate matter is removed, the syngas passes through a two stages catalytic reactor, where CO reacts with steam to produce CO2 and further yield H2: water-gas-shift (WGS) reaction.
WGS reaction:
The syngas resulted is mainly composed of CO2, ranging from 15 to 40%v/v, and H2 at elevated pressure from which CO2 can be easily separated by a physical absorption mechanism and then CO2 can be easily released by simply dropping pressure.
Before the syngas from WGS reactor is separated into its primary components, the sulphur compounds, mainly in COS and H2S form, are removed to avoid its emission to the atmosphere. Sulphur is then recovered in either as solid in a Claus plant or as sulphuric acid.
The sulphur-free syngas has a high CO2 concentration and an elevated pressure (2–7 MPa), thus making physical absorption highly recommended for CO2 separation, although adsorption process such as pressure swing adsorption (PSA) is also utilised.
The remaining nearly pure H2 stream could be burned in a combined cycle power plant to generate electricity, but H2 turbines require further development. Power fuel cells and transportation fuels are alternative options for using H2 in the future, currently under development.
Simplified scheme of an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) coupled with a pre-combustion CO2 capture and storage unit using a physical absorption process [5].
Oxy-combustion or oxy-fuel capture is considered as one of the most promising CCS technologies that would be economically competitive in fossil-fuel power plants and industrial facilities. It has been developed for both new designs and retrofitting of existing plants, although it is best adapted to newly designed power plants. A basic process flow diagram is given in Figure 6. Oxy-combustion technology is based on the use of high purity O2 as oxidiser in an O2/CO2 mixture instead of air during the combustion process. It has been first proposed for coal boilers and gas turbines but can be applied to any type of fossil fuel utilised for thermal power production. As burning with O2 at high concentration can produce high flame temperatures in the boiler, part of the exhaust gas from the boiler, mainly CO2 and water vapour (FGR flue gas recirculation stream), is recycled to control temperatures to levels compatible with available boiler materials. The flue gas obtained from this system consists mainly of CO2 and H2O and are accompanied by minor quantities of N2, SOx, NOx, Ar and Hg. Water can be easily removed by condensation, producing a highly CO2 concentrated flue gas. The CO2 content varies from 70 to 95%v/v, depending on the process configuration, air in-leakages, fuel characteristics and the purity of O2.
A simplified scheme of a fossil-fuel power plant based on the oxy-combustion concept [5].
Oxy-combustion requires large amounts of high purity (95–99%) O2 for power production. A typical 500 MWe fossil-fuel power plant would need 9,000–10,000 t/d to operate under oxy-combustion conditions [7]. Currently, cryogenic distillation is the only available technology that can supply those amounts of O2. An air separation unit (ASU) can provide around 4,500–7,000 t/d of oxygen, while other alternative technologies such as vacuum pressure swing adsorption (VPSA) units and membranes can only produce one order of magnitude below ASU production.
The ASU would consume up to 60% of the total electricity required for carbon capture and reduces the overall efficiency of the power plant by about 7–9%, reaching up to 15% in some cases. Furthermore, the availability and rapid response of the ASU to load changes have been noted as crucial challenges for the global oxy-combustion plant operation and feasibility. New technologies for O2 production as ion transport membranes (ITM) or VPSA have shown promising results related to energy consumption, but the large amounts of O2 required in power plant operation avoid currently its commercial deployment.
The CO2 stream obtained from oxy-fuel combustion shows high levels of water vapour, sulphur compounds, N2, O2 and impurities such as mercury in the flue gas. NOx emission is low when compared with air combustion.
The CO2 gas quality has significant impact on the capture cost by this technology, and uncertainties on the future regulatory requirements of CO2 quality for its transport and storage has influence on the process configuration of the oxy-combustion plant, gas cleaning unit performance, overall CO2 recovery capacity and on the energy requirements for CO2 compression and purification.
The most promising emerging technologies applied to carbon capture are discussed in this section to complete the overview of the CO2 capture technologies currently under research.
Chemical looping combustion (CLC) is a promising technology for fuel combustion, which can be beneficial in carbon capture applications. It is based on the use of an oxygen carrier, typically a metal oxide, to supply the O2 needed for the fuel combustion process, producing a highly CO2 concentrated exhaust gas. Iron, nickel, cobalt, copper, manganese and cadmium are commonly used as oxygen carriers in CLC.
A simplified scheme of a chemical looping for oxy-combustion.
CLC consists of two fluidised bed reactors, namely reducer and oxidiser. In the reducer reactor, fuel is fed along with the metal oxide containing oxygen, which is transferred from the metal oxide to the reactor as the combustion occurs (Figure 7). A flue gas containing over 99%v/v of CO2 can be obtained by a simply condensation stage because of the fact that the exhaust gas at the reducer outlet is primarily formed by CO2 and water vapour. This stream is then sent to further compression and permanent storage.
Reducer:
Oxidiser:
This separation approach is based on the hydrate formation from high pressure water in contact with the flue gas containing CO2. Hydrates are crystalline under suitable low temperature and high pressure conditions. A pure CO2 stream is then obtained as CO2 is released from the hydrates, achieving up to 99% of CO2 recovery.
Calcium looping is based on the reversible reaction between CaO and CO2 to form calcium carbonate.
Calcium looping consists of two fluidised bed reactors, namely carbonator and calciner. In the carbonator, primary fuel is burned and CaO reacts with the CO2 formed from the fuel combustion following the reaction seen in Equation (7). Carbonator temperature is within 650–700°C, depending on the system pressure.
Carbonator:
Calciner:
CaCO3 is then heated by secondary fuel combustion in the calciner. CaO is regenerated and CO2 is released for storage according to the reaction in Equation (8). The calciner temperature can reach 900°C, depending on the CO2 partial pressure.
This technology shows benefits for carbon capture. Limestone is cheap and widely available, and there is a potential for process integration, which can lead to low energy penalties, i.e., heat released from carbonisation can be utilised in a steam cycle or the heat used in the calciner reactor can be recovered in the carbonation process.
The energy consumption required for solvent regeneration and high purity oxygen production is the major drawback of post-combustion and oxy-combustion technologies. A new hybrid concept has been proposed to reduce the energy requirements associated with CO2 capture step combining a partial oxy-fuel combustion (using oxygen-enriched air instead of high purity oxygen as oxidiser) and a CO2 separation process treating a flue gas with a higher CO2 concentration than in conventional air combustion (Figure 8).
A simplified scheme of a partial oxy-combustion plant.
The combination of a less-constrained ASU for oxygen production and a carbon capture process using membranes instead of amine solvents can conduce to a minimal energy requirement associated with an oxygen purity ranging between 0.5 and 0.6 molar fraction.
Biological CO2 capture from a gas mixture is based on natural reactions of CO2 with living organism, mainly enzymes, generally proteins and (micro)algae. Enzymes catalyse CO2 chemical reaction and enhance CO2 absorption rate in water. Enzymes can be also immobilised at the gas-liquid interface to promote CO2 dissolution from the bulk gas. In this sense, carbonic anhydrase enzyme supported in a hollow fibre with liquid membrane has been reported as a potential method applied to CO2 capture, achieving up to 90% CO2 capture associated with low energy requirements in the regeneration process at laboratory-scale experiments. Carbonic anhydrase promotes carbonic acid formation from dissolved CO2 and enhances CO2 absorption from gas phase using and extremely low CO2/enzyme ratio. CO2 separation using enzymes must incorporate a tailored regeneration process to produce a high concentrated CO2 exhaust stream. Membrane boundary, fouling, long-term operation and pore wetting are identified as the most relevant technical issues to be addressed before the scale-up of this CO2 capture approach.
The use of algae is also considered a promising CO2 capture option among natural occurring reactions. Algae consume CO2 through photosynthesis mechanism. The use of algae in CO2 capture would avoid subsequent CO2 compression and storage stages, but there are some key issues that must be addressed for its large-scale deployment. In fact, algae require excessive amount of water and large gas-liquid interface surfaces that drastically limit their application in carbon capture. Algae are also highly susceptive to changes in operating conditions and to the presence of impurities such as vanadium and nickel.
Significant progress has been made in the application of ionic liquids (ILs) as alternative solvents to CO2 capture because of their unique properties such as very low vapour pressure, a broad range of liquid temperatures, excellent thermal and chemical stabilities and selective dissolution of certain organic and inorganic materials. ILs are liquid organic salts at ambient conditions with a cationic part and an anionic part.
ILs have the potential to overcome many of the problems of associated with current CO2 capture techniques. ILs are particularly applicable in absorption of CO2 while effectively avoiding the loss of sequestering agents. Other advantage of ILs is that they can be combined into polymeric forms, increasing the CO2 sorption capacity compared with other ILs and conventional solvents and greatly facilitates the separation and ease of operation.
Currently there are more than 6,500 km of CO2 pipelines worldwide. Most of them deliver CO2 to EOR operations in the United States, but there is also a growing number under development for CO2 storage projects
The relative development of the infrastructure to transport CO2 is still in its early stages. This is reflected by the low number of existing infrastructures developed to transport CO2 from stationary sources into geological structures. Table 1 provides an overview of the current developments for CO2 transportation globally. All of these examples have been developed in relation to the EOR technique, where the CO2 source is found mainly in natural reserves. In Europe, only a few projects are in operation, but there are plans to deploy an extended CO2 pipeline network along Europe to optimise CO2 storage structures.
These examples may be used to study CO2 conditions; in addition, many CO2 pipeline projects are based on well-known designs and materials commonly used in natural gas pipeline specifications. The most profitable way to transport CO2 is in its dense phase [9].
To avoid two phases, it has been suggested that the most efficient way to transport CO2 is as its supercritical phase [8, 9], which occurs at a pressure higher than 7.38 MPa and a temperature of more than 31.1 °C. To maintain these conditions, this type of transportation may require the use of booster stations in the pipeline layout to maintain the required pressure and temperature.
\n\t\t\t\tPipeline\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLocation\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLength (Km)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tDiameter (inches)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tEstimated maximum (106t/year)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Cortez | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t808 | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t23.6 | \n\t\t
Sheep Mountain | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t656 | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t\t11.0 | \n\t\t
Bravo | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t351 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t7.0 | \n\t\t
Dakota Gasification/Weyburn | \n\t\t\tUS/Canada | \n\t\t\t328 | \n\t\t\t14 | \n\t\t\t2.6 | \n\t\t
Choctaw | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t294 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t7.0 | \n\t\t
Bairoil | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t258 | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t\t23.0 | \n\t\t
Central Basin | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t230 | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t4.3 | \n\t\t
Canyon Reef Carriers | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t224 | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t4.3 | \n\t\t
Comanche Creek | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t193 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t
Centerline | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t182 | \n\t\t\t16 | \n\t\t\t4.3 | \n\t\t
Delta | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t174 | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t11.4 | \n\t\t
Snohvit | \n\t\t\tNorway | \n\t\t\t153 | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t
Borger | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t138 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t
Coffeyville | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t112 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t
OCAP | \n\t\t\tThe Netherlands | \n\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t\t0.4 | \n\t\t
Beaver Creek | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t
Anton Irish | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t64 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t
El Mar | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t56 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t
Chaparral | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t37 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t
Doliarhide | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t37 | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t1.6 | \n\t\t
Lacq | \n\t\t\tFrance | \n\t\t\t27 | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t
Adair | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t24 | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t
Cordona Lake | \n\t\t\tUS | \n\t\t\t11 | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t1.3 | \n\t\t
Current CO2 pipelines. The first long distance CO2 pipeline was in the 1970s. Main utilisation of the natural & anthropogenic CO2 is EOR activities [8].
Material selection should be compatible with all states of the CO2 stream. They should be defined to prevent corrosion and maximum material stress. In addition, eligible materials need to be qualified for the potential low temperature conditions that may occur during a pipeline depressurisation situation.
The design of a pipeline should meet the requirements set by appropriate regulations and standards. CO2 pipelines shall be designed according to applicable regulatory requirements. The Recommended Practice for Design and Operation of CO2 refers to the following pipeline standards: ISO 13623:2009, DNV-OS F101:2012 and ASME B31.4 or ASME B31.8.
Usually CO2 pipelines are designed using existing national standards for gas and liquid transportation pipes, while additional CO2 specific design issues are taken into consideration by the pipeline construction/operation companies to guarantee the reliable and safe operation of a given pipeline.
The use of carbon steels (e.g., with API X-60 and X-65) for the transportation of CO2 streams has been ongoing for more than 30 years, as required in EOR projects. During the 2002–2008 period, 18 incidents were reported with no fatalities and/or injuries.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tRange\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Length (km) | \n\t\t\t1.09–808 | \n\t\t
External diameter (mm) | \n\t\t\t152–921 | \n\t\t
Wall thickness (mm) | \n\t\t\t5.2–27 | \n\t\t
Capacity design (Mt/y) | \n\t\t\t0.06–28 | \n\t\t
Pressure min (bar) | \n\t\t\t3–151 | \n\t\t
Pressure max (bar) | \n\t\t\t21–200 | \n\t\t
Compressor capacity (MW) | \n\t\t\t0.2–68 | \n\t\t
Summary of the current parameters considered in the CO2 transport phase.
The cost of pipeline transportation will be determined by the pipeline route, in which physical and social geography will be crucial conditions.
The three major cost elements for pipelines are (1) construction costs (e.g., materials, labour, booster station, if needed, and others), (2) operation and maintenance costs (e.g., monitorisation, maintenance, energy costs) and (3) other costs (design, insurance, fees, and right-of-way).
At present, there are three possible geological structures that may be considered for CO2 storage: depleted hydrocarbon and production, deep saline aquifers, and coal seams.
The CO2 can be stored in supercritical conditions, rising by buoyancy and can be physically held in a structural or stratigraphic trap, the same way as the natural accumulation of hydrocarbons occurs. The advantage of the capacity of containment system has been demonstrated by the retention of oil for millions of years. If the site is in production, it is used to increase the recovery of oil or gas (EOR recovery – enhanced oil, gas-enhanced recovery – EGR). These operations, EOR/EGR, provide an economic benefit that can offset the costs of the capture, transport and storage of CO2.
They are the best options for storing large volumes of CO2 because of its size and found more than 800 meters below the surface. The supercritical CO2 is 30–40% less dense than typical saline water from these formations, which means that the CO2 naturally rise by buoyancy through the reservoir until it is caught or becomes longer solution term. They require an impermeable cap rock to ceiling (shales or layers of evaporites) and a porous and permeable rock store (sandstone or limestone) that promotes the injection, migration and trapping.
CO2 in gaseous form is injected into the coalbed, 300 to 600 metre depth, and adsorbed on the matrix pores, releasing the existing CH4 in the same (two molecules of CO2 adsorbed by each CH4 molecule that travels). This has led to the possibility of storing CO2 in coal seams, while CH4 recovered is valued. This technique is called ‘enhanced coalbed methane production’ (ECBM).
Coal properties (range, degree and permeability) determine the suitability of the site, either for storage or storage with only CH4 recovery.
Figure 9 represents a proposed work flow for any CO2 storage project. It is possible to determine three mayor phases: pre-injection, injection and post-injection phases.
Work flow proposed for basin screening (Definition phase) [10].
In general, most of the areas that could be suitable for storing CO2 are not well explored geologically. For this reason, pre-injection phase is crucial to decrease the inherent risk in subsurface exploration.
Screen phase could be differentiated by the data recompilation task and the multicriteria decision tool. It is integrated as a preliminary phase, and it is connected with a second phase called characterisation phase, which corresponds to site maturation and testing.
Those criteria should comprise both technique and socio-economic criteria, and they should answer several questions such as where, how much quantity, and which conditions. All of these criteria and questions will contribute to solve and select the most suitable emplacement for storing CO2 [10].
There are different examples and analogues that can be useful for the definition of criteria. Analogues can be natural (releases and resources) and industrial.
Assess or characterisation task is related to three major ways to explore the sub-surface: outcrops, geophysics and wells.
To decrease the inherent risk of exploration, it is necessary to consider all of the three sub-phases:
Outcrops exploration provides samples of seal and storage formation, to evaluate some properties such as hydrogeology and geomechanical properties (permeability, porosity, etc.)
Geophysics survey will provide and describe geological structures, and in some cases hydrogeology parameter (i.e., total dissolved solid, TDS).
Few techniques may be used if the structure should be 1,000 m deep: seismic reflection is the most important technology (Figure 10), but other technologies such as magneto-telluric or gravimetric may provide relevant information regarding to the geological structure and resistivity of the original fluid.
Seismic survey based on vibroseis. Example of a seismic profile.
Wells will provide real information of the storage and caprock formation in sub-surface conditions. Test will provide information about geomechanical, hydrogeological properties and it may be possible to test interaction between the rock and CO2.
Considering the injection phase, control of the behaviour of injected CO2 is one of the most important tasks. For instance, the control and monitoring strategy must:
Demonstrate that the injected CO2 is stored in the selected reservoir and therefore must be a guarantee that the company responsible for fulfilling its commitment to reducing emissions.
Check that no intrusion occurs in other exploitable aquifers and water resources.
Check for surface environmental effects occur, and therefore, you must provide the affected population security and peace on the operations of injection.
The monitoring strategy should not be limited to the operational and post-operational periods but has an important role during the pre-operational stage by conducting the baseline of the injection site [11]. This baseline defines the set of physical, geochemical and biological processes operating in the storage area before any activity injection. The baseline is critical because especially in the early stages of injection, the changes are not evident, both in depth and on the surface, and comparison with the undisturbed condition is needed. The development of the baseline may have added value; for example, building trust and showing the population from the beginning that the project is under control and that any anomaly is detected. Numerous methods have been proposed for monitoring CO2 in geological repositories. Of these, one can clearly distinguish two types: (a) to detect the evolution of CO2 injected into deep and (b) for leakage from storage. In the first type, these methods are generally based on geophysical techniques, while in the second type, the range of methods is broader, including geochemical, physical and biological techniques. Therefore, the final selection of the monitoring strategy should take into account the following aspects [12, 13]:
Efficiency in detecting small changes in behaviour warehouse
Implementation in large tracts of land
Reasonable economic cost
Compliance with these requirements will be conditioned by the type of store and its area of influence. Clearly, monitoring techniques will be very different in stores on-shore and off-shore, and within a storage type, geological, hydrological and even ecological characteristics will favour the implementation of a methodology or other.
The monitoring deployment is based on the following aspects: (a) characterisation of the area, (b) establishing a base line CO2, (c) establishment of potential areas of migration and release of CO2 (and other gases) and (d) validation and development of techniques for monitoring CO2.
\n\t\t\t\tEmission\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLeakage\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tDescription/Comments\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPhases of the CO2 Storage\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Leak paths through wells and boreholes | \n\t\t\tOperating or abandoned wells | \n\t\t\tIt is important to identify all abandoned at the site (or close to it) wells These wells can become the main roads of leakage | \n\t\t\t⋅ Characterisation ⋅ Injection ⋅ Post-injection | \n\t\t
Blowouts (uncontrolled emissions from injection wells) | \n\t\t\tMay cause leakage of high flows in short periods of time. It is considered that it is unlikely incidents if safety standards are met during drilling | \n\t\t\t⋅ Injection | \n\t\t|
Future removal of reservoirs of CO2 can be a problem in the reservoirs of coal deposits | \n\t\t\tCan be a problem in the reservoirs of coal deposits | \n\t\t\t⋅ Post-injection | \n\t\t|
Leak paths and natural migrations through faults and fractures | \n\t\t\tThrough faults and fractures | \n\t\t\tMay origin leak high flows Proper site characterisation can reduce the risk of leakage | \n\t\t\t⋅ Characterisation ⋅ Injection ⋅ Post-injection | \n\t\t
By dissolving CO2 in a fluid and subsequent transport natural circulation of fluid | \n\t\t\tProper site characterisation (evaluation of hydrogeology) can reduce the risk of leakside of gas \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t⋅ Characterisation ⋅ Injection ⋅ Post-injection | \n\t\t|
Through the pore system in low permeability rocks when the capillary inlet pressure is exceeded or if the CO2 has been in solution | \n\t\t\tProper site characterisation can reduce the risk of leaks An exhaustive control of the injection pressure is needed | \n\t\t\t⋅ Characterisation ⋅ Injection | \n\t\t|
By a stroke if the reservoir | \n\t\t\tProper site characterisation overflows can reduce the risk of leakage | \n\t\t\t⋅ Injection ⋅ Post-injection | \n\t\t|
Another type of leak | \n\t\t\tMethane release could occur as a result of the displacement of CH4 by CO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tIt happens in depleted oil and gas | \n\t\t\t⋅ Characterisation ⋅ Injection ⋅ Post-injection | \n\t\t
Nowadays different applications are known that can be used for demonstrating that CO2 is a useful, versatile and safe product. Figure 11 illustrates most of the current and potential uses of CO2.
CO2 uses. Different pathways for utilisation CO2.
There are many classifications that can be made about the use or valuation of large-scale CO2 and including the three categories proposed by Vega [16] for type of uses, which also is used by the PTE-CO2, 2013 (Technology Platform Spanish CO2). To wit:
Direct or technology use: use of CO2 with different technologies and market applications such as use for oil recovery, for dry cleaning, waste carbonation, food, water treatment or extraction with supercritical CO2 compounds, including others.
Improved biological use: CO2 fixation in biomass by growing microalgae and carbonic fertigation.
Chemical use: artificial photosynthesis and chemical conversion to high added value products and fuels.
As much as two-thirds of conventional crude oil discovered in U.S. fields remain unproduced, left behind because of the physics of fluid flow. In addition, hydrocarbons in unconventional rocks or that have unconventional characteristics (such as oil in fractured shales, kerogen in oil shale or bitumen in tar sands) constitute an enormous potential domestic supply of energy.
Carbon dioxide is used in oil wells for oil extraction and to maintain pressure within a formation.
There are many methods for EOR and each has differences that make it more useful based on specific reservoir challenges and other parameters. Choosing the right method by screening the reservoir and fluid properties can ultimately reduce risk by eliminating inefficiencies.
CO2 EOR is an ‘EOR’ technology that injects CO2 into an underground geologic zone (oil/hydrocarbon containing ‘reservoir’) that contains hydrocarbons for the purpose of producing the oil. The CO2 is produced along with the oil and then recovered and re-injected to recover more oil.
When the maximum amount of oil is recovered from the reservoir, the CO2 is then ’sequestered’ in the underground geologic zone that formerly contained the oil and the well is shut-in, permanently sequestering the CO2.
CO2 injection is a technology successfully used from more than 50 years. The first patent for CO2-EOR appeared in 1952 and in 1964 began field trials. In the first commercial project of CO2-EOR in Texas, in 1972 (SACROC project), CO2 was supplied from a gas plant, where the CO2 was eliminated in the production of ammonia At present the CO2 is sent from geological formations (natural) from Bravo Dome in Colorado, and Mc Elmo Dome in New Mexico.
Nowadays, two techniques are largely used for CO2-EOR:
Miscible water-alternating-gas (WAG) process. Injection alternates between gas (usually natural gas or CO2) and water; the miscible gas and oil form one phase. The WAG cycles improve sweep efficiency by increasing viscosity of the combined flood front (Figure 12).
CO2-EOR operation diagram. CO2 injection into reservoir to ‘flood’. Diagram courtesy of Dakota Gasification Company.
Cyclic gas injection. Most gas-injection EOR projects today use CO2 as the injected gas. When CO2 is pumped into an oil well, it is partially dissolved into the oil, rendering it less viscous, allowing the oil to be extracted more easily from the bedrock. The CO2 used to increase oil recovery can be naturally occurring, or an effective means of sequestering an industrial by-product. In this case, carbon dioxide, under pressure, is injected between oil wells to freeing the stranded oil. CO2 is a superior agent in recovering stranded oil as the CO2 naturally reduces the surface tension that traps the liquid oil to in the oil reservoir. When the oil is recovered from the production well, CO2 is also produced, but is easily separated from the crude oil because the CO2 reverts back to its gaseous state when the pressure is removed.
Some fire extinguishers use CO2 because it is denser than air. Carbon dioxide can blanket a fire, because of its heaviness. It prevents oxygen from getting to the fire and as a result, the burning material is deprived of the oxygen it needs to continue burning.
When CO2 is at suitable temperature and pressure above the critical point (Figure 13), it is called supercritical CO2.
CO2 phases diagram.
This state emphasises its capacity to dissolve chemicals and natural substances of similar way as do different organic solvents such as hexane, acetone or dichloromethane. Therefore, the first applications focused on the extraction of natural substances as an alternative to using organic solvents. Thus, removal of caffeine (coffee or tea) with supercritical CO2 is the most mature application at industrial level and is also used in the extraction of hops or cocoa fat.
The dry cleaning with CO2 is one of the most popular applications of supercritical fluids in the textile sector. This method is characterised by removing stains from the fabrics and garments where no harmful organic solvents for the average ambient, such as perchlorethylene (PER), common in conventional dry cleaning processes are used and without causing discoloration or shrinkage and without leaving odour.
One of the main advantages of supercritical CO2 is that its solubility can easily be controlled suitably adjusting the pressure and temperature, allowing fractionate mixtures where all components are soluble.
Supercritical CO2 extraction coupled with a fractional separation technique is used by producers of flavours and fragrances to separate and purify volatile flavour and fragrance concentrates. Like any solvent, supercritical CO2, it allows processing chemicals by precipitation or recrystallisation, obtaining particles of controlled size and shape, without excessive fines without thermal stresses and controlling the shape of a polymorphic substance.
It is, therefore, a cutting-edge technology with great potential, because it is a new way to obtain natural products; it allows the adaptation of new high quality products with appropriate value to consumer habits; enables the development of new non-polluting processes and initiate the development of a tertiary sector led to the new technology.
Liquid or solid CO2 is used for quick freezing, surface freezing, chilling and refrigeration in the transport of foods. In cryogenic tunnel and spiral freezers, high pressure liquid CO2 is injected through nozzles that convert it to a mixture of CO2 gas and dry ice ‘snow’ that covers the surface of the food product. As it sublimates (goes directly from solid to gas states), refrigeration is transferred to the product.
Carbon dioxide gas is used to carbonate soft drinks, beers and wine and to prevent fungal and bacterial growth. CO2 has an inhibitory effect on bacterial growth, especially those that cause discoloration and odours.
CO2 has an inhibitory effect on bacterial growth, especially those that cause discoloration and odours (Figure 14).
CO2 applications in food.
It is used as an inert ‘blanket’, as a product-dispensing propellant and an extraction agent. It can also be used to displace air during canning.
Cold sterilisation can be carried out with a mixture of 90% carbon dioxide and 10% ethylene oxide, the carbon dioxide has a stabilising effect on the ethylene oxide and reduces the risk of explosion.
Carbon dioxide can change the pH of water because of its slightly dissolution in water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3 (a weak acid), according to Equation 9:
Carbonic acid reacts slightly and reversibly in water to form a hydronium cation H3O+, and the bicarbonate ion HCO3-, according to Equation 10:
This chemical behaviour explains why water, which normally has a neutral pH of 7 has an acidic pH of approximately 5.5 when it has been exposed to air.
At the moment, CO2 technology is widely introduced in treatments such as sewage water, industrial water or drinking water remineralisation.
The increased requirements of drinking water in large cities becomes necessary to use sources of very soft water and because of its low salinity and pH are very aggressive and can bring on corrosion phenomena in the pipes of the pipeline, with the appearance of colour and turbidity when these pipes are made of iron, and by undermining these ones made with cement fibre by dissolving the calcium carbonate (CaCO3), because of excessive aggressive CO2.
The introduction of carbon dioxide in the pipes regulates a state of equilibrium between dissolved bicarbonates, calcium carbonate inlaid and the CO2 added.
Therefore, for the treatment of soft or aggressive waters, the use of CO2 in combination with lime or calcium hydroxide is advisable to increase water hardness. This process is called remineralisation and is meaningful in water treatment plants, because soft water is indigestible.
The use of CO2 in wastewater neutralisation, Figure 15, offers great advantages in the operation and the environment by preventing other chemicals:
Better working conditions. Eliminate the risk of burns, toxic fumes and other injuries from handling mineral acids
Safe neutralisation. Avoiding risk of over-acidification with strong acids
Low initial investment. Simple equipment, insurance and small dimensions
Automated process. Automation avoids the handling of corrosive acids in the plant, pH control is automatic
Economy
Dosing system for sewage.
The alkaline waste management presents significant problems, mainly because of its volume and its geochemical properties that do not allow disposing in conventional landfills. Therefore, the accelerated carbonation of this waste is another technological uses of CO2.
Carbonate mineralisation refers to the conversion of CO2 to solid inorganic carbonates. Naturally occurring alkaline and alkaline-earth oxides react chemically with CO2 to produce minerals, such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). These minerals are highly stable and can be used in construction or disposed of without concern that the CO2 they contain will release into the atmosphere. One problem is that these reactions tend to be slow, and unless the reactions are carried out in situ, there is a large volume of rocks to move. Carbonates can also be used as filler materials in paper and plastic products.
Green plants convert carbon dioxide and water into food compounds, such as glucose and oxygen. This process is called photosynthesis (Equation 11).
The reaction of photosynthesis is as follows: Biological applications are based primarily on the use of CO2 as food for plant growth. In a similar way as the plants take advantage of sunlight and CO2 for biomass, or other products, ‘imitating’ nature, improving its results. Therefore, this technology is also known as biomimetic transformation.
There are two main ways in the biological utilisation process: greenhouses carbonic fertilisation and growth of microalgae.
CO2 is found naturally in the atmosphere and, therefore, in the greenhouse environment. It is essential for plant growth, since it represents the carbon source for organic compounds they need, in short, for compounds that constitute their biomass (leaves, stems, fruits, etc.).
CO2 is not the only factor involved in photosynthesis, so that for its use, other factors must be at levels that do not limit the process. Light, temperature, amount of available nutrients and the relative humidity are other environmental factors affecting photosynthetic activity.
During photosynthesis, plants capture light energy and CO2 through the leaves, and water and nutrients through the roots. Thanks to these elements and chlorophyll leaves, plants get synthesise sugars and various organic compounds required for their development. Photosynthesis is responsible for plant growth. Therefore, favouring photosynthesis we managed to promote the development of the plants and agriculture in our case.
Yields of plant products grown in greenhouses can increase by 20% by enriching the air inside the greenhouse with carbon dioxide. The target level for enrichment is typically a carbon dioxide concentration of 800 ppm – or about two-and-a-half times the level present in the atmosphere (Figure 16).
Carbon fertilisation in hydroponics culture greenhouses.
In the CENIT SOST-CO2 project that includes the entire life cycle of CO2, researching technology uses as chemical and biological uses, the following results were confirmed, among others [18]:
Rating combustion gases from combined cycle plants to use in vegetable crops in greenhouses, in applications in irrigation pipes to prevent clogging and to balance the pH in nutrient solutions.
With regard to the quality of gas from CCGT, it can be recommended for direct use in greenhouses or other agricultural uses.
The carbonic fertilisation allows early crop production along with a greater amount of product with better quality.
Microalgae are photosynthetic microorganisms that can grow in diverse areas mainly in water media where the forced culture can be carried out in diverse type of reactors in concordance with its design and operation. The advantage of this process is that microalgae are a microorganism with a high production rate (some species are able to duplicate their biomass in 24 hours), and therefore with increased demand for CO2 conventional terrestrial plants.
The investigation of microalgae culture for different purposes began in the middle of last century, when the United States launched the ‘Aquatic Species Program’. At that time, the research focused on the possibility of obtaining biofuels from microalgae: mainly methane and hydrogen, but after the oil crisis in the 1970s the biodiesel was also considered.
Biofixation of CO2 by microalgae, especially as an option for the utilisation of flue gases from power plants, has been the subject of extensive investigations in the United States, Japan and Europe (IEA-GHG Biofixation Network). However, none of the related projects have demonstrated the feasibility of the concept at a pre-industrial level. What is more, CO2 fixation efficiency is quite low because of the photobioreactors used in those pilot plants (raceway or open-ponds) (Figure 17).
Microalgae culture in open system (raceway) and close photobioreactor (Almeria University and Palmerillas Research Center).
The current production of microalgae is mainly focused around a few species, such as Spirulina, Chlorella, Dunaliella or Haematococcus for nutritional purposes (for humans) and animal feed (especially aquaculture). Other sectors, such as cosmetics, effluent treatment and bioenergy, have shown interest, incorporating these or other species of microalgae and cyanobacteria into commercial products. Currently, 95% of the production of microalgae is based on open systems (raceways or circular open ponds). These systems have a low rate of CO2 fixation and it is estimated to be around 20–50% of the injected gas is effectively set by microalgae [17].
Carbon dioxide gas is used to make urea (used as a fertiliser and in automobile systems and medicine), methanol, inorganic and organic carbonates, polyurethanes and sodium salicylate. Carbon dioxide is combined with epoxides to create plastics and polymers.
Corn-to-ethanol plants have been the most rapidly growing source of feed gas for CO2 recovery.
Because CO2 is a practically inert molecule, artificial photosynthesis of CO2 involves the use of large amounts of energy so it must use a clean source of energy (such as solar radiation).Therefore, the use of catalytic agent to facilitate the process allowing even take place at ambient temperature and pressure is necessary. In this case, it is also called as photocatalysis or photoreduction.
In photocatalysis two processes occur: CO2 reduction and oxidation of other compounds. Early works on the photocatalytic reduction of CO2 in aqueous solution were published between 1978 and 1979 ([19, 20]), and later numerous investigators have studied the mechanism and efficiency of the process using different catalysts (oxides of titanium, zinc and cadmium, cadmium sulphide, silicon carbide), and reducing (water, amines, alcohols) and R light sources (lamps xenon, mercury, halogen). Thus, it has been shown that by using specific semiconductors and reducing agents, can be obtained a great variety of products (methane, methanol, formaldehyde, formic acid, ethanol, ethane, etc.).
Along with thermodynamics, catalysis is one of the core technologies for an economically interesting use of CO2 as feedstock in chemical processes. This is one of the areas most sophisticated and complex of modern chemical research. It is one of the major challenges for the scientific and technological developments related to the fields of energy and catalysis, as was highlighted in the report to officiate Sciences US Department basic Energy: more than 85% of all products are produced using chemical catalysis [21].
Photocatalysis involve the production of reactions because of the incidence of light on a semiconductor material. Unlike metals, these materials have a forbidden energy band, which extends from the top of the so-called valence band to the bottom of the conduction band (Figure 18).
Diagram of behaviour of a semiconductor, TiO2, in light presence and participation in the photocatalytic CO2 reduction organic products.
The main disadvantage in these cases remains in the low process efficiency.
In general, the process of photocatalytic reduction of CO2 requires a milder conditions and lower energy consumption than chemical reduction [22].
Large quantities are used as a raw material in the chemical process industry, especially for urea across CO2 reaction with NH3 and later dehydration of the formed carbamate. Urea is the product most used as agricultural fertiliser. It is used in feed for ruminants, as carbon cellulose explosives stabiliser in the manufacture of resins and also for thermosetting plastic products, among others.
Methanol production, where CO is added as additive, is very a well-known reaction. The production is carried out in two steps. The first step is to convert the feedstock natural gas into a synthesis gas stream consisting of CO, CO2, H2O and hydrogen. This is usually accomplished by the catalytic reforming of feed gas and steam. The second step is the catalytic synthesis of methanol from the synthesis gas. If an external source of CO2 is available, the excess hydrogen can be consumed and converted to additional methanol.
CO2 is also used, to make inorganic and organic carbonates, carboxylic acids, polyurethanes and sodium salicylate. Carbon dioxide is combined with epoxides to create plastics and polymers (Figure 19).
Different products made with CO2 derivatives.
In general, the area of CO2 utilisation for carbon storage is relatively new and less well known compared to other storage approaches, such as geologic storage. Thus, more exploratory technological investigations are needed to discover new applications and new reactions.
Many challenges exist for achieving successful CO2 utilisation, including the development of technologies capable of economically fixing CO2 in stable products for indirect storage.
Significant innovation and technical progress are being made across a number of utilisation technologies. The electrochemical reduction could be really attractive because it is an excellent way for renewable energy storage.
In the 3rd Carbon Dioxide Utilisation Summit, October 2014 in Bremen, Germany, ETOGAS GmbH presented its turn-Key plan and technology Power-to-Gas for SNG through electrolysis processes [18].
This technology uses CO2 as a feed gas for the production of carbon products with Etogas methanation plant (Figure 20), which are reactor systems for conversion of H2 and CO2 to methane (synthetic natural gas). The produced gas is DVGW- and DIN-compliant synthetic natural gas and can be used directly, e.g., as a fuel for a CNG vehicle.
SNG schematic process. Source: ETOGAS Project.
According to DNV GL, electrochemical CO2 utilisation presents some advantages as follows:
Production de-coupled from the sun (flexibility in renewable energy source); land use is minimised and no limitation with respect to geography; no competition with food (corn, sugar); flexibility in end fuel – ethanol, butanol or diesel (depending on the organism used); flexibility in electrochemical process (matching to supply/demand of renewable energy); and significant net reduction in CO2 emission (Figure 21).
Electrochemical production of formic acid (HCOOH) and CO. Source: third Carbon Dioxide Utilisation Summit. DNV GL.
Bayer MaterialScience (Germany) in the Project “Dream Production” combines part of waste streams of coal-fired power plants, CO2, with the production of polymers. The target is the design and development of a technical process able to produce CO2-based polyether polycarbonate polyols on a large scale. The first step was to convert the CO2 in new polyols, and these polyols showed similar properties such as products already on the market and can be processed in conventional plans as well (Figure 22).
Target product polyurethanes – All rounder among plastics. Source: 3rd Carbon Dioxide Utilisation Summit. Courtesy: Bayer.
The CO2 thus acts as a substitute for the petroleum production of plastics. Polyurethanes are used to produce a wide range of everyday applications. When they are used for the insulation of buildings, the polyurethane saves about 80% more energy than it consumes during production. Light weight polymers are used in the automotive industry, upholstered furniture and mattress manufacturing.
In the past years, several projects have been focused in the direct use of flue gases from Combined Cycle Power Plants for developing different applications. In this way, the project CENIT SOST-CO2 has demonstrated the use of flue gases from CCPP in a direct way to control the pH in the cooling water systems with refrigeration tower and Iberdrola has developed an application for power plants.
Another application for the future will be “CO2 for Zebra Mussel Control”. A project developed by Iberdrola and the University of Salamanca shows that carbonic acidification just in the moment when the larva of zebra mussel are in the adequate phase (pediveliger) causes a much greater lethality than inorganic acids because of the synergistic effect of the lethal hypercapnia by physiological changes in cell metabolism of the larvae. (CDTI Project: Seguimiento de la incidencia del mejillón cebra (Dreissena polymorpha) en el Ciclo Combinado de Castejón 2009-2011. Iberdrola – Universidad de Salamanca).
The project LIFE13 ENV/ES/000426. CO2FORMARE [23], "Use of CO2 as a substitute of chlorine-based chemicals used in O&M Industrial processes for macrofouling remediation”, led by Iberdrola Generación, seeks to demonstrate the viability of using CO2 from combustion gases to control macrofouling (fouling caused by larger organisms, such as oysters, mussels, clams and barnacles) in a thermal power plant (Castellon CCPP), cooled by sea water. First estimates indicate that a 400 MW CCPP (Figure 23) may be necessary to use up to 50,000 t CO2 yr–1, [23].
Castellon Power Plant. Courtesy: Iberdrola.
The Carbon Storage Program of the NETL (National Energy Technology Laboratory) of US Department of Energy supports four main CO2 utilisation research areas: cement, polycarbonate plastic, mineralisation and enhanced hydrocarbon recovery. Several projects on active CO2 utilisation focused in these areas receive Department of Energy (DOE) funds that aim to obtain the goals for the Carbon Storage Program.
Generally, antenna unit is a requisite of any on-air radio frequency system forming its service area and bandwidth capability. At present, implementing an active phased array antenna (PAA) [1] results in remarkably increased footprint and operation flexibility thanks to electronic beam steering function, which is realized by a beamforming network (BFN). Today, the global telecommunications industry is experiencing a stage of violent development associated with the becoming of the fifth-generation mobile communication networks (5G NR) [2, 3, 4, 5, 6], and it is planned that one of the milestones for 5G NR compared to available 4G LTE networks should be millimeter-wave (mmWave) communication with mobile radio terminals [7, 8]. This approach should lead to a newer network design technology using Radio-over-Fiber (RoF) building concept as well as PAA-assisted remote stations (RS) and user terminals (UT) [8, 9]. On this way, integrated and millimeter-wave (mmWave) photonics are extremely attractive technologies for realizing a PAA’s interactive optical BFN due to its superior instantaneous operating bandwidth, immunity to electromagnetic interference, lightweight, and reconfigurability [3].
Following it, recently we designed photonics-based BFNs for ultrawide bandwidth mmWave (57–76 GHz) antenna arrays [10]. Elaborating the direction, in this chapter, we review the worldwide progress referred to designing multiple-beam photonic BFN and highlight our last simulation results on design and optimization of millimeter-photonics-based matrix beamformers. Thus, in the rest of the sections, the following topics are under consideration. In particular, Section 2 reviews the specialties of mmWave photonics technique in 5G mobile networks of RoF technology based on fiber-wireless (FiWi) architecture. In addition, Section 3 presents theoretical background of array antenna multiple-beam steering using ideal models of matrix-based phase shifters and time delay lines. Section 4 includes a general analysis of radiation pattern sensitivity to compare updated photonics beamforming networks produced on phase shifter or true-time delay (TTD) approach. The principles and ways to optimized photonics BFN design are discussed in Section 5 based on the photonics BFN scheme including integrated 8×8 optical Butler matrix (OBM). All schemes are modeled using VPIphotonics Design Suite and MATLAB software tools. Finally, Section 6 concludes the chapter.
Based on 4G LTE progress [3], 5G NR is in principle a novel stage of unprecedented technological innovation with ubiquitous speed connectivity. As a result, it is expected that 5G NR will radically transform a number of industries and will provide direct, super-speed connections between any users and any sensors and devices. By now, several reviews to analyze significant changes in the 5G NR approaches as compared to the existing 4G LTE networks have been published [8, 11] denoting a series of milestones. Developing this topic, Table 1 summarizes the results of the advanced analysis focusing on the investigations referred to a fronthaul network with mobile communication in mmWave-band.
No. | Designation | Short description |
---|---|---|
1 | Radically expanding the available spectral bands | Some superwide bandwidth cases in 5G access networks will require contiguous carrier bandwidths. To support them, additional carrier frequencies (below 6 GHz), as well as mmWave RF carriers will be required |
2 | Using active antenna systems in mmWave communication | Following the tendencies of expanding the available spectral bands and increasing user densification, mmWave 5G wireless network infrastructure can be erected with a lot of small cell sites controlled by the corresponding RSs. In order to avoid inter-interference inside these cells, one of the promising approaches is to equip the RS with beam-steerable PAA using hundreds of antenna elements to form multiple directional beams in omnidirectional space |
3 | Establishing optimized access network architecture | Following the milestone of item 1, it is necessary to optimize the access network architecture so that at the same time it will provide high-quality communication with fixed and mobile users subject to low charges for the building and maintenance of networks. A promising candidate for solving the problem is a RoF’s FiWi architecture, already tested in 4G LTE systems |
The milestones in the way to transform 4G LTE to 5G NR.
The review of the current R&Ds in 5G NR area convincingly demonstrates the consistent achievement of the designated in Table 1 milestones, which is reflected in a vast number of publications and emergence of commercial products. Among them, much attention is paid to radically expanding the available spectral bands up to mmWaves (see item 1 of Table 1) to promote the throughput of mobile communication system. Following this tendency, currently, the local telecommunications commissions of various countries are proposing and harmonizing the plans of frequency allocation in mmWave-band, which will be reviewed this year at the World Radio Conference (WRC-2019). Currently, for the 5G NR networks, it is planned to allocate two frequency bands (see Figure 1), coexisting with available 4G LTE systems in the 1–6 GHz band (the so-called “low range” (LR)) and new one in the mmWaves within the range of 24.5–86 GHz according to [12] (the so-called “high range” (HR)).
Planned 5G NR spectrum allocations [12].
Based on various investigations, let us review the key advantages and disadvantages of the mobile communication system operation in the millimeter range. The following are the advantages of the 5G mmWave mobile communication:
It provides larger bandwidth, and hence, more number of UT can be accommodated.
Its coverage is not limited to the line of sight (LoS) as first-order scatter paths are viable.
Channel sounding feature is employed to take care of different types of losses at mmWave frequencies so that 5G network operates satisfactorily thanks to the measurement or estimation of channel characteristics, which helps in successful design, development, and deployment of 5G network with necessary quality requirements.
Antenna size is physically small, and hence, a large number of antennas are packed in small volume. This leads to the use of massive multiple input, multiple output (MIMO), or beam-steerable PAA in RS to enhance the capacity (see item 2 of Table 1).
Dynamic beamforming is employed, and hence, it mitigates higher path loss at mmWave frequencies.
5G mmWave networks support multi-gigabit backhaul up to 400 m and cellular access up to 200–300 m [13].
Due to these benefits, 5G mmWave is suitable for mobile communication over sub-6 GHz wireless technologies. The main disadvantages of 5G mmWave communication are the next:
Millimeter-wave goes through different severe losses such as penetration, rain attenuation, and even foliage. This limits distance coverage requirement in 5G-based cellular mobile deployment. Moreover, path loss is proportional to the frequency squared. It supports about 200–300 m in outdoors based on channel conditions and RS antenna height above the ground.
It supports only LoS that limits the cell coverage.
Power consumption is higher due to the greater number of RF modules and antennas. To avoid this drawback, hybrid architecture, which has fewer RF chains than the number of antennas, needs to be used at the RS receiver chain.
These disadvantages must be considered during 5G mmWave link budget calculation.
The drawbacks mentioned above led to the need for a radical change in the architecture of access networks compared to 4G LTE. In particular, instead of macro-cells, a multistage configuration was introduced, additionally containing micro-cells and pico-cells [3, 14]. In this direction, a newer RoF-based access networks of FiWi architecture is considered as the most promising approach (see item 3 of Table 1) ([9, 11]). The reason is that the important drawback for the implementation of the wired links, for example, of Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) architecture is feasible for fixed UTs only. In contrast, current wireless access networks of 4G LTE that provide a flexible communication with a relatively simple infrastructure cannot meet growing in geometric progression demands to increase the capacity of mobile systems. The most promising technique to meet it, which is actively discussed in the referred publications, is to expand the operating frequency band and to apply multi-position digital modulation of a radio frequency (RF) carrier through fiber fronthaul to simplify pico-cell RS layout. Figure 2 illustrates a typical pico-cell in a large city. The mmWave wireless network is managed from a remote station including one unidirectional PAA for downlink and uplink channels.
Sketch of a typical wireless pico-cell for 5G access network.
The source data for posterior calculations of multi-beam PAA in a pico-cell are:
The base station is located on a separate mast of 3 m high in the geometric center of the service area (see Figure 2).
The overall azimuth angle for the PAA under study is 360°.
The elevation angle for the PAA under study must be such that the dead area around the mast does not exceed 1 m.
The service radius of the pico-cell under investigation is 50 m.
The operating frequency band is 37.0–43.5 GHz (see Figure 1).
As noted in chapter 2, mmWave array antennas capable of operating in ultrawide frequency range are considered as one of the key enabling technologies for designing RS of 5G NR network. There, a formation of a narrow steered beam by means of a PAA makes it possible to increase the directive gain to compensate for the excessive loss in the mmWave-band. Besides, the use of narrow beams would reduce the interference effects from other closely spaced mobile terminals and provides the possibility of spatial multiplexing to increase throughput while simultaneously exchanging information with several RSs.
Generally, electronic scanning in the PAA is provided by a beamforming network, which includes phase shifters or delay lines [1]. The BFN supports a continuous or discrete beam movement in space due to phase control or signal delay between the array elements. In our previous work devoted to the study of the PAA BFN [10], a single-beam PAA with electron scanning of the radiation pattern was considered. Nevertheless, for 5G pico-cells in conditions of simultaneous communication with a large number of terminal units, using a set of multiple-beam antenna (MBA) is considered to be a more practical way. PAAs based on MBA have greater functionality, but they are very complex, bulky, energy-consuming, and expensive devices. These factors limit their use to date mainly in special-purpose radars and unique satellite communication stations, for example, in satellite arrays of the iridium global mobile communication system [15]. There, PAA of the transponder has 106 channels and forms 16 fixed beams covering the contour-shaped the Earth’s area. Each satellite has three such PAA, each of which forms its own sector. Thus, a set of 48 fixed satellite beams covers the Earth’s area of about 4000 km in diameter.
As noted in [10], an appropriate beamforming scheme focusing the transmitted and/or received signal in a desired direction in order to overcome the unfavorable path loss is one of the key enablers for cellular communications in mmWave frequency bands. Depending on its layout, the beamforming weights required to form the directive beam could be applied in the digital or analog domain. Generally, digital beamforming provides a higher degree of freedom and offers better performance at the expense of increased complexity and cost because separate digital-to-analog converters, and analog-to-digital converters are required per each RF chain. Analog beamforming, on the other hand, is a simple and effective method of generating high beamforming gains from a large number of antennas but less flexible than digital counterpart.
For analog MBAs, BFN on the basis of multipole microwave circuits are usually applied. In particular, multipoles based on the Butler and Blass schemes are in common use since they are more compact than quasi-optical BFNs. In addition, they can be performed on printed circuit boards decreasing BFN’s cost, size, weight, and power (C-SWaP) characteristics that are critical challenges in communication system design. For example, Butler matrix-based BFNs are exploited in the abovementioned iridium system. Currently, fixed-beam PAAs that use matrix BFNs based on a parallel circuitry (Butler matrix) and a serial circuitry (Blass matrix) [1] are being developed for photonics compatible mmWave small cell RSs of incoming 5G NR mobile communication networks.
Following this, below, a short theoretical study using ideal models is presented pursuing the goal to define the optimum RS’s omnidirectional antenna construction, type, and configuration of multi-beam matrix for its BFN and the input data for the posterior design and optimization of the specific photonics-based BFN for the mmWave-band PAA exploiting widespread computer-aided design (CAD) tools.
First, following [1], the schematics and characteristics of Butler and Blass matrixes are discussed below.
The traditional RF-band layout of Butler matrix consists of quadrature hybrids, fixed phase shifters, and transmission lines between them. A matrix can be used to feed a PAA; the number of elements of which is a multiple of degree 2. Figure 3 demonstrates the block diagram (a) and BFN beam rosette (b) of the 8-element Butler matrix.
(a) Block diagram of 8×8 traditional Butler matrix and (b) corresponding BFN beam rosette.
The number of inputs of the matrix is equal to the number of outputs. The amplitude-phase distribution at the outputs of the Butler matrix is described by the following formula:
where N is the number of channels; m and n are the number of the inputs and outputs, respectively. It should be noted that Eq. (1) is essentially a fast Fourier transform.
When connected to a linear equidistant PAA of N omnidirectional element, the Butler matrix forms N orthogonal beams, symmetrically located relative to the normal, with maxima in the azimuth directions φi measured from the PAA broadside and determined by the formula:
where
Examples of the normalized radiation patterns for 4×4 (a) and 8×8 (b) Butler matrix.
Thus, due to the simplicity of the design and a relatively small number of elements, the Butler matrix is used in tasks that do not require the possibility of arbitrarily setting beam directions, for example, in covering the wide service sector of a wireless system.
The Blass matrix consists of directional couplers connected to the inputs and outputs using transmission lines with different fixed delays. The matrix can be used to supply signals to the PAA with an arbitrary number of elements; the number of inputs can also be arbitrary and is determined by the required number of beams to be formed. The block diagram of the Blass matrix for three inputs and eight outputs, as well as the BFN beam rosette is shown in Figure 5.
Block diagram of the 3×8 Blass matrix (bottom) and corresponding BFN beam rosette (top).
The amplitude-phase distribution at the outputs of the Blass matrix with N inputs is determined by the delays of the transmission lines τmn and the levels of the signals branched off each of the directional couplers amn according to the formula:
where m is the input number n is the output number.
Due to the fact that the RF signal from the input port sequentially passes through several directional couplers for feeding all the PAA elements, each coupler in the matrix must has the strictly defined value of the branch ratio, which greatly complicates the design. The configuration of the Blass matrix requires a larger number of directional couplers than Butler matrix, which increases its cost and often degrades the C-SWAP characteristics. However, due to the use of delay lines, the beams do not deviate from their position when the wavelength λ varies as it happens using the Butler matrix (see Eq. (2)). For this reason, the Blass matrix is better feasible for ultrawide band systems with a fractional bandwidth of more than 20%, as well as in systems requiring specific beam placement, for example, in satellite broadcasting equipment. Based on this outcome, in the course of further consideration of 5G mmWave MBA beam steering, only the BFN based on the Butler matrix will be studied.
From the outcome of Section 1, it follows that using an antenna’s installation height of 3 m and a coverage radius of 50 m, the elevation angle of 78°, provided by a half-wave dipole in the E-plane, is sufficient to provide a radius of not more than 0.5 m for the dead zone in the immediate vicinity of the mast (see Figure 6).
Calculation of the radiation pattern in the elevation plane for one-dimensional PAA.
As can be seen in Figure 4, the extreme beams generated by the Butler matrix have a significantly greater width and less directivity than the others do. Their use should be abandoned in order to avoid creating significant interference outside the service sector. Thus, the 4×4 matrix makes it possible to effectively exploit only two beams, which is not enough for spatial multiplexing of communication channels under the conditions illustrated in Figure 2; it is necessary to use an 8×8 matrix with six active channels. A fan using six beams allows covering a sector of the order of 50° for the −4 dB level (see Figure 4), which provides a full 360° coverage with four PAAs mounted at 90° relative to each other, as shown in Figure 7.
Configuration of the antenna system for the mmWave pico-cell remote station under study.
According to [1], the radiation pattern of a PAA
where
For a half-wave dipole,
For a one-dimensional linear equidistant 8×1 PAA with a distance between elements d = λ0/2
where
Equation (7) is fundamental for further modeling.
Note that to ensure the required coverage in the elevation plane, the PAA panels have to be tilted to the ground at an angle near 45°. The unidirectional coverage provided in the azimuth plane by four sub-arrays of antenna system is illustrated in Figure 8.
Radiation pattern of RS antenna system in the azimuth plane.
To summarize, the following outcomes could be concluded:
The Butler matrix is more suitable for the formation of a multipath radiation pattern in comparison with the Blass matrix because of its simpler design, fewer components, and better C-SWAP characteristics.
The use of six central beams, generated by the eight-channel Butler matrix, provides a coverage sector of about 50° and does not create a significant level of interference beyond its limits.
The omnidirectional coverage of the service area is provided by using half-wave dipoles as elements of the one-dimensional PAA, providing coverage of 78° in elevation angle and an antenna system of four linear PAA, providing overall coverage of 360° in azimuth.
Due to the difficulty in providing time delays between PAA elements, phase shifters usually control the steering signal instead of using actual time delays, because their realization in RF band is much simpler, especially in the case of limited bandwidth. However, a phenomenon called “beam squint” leads to an error in the direction of the maximum of the PAA pattern and also to a certain increase in the level of the side lobes. Nevertheless, as known, a BFN based on phase shifters has become widespread in relatively narrowband RF-band PAAs with a fractional bandwidth, commonly not exceeding 10%, depending on the criterion used [16]. Though, the development of a key trend for 5G NR networks associated with the implementing the mmWave in the wireless frontend has led to a change in the design principle of the access network’s RS, whose antenna pattern was steered using photonics technique. At the same time, due to the more complexity for the implementation of fundamentally narrowbandwidth phase shifters in the optical range, the so-called true -time delay (TTD) concept based on wideband optical delay lines has been widely used [17, 18, 19, 20].
Thus, when the fractional bandwidth of the BFN under design exceeds the 10% as noted above, it is required to determine the optimal approach by analyzing the sensitivity of the radiation pattern to the frequency change in the entire specific RF range. We previously performed this procedure for the mmWave PAA with single-beam photonics BFN operating in the 57–76 GHz RF band (fractional bandwidth of 28.6%) [10]. As a result of the direct comparison, the TTD approach was unambiguously selected, since using phase shifters in the BFN produced more than 10% shift in the azimuth angle for the main lobe of the NRP, as well as increase in the side lobes level by almost 10 dB. This chapter discusses a mmWave multiple-beam photonics BFN operating in the 37–43.5 GHz band (fractional bandwidth of 16%), for the implementation of which the Butler matrix (see Figure 3) is preselected (see section 3). In its scheme, to ensure the required phase shifts, optical delay lines of constant length are usually used [21]; therefore, prior to designing the specific BFN, the sensitivity analysis is also necessary.
In the process of simulation using MATLAB software, the sensitivity of the PAA’s NRP is examined for the example of a linear equidistant array of eight ideal isotropic elements designed for operation at the center (40.25 GHz) and two extreme (37.0 and 43.5 GHz) frequencies of the specified RF range. The BFN diagram was drawn based on the 8×8 Butler matrix according to Figure 3 with the replacement of phase shifters with ideal equivalent delay circuits, in which the constant delay Δt was calculated at the center RF frequency fc using the following well-known formula:
where
Table 2 lists the calculation results for phase shift (see Figure 3).
Phase shift | 22.5° | 45.0° | 67.5° | 90.0° |
Time delay | 1.55 ps | 3.1 ps | 4.65 ps | 6.2 ps |
Time delays of the equivalent delay circuits of 8×8 Butler matrix.
The results for MATLAB calculations of NRP using Eq. (7) at the center RF, lower RF, and upper RF in the azimuth angles range of ±50° from PAA broadside are shown in Figures 9–11, correspondingly.
NRP at the center RF of 40.25 GHz using phase matrix (top) or time delay matrix (bottom).
NRP at the lower RF of 37.0 GHz using phase matrix (top) or time delay matrix (bottom).
NRP at the upper RF of 43.5 GHz using phase matrix (top) or time delay matrix (bottom).
To summarize, the following outcomes could be concluded.
According to [1], a Butler matrix provides a predetermined phase distribution at its outputs within the operating frequency band of its constituent components, such as quadrature hybrids and phase shifters. In it, when the RF deviates from the central one, the effect of beam squint is observed. The set of the beams narrows at the upper frequency and expands at the lower one, but the intersection point of the neighboring beams still remains at −4 dB from the maximum.
When used in the matrix, some delay elements with the values given in Table 2, the effect of the beam squint is not observed, and the positions of the maxima do not change with RF, but the radiation patterns lose orthogonality, and the beams have a greater overlap at the lower frequency and less at the highest one.
Despite visible deviations in the shape of radiation patterns, the simulation results demonstrate the possibility of using delay elements in the Butler matrix to ensure uniform coverage of the sector ±50° in the 37–43.5 GHz operating frequency range when the antenna elements are spaced through half the wavelength corresponding to the center frequency.
In general, photonics-based BFNs for PAAs have many potential advantages over their electrical counterparts [18, 19, 22], such as small size, low weight, no susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, and, especially, wide instantaneous bandwidth, and squint-free array steering while using TTD concept. This section first reviews the state of the art in mmWave photonic beamforming concepts and technologies and their potential application in multiple-beam antennas. Following it an updated schematic of multiple-beam mmWave array feed networks using photonics integrated circuit (PIC) of optical Butler matrix is proposed and modeling by well-known software tool VPIphotonics Design Suite [23].
To date several optical beamforming architectures have been proposed using different technological implementations [10] such as free-space optics, fiber optics, or integrated optics. Among them, integrated photonic beamformers (IPBF) are of particular interest from the point of view of compactness and moderate implementation costs [21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. In addition, their attractiveness is expected to increase as the RF signal frequency increases up to mmWave. Today, a number of reviews and research papers are devoted to the study of building principles for 5G NR small cells in the mmWave band [13, 21, 29, 30]. Table 3 highlights the main design principles and ways for mmWave IPBF.
No. | Time delay unit | Scheme | Bandwidth | Steering method, settling time | Delay range | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Integrated waveguide | Binary with 2×2 switches | Narrowband 42.7 GHz | Switchable, 4 bit, 20 ns | 15.7 ps | [31] |
2 | Optical ring resonator | 1×4 TTD binary tree | 8.7 GHz at 90 GHz | Thermal tuning | 172.4 ps | [32] |
3 | Integrated waveguide | 2×2 Butler matrix | Approximately 200 MHz | Fixed | 100 ps | [21] |
4 | Optical ring resonator | 16×1 TTD binary tree | 2.5 GHz | Thermal tuning | 1200 ns | [33] |
5 | Integrated waveguide | 8×8 Blass matrix | — | — | — | [33] |
6 | Integrated PLC waveguide | Independent phase and amplitude control, four channels | Narrowband, 60.8 GHz | Thermo-optic effect | ±45° | [34] |
Examples of mmWave IPBF.
The review of the referred sources allows us to conclude the following:
The direction of mmWave IPBF is at the initial stage of its development. There are a small number of publications related to the research and development of IPBF in the field of telecommunications.
There are two approaches to ensuring delays in an IPBF. The first is based on the transit time through the planar waveguide. The disadvantage of this method is the relatively large length of the waveguide, which leads to an attenuation of the signal and an increase in the dimensions of the beamformer. However, this method is often used due to the ease of implementation.
The second approach involves the use of optical ring resonators. Its main disadvantage is narrowing the bandwidth with increasing group delay time, which leads to the necessity of cascading elements to obtain feasible delays. Nevertheless, with the help of ring resonators, it is possible to obtain an order of magnitude larger delay values.
One of the most promising techniques for designing an RS’s PAA is to use IPBFs based on a multiple-beam Butler matrix.
Analysis of the publications referenced in Table 3 allows us to draw a generalized block diagram of photonics-based mmWave multiple-beam array feed network for downlink channel of RS, which is shown in Figure 12.
Generalized block diagram of photonics-based mmWave multiple-beam array feed network.
As follows from the Figure, the principal units are the laser sources (LS), optical modulators (OMs) performing the operation of electro-optical conversion, and the intensity of the output signal for which is controlled by the mmWave transmitter (TX). The output optical signals of the OMs are fed to a spatial distribution unit based on 8×8 optical Butler matrix. A photoreceiver unit (PRU) is connected to its outputs performing the operations of reverse optical-to-electrical conversion and amplification of the mmWave electrical signal to a level sufficient for reliable radio communication within the pico-cell of Figure 2, which is performed using the array antenna (AA). Note that the uplink channel between UT and RS is designed in a similar way and can be simplified using the reciprocity property of the Butler matrix.
In this work, the subject of the study is a mmWave multiple-beam array feed network, and the device of the study is an integrated optical Butler matrix. A tool for the computer simulation is the well-known commercial software VPIphotonics Design Suite™. In the course of the research, first of all, the accuracy of creating a mmWave 8×8 integrated OBM is checked. Then, the transmission quality of a mmWave multiple-beam array feed network using this OBM through the downlink channel for one of four sectors of the pico-cell RS (see Figures 2 and 7) is analyzed by the simulation in VPI and MATLAB software. Table 4 lists the reference data for the integrated OBM under study and the setup for its characterization. In addition, Table 5 lists the reference data for the array feed network under analysis.
Parameter | Value | |
---|---|---|
Number of optical inputs | 8 | |
Number of optical outputs | 8 | |
Band of RF carrier frequencies | 37.5–41.0 GHz | |
Input RF power | −11 to −26 dBm | |
Material platform for IPBF | TriPleX (Si3N4/SiO2) [35] | |
PIN photodiode | Responsivity | 0.92 A/W |
Dark current | 100 nA | |
3 dB bandwidth | 50 GHz | |
Optical input power | <3 mW | |
Laser source | Optical carrier | 193.1 THz |
Average power | 50 mW | |
Linewidth | 10 kHz | |
Optical modulator | Principle | Electro-absorption |
Modulation type | Intensity, double sideband | |
Spectral range | C band | |
Modulation index | 0.5 | |
Chirp factor | 0 |
The reference data for the OBM under study and the setup for its characterization.
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
Overall number of mobile UTs in the pico-cell | 72 |
Number of mobile UTs in one sector | 18 |
Number of PAA sectors | 4 (see Figure 7) |
Number of PAA beams in one sector | 6 |
Number of RF carrier frequencies | 6 |
Band of RF carrier frequencies | 38.0–40.5 |
Spacing of RF carrier frequencies | 0.5 GHz |
The reference data for the array feed network under analysis.
According to the outcomes in the previous section, when analyzing with the help of MATLAB software, before modeling the integrated OBM using VPIphotonics Design Suite environment, it is worth checking the phase shifts provided by the equivalent delay elements based on integrated waveguides. Figure 13 depicts the model that consists of one delay-less arm and the four arms with library models of TriPleX-based integrated waveguides (ng = 2.016) providing phase shift of 22.5°, 45°, 67.5°, and 90°, correspondingly (see Figure 3a for the reference), and setup for the simulation experiments. In addition, there are two instrumental library models in the setup. The first one imitates optical transmitting module including library models of laser source and optical modulator EA controlled by RF generator tuning in the band of 37.5–41.0 GHz. The second one imitates optical receiving module including library models of PIN photodiode and RF network analyzer recording amplitude and phase RF signal distribution at the photodiode output. One can see their relevant parameters in Table 4.
Equivalent delay elements of integrated OBM.
Then, Figure 14 depicts the model and setup of 8×8 OBM that in according to Figure 3a contains the models of quadrature optical hybrids (QOH) and library models of the straight waveguide as a phase shifter.
The model and setup for simulation of 8×8 PIC-based OBM.
Due to the lack of a suitable library model in this software tool, QOH is designed as a so-called “galactic” module G, containing, in accordance with a typical circuitry of an electrical analog, library models of two optical X-couplers and two optical straight waveguides with 90° phase shift. Both elements are carried out based on TriPleX technology. The internal scheme of the galactic module is presented in Figure 15. In addition, the setup of Figure 14 includes two instrumental library models, which are the same as in Figure 13.
The internal scheme for the galactic module G of a quadrature optical hybrid.
The module of Figure 15 contains a set of PIC library models, such as two Y-branches (YB), four straight waveguides (SW) including two SW for 90° phase shift, and two compensating SW with equivalent phase shift of 360°, six 90° waveguide bends (WB), one waveguide crossing element (WC), and two X-couplers (XC).
Finally, Figure 16 depicts the model and setup for the mmWave multiple-beam array feed network under study that contains the model of 8×8 OBM (see Figure 14) with six inputs because as shown in subsection 3.1, the extreme beams generated by the Butler matrix (A2 and A7 in Figure 3) have a significantly greater width and less directivity than the others do (see Figure 4). In addition, there are two instrumental library models in the setup. The first one imitates optical transmitting module including library models of laser source and six optical modulators controlled by six RF generators, the RF carriers of which are allocated in the band of 38.0–40.5 GHz. The second one imitates optical receiving module including library models of eight PIN photodiodes and eight RF network analyzers recording amplitude and phase RF signal distributions at the photodiode outputs. One can see their relevant parameters in Tables 4 and 5.
The model and setup for simulation of mmWave multiple-beam array feed network.
First, a simulation experiment for the delay elements of PIC-based OBM (see Figure 13) was carried out. Table 6 lists the results of phase error values for the center and two extreme frequencies of the RF generator.
Reference phase shift | −22.5° | −45° | −67.5° | −90° | |
Equivalent lengths (mm) | 0.215 | 0.437 | 0.662 | 0.883 | |
Error value | At the center RF | −0.1° | −0.2° | −0.4° | −0.5° |
At the lowest RF | −1° | −2° | −3° | −4° | |
At the upper RF | 1° | 2° | 3.1° | 4.1° |
The simulation results of phase error values at the outputs of OBM under test.
Then, a simulation experiment for the PIC-based 8×8 OBM (see Figure 14) was carried out when the output of EA was alternately connected to each input of OBM, and at each point, the RF generator was sequentially tuned to the frequency of each downlink channel. Table 7 exemplifies the simulation results of phase error values for channel A6 (see Figure 16) at the corresponding outputs.
Input RF (GHz) | Output | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B1 | B5 | B2 | B6 | B3 | B7 | B4 | B8 | |
39.0 | 10.4 | 9.5 | 9.1 | 8.3 | 7 | 6.1 | 5.6 | 4.8 |
38.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.5 |
40.5 | −13.2 | −12.7 | −11 | −9.8 | −9.2 | −8 | −6.5 | −5.2 |
The phase error values for the center and two extreme frequencies of the RF generators.
Finally, a simulation experiment for the mmWave multiple-beam array feed network of Figure 16 was carried out. Figure 17 exemplifies the calculation results of the back-baffled normalized radiation patterns generated at the central and two extreme frequencies of the input RF band based on the data for the amplitude and phase distribution of the waveforms at the outputs of the OBM, previously obtained using the calculation in the VPI software.
Normalized radiation patterns for the mmWave multiple-beam array feed network under test (a) at 39.5 GHz (b) at 38 GHz (c) at 40.5 GHz.
The following outputs can be derived from our study:
According to Table 6, the phase error values for the tested delay elements of PIC-based OBM are not more than ±4°.
According to Table 7, the phase error values for 8×8 PIC-based OBM under test are not more than +10°/−13°.
The assessment showed that the approximate area of the PIC is near 270 mm2, which is approximately 50 times less than the size of the electronic counterpart [36].
According to Figure 17, the replacement of phase shifters with TTD elements led to a change in the position of the main lobe maximum and an increase in the relative level of side lobes. However, in comparison with the ideal radiation patterns of Figures 9–11, the azimuth position change does not exceed ±2°, and the increase in the level is not more than 2 dB.
In the chapter, we explored and demonstrated the effectiveness of using reconfigurable multiple-beam array feed network based on millimeter-wave integrated photonics beamformers for the phased array antennas, which were known for a long time in the radar technique, in the small cells of the incoming fifth-generation mobile communication systems. The study was carried out using a specific example of designing an 8×8 optical Butler matrix-based photonics-steered beamforming network of a transmitting phased array antenna for a pico-cell remote station operating in the Ka/V-band with a 16% fractional bandwidth allocated as a promising one for future 5G systems. For this goal, we firstly reviewed the specialties of millimeter-wave photonics technique in 5G wireless networks of Radio-over-Fiber architecture. Then, to determine the input data for subsequent design, a theoretical background of array antenna beam steering using ideal models of phase shifters and true-time delay lines was presented. Comparison of the two most frequently used approaches to the design of multiple-beam antenna arrays based on Butler or Blass matrices showed the advantage of the first option for operation in the remote station of a 5G pico-cell.
A brief analysis of the available integrated millimeter-wave optical beamforming networks showed that the direction is at the initial stage of its development. A distinctive feature of the optical Butler matrix for designing beamformers is the simple possibility of reconfiguring the antenna system in two directions: frequency reconfiguration due to the rearrangement of the RF synthesizer and spatial reconfiguration due to the introduction of a multichannel optical switch at the input. As a result of the simulation experiments performed using VPIphotonics Design Suite and MATLAB software, for both the integrated optical Butler matrix itself and the beamformer based on it, an acceptable quality of beams formation in a particular 5G pico-cell was obtained.
This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, Grants No. 17-57-10002 and No. 18-29-20083.
The authors declare the lack of “conflict of interest.”
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
",metaTitle:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaDescription:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/retraction-and-correction-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\\n\\n1. RETRACTIONS
\\n\\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\\n\\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\\n\\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\\n\\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\\n\\n3. CORRECTIONS
\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"25"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b6091426454b1c484f4d38efc722d6dd",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Feed Additives in Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:3},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af14229738af402c3b595d7e124dce82",slug:"banking-and-finance",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"193",title:"Pathology",slug:"medicine-pathology",parent:{title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"},numberOfBooks:12,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:366,numberOfWosCitations:78,numberOfCrossrefCitations:80,numberOfDimensionsCitations:177,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine-pathology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9135",title:"Rare Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"607a44edc1c494df4d5d126af71ca89c",slug:"rare-diseases",bookSignature:"Zhan He Wu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9135.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"226446",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhan He",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"zhan-he-wu",fullName:"Zhan He Wu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6790",title:"Fluid and Electrolyte Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f74d43da90463b17a26bbf2fb7a09ed",slug:"fluid-and-electrolyte-disorders",bookSignature:"Usman Mahmood",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6790.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"183337",title:"Dr.",name:"Usman",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmood",slug:"usman-mahmood",fullName:"Usman Mahmood"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7009",title:"Hypoxia and Anoxia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"80148bd84e86e5fe1c7527637e8e3be8",slug:"hypoxia-and-anoxia",bookSignature:"Kusal K. Das and Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7009.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6297",title:"Histopathology",subtitle:"An Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"395c889b2d2cc4f452fe7e1ad8226fe4",slug:"histopathology-an-update",bookSignature:"Supriya Srivastava",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6297.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"85273",title:"Dr.",name:"Supriya",middleName:null,surname:"Srivastava",slug:"supriya-srivastava",fullName:"Supriya Srivastava"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5906",title:"Pathophysiology",subtitle:"Altered Physiological States",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b277409ee570d9c47798ff5b42638603",slug:"pathophysiology-altered-physiological-states",bookSignature:"David C. Gaze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5906.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71983",title:"Dr.",name:"David C.",middleName:null,surname:"Gaze",slug:"david-c.-gaze",fullName:"David C. Gaze"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6025",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",subtitle:"Current Approaches and Understanding",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6663d492aea23855b9fdcf753089981e",slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",bookSignature:"Yusuf Emes, Buket Aybar and Gühan Dergin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6025.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5955",title:"Chronic Kidney Disease",subtitle:"from Pathophysiology to Clinical Improvements",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b371e3b8f0d78aa871934011fa0860c7",slug:"chronic-kidney-disease-from-pathophysiology-to-clinical-improvements",bookSignature:"Thomas Rath",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5955.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67436",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Rath",slug:"thomas-rath",fullName:"Thomas Rath"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2619",title:"Histopathology",subtitle:"Reviews and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fe380d20a204de277654d4d89459cfc4",slug:"histopathology-reviews-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Enrique Poblet Martinez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2619.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"157748",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Poblet",slug:"enrique-poblet",fullName:"Enrique Poblet"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"788",title:"Topics in Renal Biopsy and Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff37da307f4471516e16d5801fbb9164",slug:"topics-in-renal-biopsy-and-pathology",bookSignature:"Muhammed Mubarak and Javed I. Kazi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/788.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"119854",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammed",middleName:null,surname:"Mubarak",slug:"muhammed-mubarak",fullName:"Muhammed Mubarak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"733",title:"Muscle Biopsy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d793e898675e9191a913e63cfebab37",slug:"muscle-biopsy",bookSignature:"Challa Sundaram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/733.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75812",title:"Dr.",name:"Challa",middleName:null,surname:"Sundaram",slug:"challa-sundaram",fullName:"Challa Sundaram"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"985",title:"Prostate Biopsy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d821ee10598f9f1022eda0fe588f035",slug:"prostate-biopsy",bookSignature:"Nabil Kaddis Bissada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/985.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92564",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil K.",middleName:null,surname:"Bissada",slug:"nabil-k.-bissada",fullName:"Nabil K. Bissada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"287",title:"Liver Biopsy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9856c3e2c382494e27f34c5264f50fd4",slug:"liver-biopsy",bookSignature:"Hirokazu Takahashi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/287.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"40534",title:"Dr",name:"Hirokazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takahashi",slug:"hirokazu-takahashi",fullName:"Hirokazu Takahashi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:12,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"18773",doi:"10.5772/20110",title:"Ishak versus METAVIR: Terminology, Convertibility and Correlation with Laboratory Changes in Chronic Hepatitis C",slug:"ishak-versus-metavir-terminology-convertibility-and-correlation-with-laboratory-changes-in-chronic-h",totalDownloads:33114,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,book:{slug:"liver-biopsy",title:"Liver Biopsy",fullTitle:"Liver Biopsy"},signatures:"Gamal Shiha and Khaled Zalata",authors:[{id:"37453",title:"Prof.",name:"Gamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shiha",slug:"gamal-shiha",fullName:"Gamal Shiha"}]},{id:"18781",doi:"10.5772/19224",title:"Transient Elastography for Assessment of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease",slug:"transient-elastography-for-assessment-of-non-alcoholic-fatty-liver-disease",totalDownloads:2559,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"liver-biopsy",title:"Liver Biopsy",fullTitle:"Liver Biopsy"},signatures:"Ludovico Abenavoli",authors:[{id:"34117",title:"Prof.",name:"Ludovico",middleName:null,surname:"Abenavoli",slug:"ludovico-abenavoli",fullName:"Ludovico Abenavoli"}]},{id:"25595",doi:"10.5772/33534",title:"Generation and Use of Cultured Human Primary Myotubes",slug:"generation-and-use-of-cultured-human-primary-myotubes",totalDownloads:2954,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"muscle-biopsy",title:"Muscle Biopsy",fullTitle:"Muscle Biopsy"},signatures:"Lauren Cornall, Deanne Hryciw, Michael Mathai and Andrew McAinch",authors:[{id:"96027",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"McAinch",slug:"andrew-mcainch",fullName:"Andrew McAinch"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59286",title:"Surgical Approaches to the Temporomandibular Joint",slug:"surgical-approaches-to-the-temporomandibular-joint",totalDownloads:5359,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Mohammad Esmaeelinejad and Maryam Sohrabi",authors:[{id:"172188",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeelinejad",slug:"mohammad-esmaeelinejad",fullName:"Mohammad Esmaeelinejad"},{id:"240723",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Sohrabi",slug:"maryam-sohrabi",fullName:"Maryam Sohrabi"}]},{id:"41363",title:"Molecular Histopathology",slug:"molecular-histopathology",totalDownloads:6047,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"histopathology-reviews-and-recent-advances",title:"Histopathology",fullTitle:"Histopathology - Reviews and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Hussein A. Kaoud",authors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",middleName:null,surname:"Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud"}]},{id:"58358",title:"Internal Derangements of the Temporomandibular Joint: Diagnosis and Management",slug:"internal-derangements-of-the-temporomandibular-joint-diagnosis-and-management",totalDownloads:2059,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"temporomandibular-joint-pathology-current-approaches-and-understanding",title:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology",fullTitle:"Temporomandibular Joint Pathology - Current Approaches and Understanding"},signatures:"Ufuk Tatli and Vladimir Machon",authors:[{id:"203864",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ufuk",middleName:null,surname:"Tatli",slug:"ufuk-tatli",fullName:"Ufuk Tatli"},{id:"204401",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Machon",slug:"vladimir-machon",fullName:"Vladimir Machon"}]},{id:"58425",title:"Inflammation and Chronic Kidney Disease: Current Approaches and Recent Advances",slug:"inflammation-and-chronic-kidney-disease-current-approaches-and-recent-advances",totalDownloads:1503,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"chronic-kidney-disease-from-pathophysiology-to-clinical-improvements",title:"Chronic Kidney Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Kidney Disease - from Pathophysiology to Clinical Improvements"},signatures:"Simona Mihai, Elena Codrici, Ionela Daniela Popescu, Ana-Maria\nEnciu, Laura Georgiana Necula, Gabriela Anton and Cristiana\nTanase",authors:[{id:"76152",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristiana",middleName:null,surname:"Pistol-Tanase",slug:"cristiana-pistol-tanase",fullName:"Cristiana Pistol-Tanase"},{id:"80114",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Anton",slug:"gabriela-anton",fullName:"Gabriela Anton"},{id:"215418",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana-Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Enciu",slug:"ana-maria-enciu",fullName:"Ana-Maria Enciu"},{id:"216223",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Codrici",slug:"elena-codrici",fullName:"Elena Codrici"},{id:"216226",title:"Dr.",name:"Ionela Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",slug:"ionela-daniela-popescu",fullName:"Ionela Daniela Popescu"},{id:"216227",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Mihai",slug:"simona-mihai",fullName:"Simona Mihai"},{id:"223988",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura Georgiana",middleName:null,surname:"Necula",slug:"laura-georgiana-necula",fullName:"Laura Georgiana Necula"}]},{id:"41355",title:"Ossifying Fibromas of the Craniofacial Skeleton",slug:"ossifying-fibromas-of-the-craniofacial-skeleton",totalDownloads:3180,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"histopathology-reviews-and-recent-advances",title:"Histopathology",fullTitle:"Histopathology - Reviews and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Bruno Carvalho, Manuel Pontes, Helena Garcia, Paulo Linhares and Rui Vaz",authors:[{id:"140061",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Carvalho",slug:"bruno-carvalho",fullName:"Bruno Carvalho"},{id:"142266",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Pontes",slug:"manuel-pontes",fullName:"Manuel Pontes"},{id:"142267",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Linhares",slug:"paulo-linhares",fullName:"Paulo Linhares"},{id:"142268",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Vaz",slug:"rui-vaz",fullName:"Rui Vaz"},{id:"142958",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"helena-garcia",fullName:"Helena Garcia"}]},{id:"62184",title:"Hyponatremia and Psychotropic Drugs",slug:"hyponatremia-and-psychotropic-drugs",totalDownloads:1011,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"fluid-and-electrolyte-disorders",title:"Fluid and Electrolyte Disorders",fullTitle:"Fluid and Electrolyte Disorders"},signatures:"Mireia Martínez Cortés and Pedro Gurillo Muñoz",authors:null},{id:"18778",title:"The Current Status of Non-Invasive Assessment of Liver Fibrosis: Real Time Tissue Elastography",slug:"the-current-status-of-non-invasive-assessment-of-liver-fibrosis-real-time-tissue-elastography",totalDownloads:3115,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"liver-biopsy",title:"Liver Biopsy",fullTitle:"Liver Biopsy"},signatures:"Hiroyasu Morikawa and Norifumi Kawada",authors:[{id:"34696",title:"Prof.",name:"Norifumi",middleName:null,surname:"Kawada",slug:"norifumi-kawada",fullName:"Norifumi Kawada"},{id:"53289",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyasu",middleName:null,surname:"Morikawa",slug:"hiroyasu-morikawa",fullName:"Hiroyasu Morikawa"}]},{id:"62764",title:"Thyroid Nodules in Diagnostic Pathology: From Classic Concepts to Innovations",slug:"thyroid-nodules-in-diagnostic-pathology-from-classic-concepts-to-innovations",totalDownloads:841,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"histopathology-an-update",title:"Histopathology",fullTitle:"Histopathology - An Update"},signatures:"Ilze Fridrihsone, Ilze Strumfa, Boriss Strumfs, Andrejs Vanags, Dainis\nBalodis, Arvids Jakovlevs, Arnis Abolins and Janis Gardovskis",authors:[{id:"54021",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilze",middleName:null,surname:"Strumfa",slug:"ilze-strumfa",fullName:"Ilze Strumfa"},{id:"159998",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnis",middleName:null,surname:"Abolins",slug:"arnis-abolins",fullName:"Arnis Abolins"},{id:"160000",title:"Prof.",name:"Janis",middleName:null,surname:"Gardovskis",slug:"janis-gardovskis",fullName:"Janis Gardovskis"},{id:"174929",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrejs",middleName:null,surname:"Vanags",slug:"andrejs-vanags",fullName:"Andrejs Vanags"},{id:"202252",title:"Dr.",name:"Arvids",middleName:null,surname:"Jakovlevs",slug:"arvids-jakovlevs",fullName:"Arvids Jakovlevs"},{id:"202253",title:"Dr.",name:"Dainis",middleName:null,surname:"Balodis",slug:"dainis-balodis",fullName:"Dainis Balodis"},{id:"203012",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilze",middleName:null,surname:"Fridrihsone",slug:"ilze-fridrihsone",fullName:"Ilze Fridrihsone"},{id:"205692",title:"MSc.",name:"Boriss",middleName:null,surname:"Strumfs",slug:"boriss-strumfs",fullName:"Boriss Strumfs"}]},{id:"55576",title:"The Roles of Indoxyl Sulphate and p-Cresyl Sulphate in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Review of Therapeutic Options",slug:"the-roles-of-indoxyl-sulphate-and-p-cresyl-sulphate-in-patients-with-chronic-kidney-disease-a-review",totalDownloads:782,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"chronic-kidney-disease-from-pathophysiology-to-clinical-improvements",title:"Chronic Kidney Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Kidney Disease - from Pathophysiology to Clinical Improvements"},signatures:"Melissa Nataatmadja, Yeoungjee Cho, Katrina Campbell and David\nW. Johnson",authors:[{id:"50425",title:"Prof.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Johnson",slug:"david-johnson",fullName:"David Johnson"},{id:"183338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yeoungjee",middleName:null,surname:"Cho",slug:"yeoungjee-cho",fullName:"Yeoungjee Cho"},{id:"205845",title:"Dr.",name:"Melissa",middleName:null,surname:"Nataatmadja",slug:"melissa-nataatmadja",fullName:"Melissa Nataatmadja"},{id:"205846",title:"Dr.",name:"Katrina",middleName:null,surname:"Campbell",slug:"katrina-campbell",fullName:"Katrina Campbell"}]},{id:"41354",title:"Neuronal and Mixed Neuronal-Glial Tumors of the Central Nervous System",slug:"neuronal-and-mixed-neuronal-glial-tumors-of-the-central-nervous-system",totalDownloads:3810,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"histopathology-reviews-and-recent-advances",title:"Histopathology",fullTitle:"Histopathology - Reviews and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Mohammed M.A. Al Barbarawi, Mohammed Z. Allouh and Suhair M.A. Qudsieh",authors:[{id:"139562",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Barbarawi",slug:"mohammed-barbarawi",fullName:"Mohammed Barbarawi"},{id:"141645",title:"Dr.",name:"Suhair",middleName:null,surname:"Qudsieh",slug:"suhair-qudsieh",fullName:"Suhair Qudsieh"},{id:"154721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Allouh",slug:"mohammed-allouh",fullName:"Mohammed Allouh"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine-pathology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/148707/renata-falchete-do-prado",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"148707",slug:"renata-falchete-do-prado"},fullPath:"/profiles/148707/renata-falchete-do-prado",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()