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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5990",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advancing Insights on Brand Management",title:"Brand Management",subtitle:"Advancing Insights on",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is an original, high-quality collection of chapters about highly topical and important brand management issues, and it shows both theoretical and empiric analysis. The 10 selected chapters are referred, with original contents and rigorous research methodologies, to some important challenges the brand management has to face in the current competitive contexts, characterized by the dominance of the intangible resources and the new information and communication technologies. \nWritten by leading academics, this book is dedicated not only to marketing and management scholars but also to students wanting to investigate the knowledge concerning special fields and special brand management themes. As well to the practitioners who can find a wide reference also to the managerial implication from the strategic and operative perspectives.",isbn:"978-953-51-3598-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3597-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4613-1",doi:"10.5772/66566",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"advancing-insights-on-brand-management",numberOfPages:210,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"aab18f005b06cdccb4a8cfda902f5167",bookSignature:"Paolo Popoli",publishedDate:"November 8th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5990.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15750,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:16,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 17th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 8th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 6th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 4th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 3rd 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"179600",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Popoli",slug:"paolo-popoli",fullName:"Paolo Popoli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179600/images/6377_n.png",biography:"Paolo Popoli is a faculty member of Parthenope University of Naples, Italy, where he has been working since 2005 as an Associate Professor of management. He teaches management, retail management and public services management, and he has also been teaching marketing and international marketing for several years. He has been Professor at other prestigious Italian universities, Visiting Fellow at Warwick Business School (UK) and, since 2018, he collaborates with the Université de Limoges (FR) teaching marketing. In recent years he has been concentrating his research activities on brand management, corporate social responsibility, social innovation, outsourcing. His most recent research activity is more focused on qualitative analysis. He is the author of books and numerous papers published in peer-reviewed international journals, mainly focused on the conceptual and theoretical aspects of the topics.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"466",title:"Retail Marketing",slug:"retail-marketing"}],chapters:[{id:"57079",title:"The Holistic Vision of Brand Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71303",slug:"the-holistic-vision-of-brand-management",totalDownloads:1401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the past several decades, brand management has gone through an evolution from the traditional customer-oriented and firm-focused paradigm toward a wider vision concerning the target and the users of the brand and the process of creation of the brand value. In particular, the brand management literature has endorsed the stakeholder theory and service-dominant logic principles with reference to the process of determining the brand meanings and the brand value. The aim of this chapter is going over the evolutionary process of the brand management during the latest years in order to get to a holistic vision, considering the brand as a conceptual construction originated by the interaction between the firm and multiple stakeholders and the brand value as the result of a dynamic and social process of co-creation of the brand meanings and functions. Therefore, this chapter is conceptual in nature, and it aims to investigate the state of art of brand management providing conceptual examinations about the way the brand meanings and value originate, with a particular reference to the present economic and competitive contests dominated by the Web-based technologies and by the related interaction processes within a broad stakeholders’ ecosystem.",signatures:"Paolo Popoli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57079",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57079",authors:[{id:"179600",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Popoli",slug:"paolo-popoli",fullName:"Paolo Popoli"}],corrections:null},{id:"56584",title:"Product Placement as an Effective Tool for the Brand Positioning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69989",slug:"product-placement-as-an-effective-tool-for-the-brand-positioning",totalDownloads:2415,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Brand is currently one of the most important tools in the battle for the consumer. Therefore, positioning of the brand nowadays is a priority element in the marketing strategy of the enterprises. Each of them strives to effectively reach the consumer through various sources of marketing communications. The alternative to traditional advertising in the press or television has become the nontraditional marketing communications such as product placement and branding. This tool is much more effective because of the ability to direct the relevant marketing message to selected audience group at the right time and place. The aim of this chapter is to present selected aspects of product and brand placement as an unconventional tool for brand positioning. The special attention was given to define product and brand placement as well as to present its role in the creation of brand value for customers. This chapter consists of four parts related to (1) “introduction”; (2) “brand positioning and its role in product and brand placement”; (3) “product placement as one of the unconventional promotional tools with special attention given to definition, advantages and disadvantages, effectiveness, as well as some examples related to movies, printed publications, and video games”; and (4) “conclusion.”",signatures:"Hanna Górska-Warsewicz and Olena Kulykovets",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56584",authors:[{id:"203607",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Olena",surname:"Kulykovets",slug:"olena-kulykovets",fullName:"Olena Kulykovets"},{id:"203609",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hanna",surname:"Gorska-Warsewicz",slug:"hanna-gorska-warsewicz",fullName:"Hanna Gorska-Warsewicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"56071",title:"Service Branding: Suggesting and Discussing Four Perspectives Influencing a Value-Creating Service Brand at the Company Level",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69636",slug:"service-branding-suggesting-and-discussing-four-perspectives-influencing-a-value-creating-service-br",totalDownloads:1542,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter suggests and discusses four interrelated perspectives, which, we argue, influence a value-creating service brand at the company level. One research question is posed: which perspectives are useful and applicable in the development of a value-creating service brand at the company level? Four interrelated perspectives are outlined and discussed: a customer perspective, a management perspective, a service employee perspective, and a knowledge perspective. The discussion section of the chapter includes an interactive, circular model, which shows how the four perspectives directly and indirectly impact on the creation of a value-creating service brand. In the chapter, a set of theoretical and practical implications is drawn. Illustratively, on the theoretical side, one implication is that a high degree of service orientation together with change-oriented, value-driven management orientation is required in order to foster, develop, and sustain a value-creating service brand at the company level. On the practical side, one advice is to upgrade the role of knowledge of an important intangible resource by working in accordance with the principles of a dynamic knowledge system.",signatures:"Hugo Skaalsvik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56071",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56071",authors:[{id:"202572",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo",surname:"Skaalsvik",slug:"hugo-skaalsvik",fullName:"Hugo Skaalsvik"}],corrections:null},{id:"56261",title:"Critical Success Factors in Strategic Brand Management in Luxury Fashion Markets: The Case of Isaia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69735",slug:"critical-success-factors-in-strategic-brand-management-in-luxury-fashion-markets-the-case-of-isaia",totalDownloads:1679,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter examines the critical role of branding in sustaining the competitive advantage of firms in the luxury fashion markets. This can include brand communication, the flagship store, channel relationships, the customization and the event marketing. The chapter sets out an analytical framework that can be used to identify the main critical success factors in the fashion luxury market. Adopting the case study method, we validate this framework by studying a pilot firm, Isaia, which is a traditional Italian firm operating in the fashion luxury industry (clothing for men). Isaia is an interesting case study of the branding strategies of a niche fashion firm in the face of global competition. Through the original framework, we have identified the company’s main critical success factors that—in the exploratory stage of our research—support the work purposes. In particular, the main findings from the case study demonstrate that Isaia’s competitive advantage is found on customized products (luxury traditions), events (dinner parties, in‐store entertainment, etc.) and retail strategy (flagship showrooms in Milan and Moscow).",signatures:"Marcello Risitano, Annarita Sorrentino and Michele Quintano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56261",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56261",authors:[{id:"203953",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",surname:"Risitano",slug:"marcello-risitano",fullName:"Marcello Risitano"},{id:"209419",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",surname:"Sorrentino",slug:"annarita-sorrentino",fullName:"Annarita Sorrentino"},{id:"209421",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Quintano",slug:"michele-quintano",fullName:"Michele Quintano"}],corrections:null},{id:"56287",title:"Retail Brand Extension: From Theory to Practice. A Multi- Country Study of European Grocery Retailers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69990",slug:"retail-brand-extension-from-theory-to-practice-a-multi-country-study-of-european-grocery-retailers",totalDownloads:1427,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter reviews the literature on brand extension, with particular reference to retail brand extension strategies performed by grocery retailers. Aims, advantages and disadvantages, as well as types of this strategy are described. Then, the results of a survey aimed at comparing the customers’ perceptions and buying behaviour when retailers extend their brands, in particular when this strategy is pursued in non-traditional businesses, are presented. The survey consisted in administering a structured questionnaire aimed at investigating the main antecedents of brand extension success to samples of retail customers interviewed in two different retail national contexts, namely, Italy and France. The extension product investigated is car fuel offered through a fuel station branded with the retailer’s brand name. Applying Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), the mediating role of attitude towards the extension (ATEX) in generating brand extension success (INTEX) and the key role of fit and of the perceived capability of the retailer to offer the extension product (R&C) as antecedents were verified in both national contexts. On the contrary, the impact of customers’ preference towards national brands (NBP) reported mixed results.",signatures:"Elisa Martinelli and Francesca De Canio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56287",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56287",authors:[{id:"202495",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",surname:"Martinelli",slug:"elisa-martinelli",fullName:"Elisa Martinelli"},{id:"203822",title:"Ms.",name:"Francesca",surname:"De Canio",slug:"francesca-de-canio",fullName:"Francesca De Canio"}],corrections:null},{id:"56662",title:"Competition between Private Labels and National Brands in a Multichannel Retailer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69456",slug:"competition-between-private-labels-and-national-brands-in-a-multichannel-retailer",totalDownloads:1441,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter analyzes private label and national brand competition across online and offline channels. We analyze competition using three measures: market share, a loyalty index, and what is called in the literature conquesting power (a measure of the ability of a brand to capture nonloyal consumers). We first provide a brief theoretical introduction and literature research about the topic. We also do an empirical analysis using data of a multichannel grocery retailer that sells both its own private label and national brands, through physical stores and an online store. The data include the purchases made by a sample of multichannel consumers. We find that the private label increases, in general, its competitive position in the online channel, compared to the offline channel. However, this result does not hold for all the product categories. We discuss some drivers of this general improvement, as well as potential causes for the differences between categories. We conclude with some recommendations for multichannel retailers and manufacturers.",signatures:"Marta Arce-Urriza and Javier Cebollada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56662",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56662",authors:[{id:"202181",title:"Prof.",name:"Javier",surname:"Cebollada",slug:"javier-cebollada",fullName:"Javier Cebollada"},{id:"207075",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",surname:"Arce-Urriza",slug:"marta-arce-urriza",fullName:"Marta Arce-Urriza"}],corrections:null},{id:"56138",title:"Analysis of Antecedents that Contribute to Try New Products in Retail Commerce",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69878",slug:"analysis-of-antecedents-that-contribute-to-try-new-products-in-retail-commerce",totalDownloads:1163,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Offering innovative goods and/or brands to attract and retain customers is one of the challenges in the retail sector, which is characterized by high competitiveness and economic recession. This chapter analyzes the different variables that contribute to increasing customers’ willingness to try retailers’ innovations relative to the products and/or brands they offer. Specifically, we discuss the role that consumer satisfaction with price level, perceived quality of the assortment, and trust in the retailer plays in the dependent variable. The model is tested empirically on a sample of 498 individuals responsible for purchasing consumer products; causality is contrasted using a structural equation model (SEM). The results show that customers’ trust in the retailer is the most important factor in explaining the decision to try new products and brands, followed by perceived quality of the assortment and satisfaction with price level. Furthermore, our finding that trust in the retailer is the most influential antecedent of customer willingness to try the retailer’s innovations shows the importance of relationship marketing in the proposed model. Since this influence is significantly higher in the group of regular customers of the commercial chain, regular customers represent a sensitive segment for retailers in terms of product acceptance and testing.",signatures:"Natalia Rubio, Nieves Villaseñor Román and María Jesús Yagüe\nGuillén",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56138",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56138",authors:[{id:"203778",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Rubio",slug:"natalia-rubio",fullName:"Natalia Rubio"},{id:"204379",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nieves",surname:"Villaseñor",slug:"nieves-villasenor",fullName:"Nieves Villaseñor"},{id:"204380",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Jesús",surname:"Yague",slug:"maria-jesus-yague",fullName:"Maria Jesús Yague"}],corrections:null},{id:"55604",title:"Modeling a City’s Branding Tools: The Case of Istanbul",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69269",slug:"modeling-a-city-s-branding-tools-the-case-of-istanbul",totalDownloads:1540,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Recently, studies on city branding extend across academicians and practitioners, and there is a considerable growing body of research and practice related to city branding. Probably, the most prevailing reason is that cities all over the world engage in marketing and branding efforts in order to stay competitive and relevant on the global market. Cities have to compete with others in all areas they can: city’s tourism capacity, competitive advantage, quality of the place, history, lifestyle, and so on. The main purpose of this study is to present the conceptual and empirical framework of İstanbul’s branding issue in terms of a tourism plan. Therefore, this study attempts to contribute researchers and project implementers by detailing branding tools of İstanbul. In order to determine branding tools, two groups of information were obtained: one is the data received through the meetings done with professionals, and the other is the data received through tourists and citizens. With this information, tourism-oriented branding tools for İstanbul are developed. The following are the basic branding strategies accepted for İstanbul: (1) tourism variability and geographic wideness, (2) originality and character, (3) interaction and communication, (4) global effect, (5) strong infrastructure and high quality of life, (6) the spirit of the city, and (7) the symbol attributed to the city.",signatures:"Senay Oğuztimur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55604",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55604",authors:[{id:"202313",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Senay",surname:"Oguztimur",slug:"senay-oguztimur",fullName:"Senay Oguztimur"}],corrections:null},{id:"56120",title:"Management of a City Brand: An Examination on Three Stakeholders’ Attitudes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69458",slug:"management-of-a-city-brand-an-examination-on-three-stakeholders-attitudes",totalDownloads:1647,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Nowadays, cities mean more than just being a geographical border. Many researchers and practitioners evaluate cities under “brand” category; therefore, they adapt all kinds of branding techniques developed for products to cities. Thus, city branding has become a commonly studied topic in the literature within theoretical and practical contexts. The understanding of stakeholders’ needs lie behind the success of city branding. The three basic functions of cities, i.e. “to live, to do business, and to visit,” point to the fact that the stakeholders in city branding are composed of residents, entrepreneurs, and visitors. However, it is observed in the city branding literature that limited stakeholder groups are in focus. According to the limitedness in the literature, the purpose of this study is to analyze the attitudes and behaviors of stakeholder groups composed of residents, entrepreneurs, and visitors toward a city brand. Data of the study were acquired via face-to-face questionnaires with 1145 respondents of which 481 were residents, 342 were entrepreneurs, and 322 were visitors. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed as a research method. The findings of SEM show that the city brand elements that affect the attitudes of residents, entrepreneurs, and visitors toward the city brand are different.",signatures:"Funda Bayrakdaroğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56120",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56120",authors:[{id:"202744",title:"Dr.",name:"Funda",surname:"Bayrakdaroglu",slug:"funda-bayrakdaroglu",fullName:"Funda Bayrakdaroglu"}],corrections:null},{id:"56586",title:"Celebrity Endorsement: Developing A Brand Image in Housing Ads",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69651",slug:"celebrity-endorsement-developing-a-brand-image-in-housing-ads",totalDownloads:1496,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This article aims to analyze the celebrity endorsement strategy used to communicate brand image messages in housing advertisements. Even though there is a lot of literature about celebrity endorsement, no research has been made up to now about how this method is used in the housing market. Within the scope of the study, first housing advertisements published from 2001 to 2016 have been scanned. Hurriyet newspaper was selected as the source as it is the newspaper with the highest circulation. After all the advertisements published on Hurriyet newspaper have been scanned, advertisement where a celebrity was the spokesperson was determined. This research, which tries to explain celebrity endorsement widely used for marketing of housings with the “meaning transfer model” of McCracken, showed that in transferring cultural meaning of the celebrity to the product or housing, traits of attractiveness or credibility is exploited in general. However, it was seen that other meanings of the celebrity—modern, traditional, etc.—along with his/her credibility and attractiveness are effective in determining the image of the housing project marketed.",signatures:"Füsun Çizmeci Yöreş",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56586",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56586",authors:[{id:"201810",title:"Dr.",name:"Füsun",surname:"Çizmeci Yöreş",slug:"fusun-cizmeci-yores",fullName:"Füsun Çizmeci Yöreş"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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This book provides an update of the latest technological progress in signal processing and adaptive filters, with a focus on Kalman filters and applications. It illustrates fundamentals and guides filter design for specific applications, primarily for graduate students, academics, and industrial engineers who are interested in the theoretical, experimental, and design aspects of active filter technologies.",isbn:"978-1-83962-378-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-377-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-379-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91562",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"adaptive-filtering-recent-advances-and-practical-implementation",numberOfPages:152,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"143698bdab370da4f6c14ddf8624488c",bookSignature:"Wenping Cao and Qian Zhang",publishedDate:"October 20th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10376.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:1106,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 30th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 29th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A Chair Professor of Electrical Power Engineering at the Aston University, UK, and a Marie Curie Fellow at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"An Associate Professor with the School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Anhui University, China, with a Ph.D. in electrical engineering in 2014 received from the same university.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"174154",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenping",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"wenping-cao",fullName:"Wenping Cao",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/174154/images/system/174154.png",biography:"Professor Cao is a chair professor at Anhui University, China. He is a fellow of IET and a senior member of IEEE.\nHe received a Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit Award in 2016, the Dragon\\'s Den Competition Award from Queen\\'s University Belfast in 2014, and the Innovator of the Year Award from Newcastle University, UK, in 2013. He has served as an editor for IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, IEEE Transactions on Industry Application, IET Power Electronics, and several other international journals. He has published over 260 research articles and 12 edited books and book chapters. 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She received the “New Talent of Teaching Award” from Anhui Province in 2013. 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Surgery still has its place in the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) but it is reserved generally to cases in which medical treatment is unsuccessful in relieving symptoms, preventing disease progression and complications. As the medical treatment has added new drugs (especially newly targeted therapy) and surgical advance in technology has gain in more complex procedures with less morbidity and mortality and minimal invasivity there is a need for periodic update.
Good perioperative care always ensures better surgical results. Patients undergoing surgery for IBD must be prepared psychologically and medically.
Psychological preparation should start by explaining the patient the need for surgery. In this approach the surgeon must be aided by the gastroenterologist that has managed the patient for a long time in most of the cases. After acceptance of surgery, the patient must be explained the objectives, the advantages and disadvantages of each surgical intervention and the decision must be taken in common. People that will be submitted to stomas should also get a consultation from stomatherapist.
Medical preparation of the patients includes correction of hemoglobin, volemia, electrolytes and acid-base levels, coagulopathy, liver function. Total parenteral nutrition may be necessary in patients with nutritional deficits. Coexisting diseases should also be addressed. Any corticosteroid and immunosuppressive therapy should be discontinued before surgery, but corticosteroids need to be tapered immediately after surgery.
Adequate antibiotic prophylaxis or antibiotic therapy should be given, especially in cases with prolonged corticosteroid or infliximab therapy. Anyway, antibiotic prophylaxis pre and intraoperative is mandatory in colon surgery, but we think that may be continued several days after surgery especially in patient treated by corticosteroids and immunosupressive and immunomodulator therapy because of higher risk of infection on a reduced immune host defense.
The mechanical bowel preparation in elective cases is no longer mandatory in colon surgery and is contraindicated in patients with an acute abdomen or obstruction [1]
Approximately 30–40% of patients with ulcerative colitis will require surgical treatment.
Indications for surgery are:
intractable chronic disease,
lack of response to high-dose corticosteroid therapy
recurrence of symptoms upon stop of corticosteroid therapy,
disease progression under maximal medical therapy,
significant treatment-related complications such as severe steroid or infliximab side effects,
dysplasia or cancer in patients with long-standing colitis during endoscopic surveillance,
colonic strictures,
acute exacerbation of the disease not responsive to rescue therapy such as intravenous steroids, cyclosporine, or infliximab,
acute complications: hemorrhage, toxic megacolon, perforation, fulminant colitis,
extracolonic manifestations.
The development of restorative procedures such as the ileal pouch anal-canal anastomosis has made surgery a more attractive option in patients in whom medical therapy has been unsuccessful or undesirable.
The treatment of choice for acute severe steroid refractory ulcerative colitis is controversial [4]. Gastroenterologists sustain infliximab [5], while surgeons plead for colectomy [6].
The most common indication for elective surgery is disease activity that has been intractable to medical therapy. However, "intractable" is kind of blurry. Some authors have suggested that disease should be considered intractable when it or its treatment is associated with severe and persistent impairment in the quality of life [7]. However, these parameters are difficult to measure and are variable among individual patients.
Refractory acute severe ulcerative colitis (RASUC), is defined by greater than six bloody stools per day and one of the following: heart rate more that 90 beat/min, erythrocyte sedimentation rate more than 30mm/h, temperature more than 37.8°C, and hemoglobin less than 10.5 g/dl. The appropriate time to initiate surgical intervention during the treatment of RASUC has been a topic of investigation, because patients are usually severely malnourished, immunocompromised, and weakened by side-effects of immunomodulating drugs. [8].
Advances in medical therapy (including use of infliximab) have reduced the need for emergency surgery due to catastrophic complications such as massive hemorrhage, perforation, fulminant colitis, and acute colonic obstruction [9].
A longer duration of in-hospital ineffective medical therapy (8 versus 5 days) that delays surgical therapy in patients with acute severe ulcerative colitis is associated with an increased risk of postoperative complications [10].
Biologic agents were introduced with the intent to help avoid operative intervention in patients with moderately to severely active IBD who have demonstrated an inadequate response to conventional therapies. Ananthakrishnan et al. analyzing a large number of cases hospitalized for IBD found that the use of biologic agents decreases the incidence of emergency surgery in patients with mild disease, but not in those with severe forms. [11]
For Ousslan et al, failure to respond to infliximab determined the decision for colectomy in 19% of the patients. Predicting factors for colectomy were C-reactive protein > 10mg/l before treatment with infliximab, hemoglobin less than 9.4 g/dl, episodic use of infliximab, and previous treatment with cyclosporin. [12]
In the study of Gustavsson et al, with 3-year follow-up, infliximab significantly reduced the need for surgery at 3 month compared to placebo (29% vs 67%), for patients with corticosteroid refractory UC. At 3 years, 50% of patients in the infliximab group and 76% of patients in placebo group needed colectomy. [13]
In a spanish multicenter experience, patients in whom corticosteroids and ciclosporin failed to control the disease, were submitted to infliximab. A 40 years patient, operated because of infliximab failure died after surgery from nosocomial pneumonia. Authors stated that salvage therapy with infliximab after failed corticosteroids and ciclosporin may be associated with risk for morbidity and mortality and therefore should be used in selected patients. [14]
Adalimumab emerged as an indication in the cases in which there is partial or no response to infliximab. In a study from Taxonera et al at 48 weeks of follow-up only 20% of the patients needed surgery. Therefore, application of this new therapy may diminish the indications for surgery in the group of patient non-responders to infliximab therapy.
The risk of malignancy is directly proportional to the duration of disease. The risk during the first decade of disease is low, but increases substantially after that. After 30 years of disease the risk is about 50 %. [8] Patients with more than 10 years of disease should undergo a colonoscopy each year. Most of the gastroenterologists consider discovery of moderate to severe dysplasia an indication for surgery.
Surgical indication is seldom for extracolonic manifestations of IBD. Benefits from surgery will be in the rare cases of massive hemolytic anemia unresponsive to treatment. In those cases splenectomy should be associated to colectomy [7]. Another extracolonic indication for colectomy is thromboembolic complications. Erythema nodosum and arthralgia of the small and large joints appear to benefit the most from proctocolectomy [15]. In cases of pyoderma gangrenosum, ankylosing spondylitis and arthritis, sclerosing cholangitis surgery may not be so profitable.
Surgical options for ulcerative colitis are:
Proctocolectomy with permanent ileostomy (Brooke ileostomy)
Proctocolectomy with continent ileostomy (Kock pouch)
Abdominal colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis
Colectomy, mucosal proctectomy, and ileal pouch-anal canal anastomosis (IPAA)
Colectomy and stapled ileal pouch distal rectal anastomosis (IPDRA)
Curative procedure - Proctocolectomy with permanent ileostomy.
Avoiding of ileostomy - IPAA. Patients under infliximab - three stages IPAA
In the elective surgical population, the standard operation performed is a total proctocolectomy with ileal pouch anal anastomosis. Described by Parks and Nichols in 1978, the procedure involves excision of the abdominal colon, pelvic dissection to remove the rectum, creation of an ileal reservoir, and anastomosis of the pouch to the anus. A variety of pouch designs can be used. The most commonlyof thrm is the J-pouch. Preference for the J-pouch lies in its limited use of bowel, reliable emptying, and ease of construction. [8]
Mortality is low - 0.2–0.4%; however, the risk of pelvic sepsis can be as high as 23% from leaks from the ileoanal anastomosis. To prevent this complication, the operation could be performed in multiple stage (two or three), to allow anastomoses to heal without important consequences [16,17].
Toxic megacolon – the procedure of choice is open colectomy with ileostomy and closure of the rectum or distal colostomy. The rectum may be resected afterwards with ileal pouch-anal anastomosis. IPAA from the beginning should not be performed because of risk of complications.
Hemmorhage – Proctocolectomy, suture of a bleeding ulcer or Hartmann-type colectomy leaving a small stump of distal rectum.
Ileal pouch distal rectum anastomosis (IPDRA) – anastomosis between ileal pouch and distal rectum – easier to perform, better anal sensation and continence especially at night.
Main disadvantage – leaving rectal mucosa behind, that should be avoided in patients with cancer or severe dysplasia in colorectal mucosa, severe extraintestinal manifestations.
Advantage – older patients, lack of adequate mobilisation for tension-free anastomosis – ileorectal anastomosis (IRA)
Indications
Patients not suitable for IPAA
Refusal of ileostomy
Medical conditions in which a stoma is relatively contraindicated (eg, portal hypertension or ascites),
Women of childbearing age because of the risk of infertility,
Patients in whom Crohn\'s disease cannot be excluded,
Patients with colitis complicated by advanced colonic malignancy,
Functional results after IRA
A retrospective analysis of the functional results after IRA for ulcerative colitis or indeterminant colitis in 86 patients found that the rectum was eventually resected in 17% of cases, rectal dysplasia occurred in 17%, rectal cancer 8% and refractory proctitis 28%. The cumulative probability of developing rectal dysplasia at 5, 10, 15, and 20 years was 7, 9, 20, and 25 percent, respectively. The cumulative probability of developing rectal cancer at 5, 10, 15, and 20 years was 0, 2, 5, and 14 percent, respectively. The cumulative probability of having a functioning IRA at 10 and 20 years was 74 and 46 percent, respectively. [18]
Satisfactory rectal function varies greatly depending upon the selections of patients and length of follow-up. The risk of cancer in the residual rectum has been reported to be 6 % at 20 years and 15 % at 30 years. The risk is significant considering that most patients are young and have many years to live.
Farouk et al noted that in 1386 patients with restorative proctocolectomy and over 8-year follow-up, 80% reported complete diurnal continence, with 50% requiring medications to slow intestinal transit. [19]
Crohn\'s disease is not curable by surgery. Therefore, this is actualy reserved for complications or to symptoms refractory to medical therapy [20].
Surgical decision making in Crohn\'s disease is driven by anatomic distribution and inflammatory subtype of disease. Forty percent of patients have ileal disease with segments of colonic involvement, with 20–25% of patients exhibiting isolated colonic disease and 5–10% with isolated anorectal disease [21]. Surgical intervention is primarily performed for the complications of Crohn\'s disease: stricture and obstruction, fistula, or medically refractory disease. Approximately 70% of Crohn\'s disease patients ultimately require surgery, often multiple, making minimally invasive options appealing
Indications for surgery are:
obstruction,
perforation in small intestinal Crohn\'s disease,
failure to respond to medical therapy in patients with colonic involvement,
strictures,
fistula
Surgery should to adress only to segments causing obstruction, bleeding, or perforation. Resection is performed when there is an abscess or fistula to an adjacent organ. The disease-free margins are established by gross inspection, microscopic disease at the margins will not be associated with recurrence. Therefore we should avoid large margins, in the idea of preserving as much as possible of small bowel capital because the patients may need another resection in the future and thus preventing the short bowel syndrome.
Ileocolic resections should be followed by a side-to-side anastomosis. A meta-analysis of eight comparative studies found that a side-to-side anastomosis was associated with fewer anastomotic leaks and postoperative complications, a shorter hospital stay and a lower perianastomotic recurrence rates compared to end-to-end anastomosis [22]. However, the authors suggested that further randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm these associations.
Duodenal Crohn\'s disease very rarely requires surgery. The major indications for surgery are obstruction and less often perforation or fistula formation. Gastrojejunostomy rather than resection is typically performed. Strictureplasty, duodenojejunostomy, and endoscopic balloon dilation have also been described [23].
Intraperitoneal abscesses were classically drain by open surgery and were followed by surgical resection of the diseased segment of the bowel.
Progress of interventional radiology, new biologic agents and progress of laparoscopy changed this classic approach [24,25].
Percutaneous drainage guided by CT or abdominal ultrasound has a low rate of complications and a high rate of success - approximately 70% of attempted cases. Complete drainage of the abscess may necessitate repeated punctures. This attitude allows the patient to be prepared for an elective resection of the bowel after the sepsis resides, after improving nutritional status and decreasing corticosteroids. Controversy exists regarding the need for subsequent operation after adequate abscess drainage as intractable disease or recurrent abscess occurs in at least 30% of these patients within a year.
If percutaneous drainage is unsuccessful, surgical drainage should be performed. The timing of surgery following percutaneous abscess drainage, when clinically indicated, occurs after clinical resolution of sepsis.
Peritonitis is rare in Crohn\'s disease. Exploratory laparotomy with peritoneal lavage, with construction of a stoma is most commonly required. The decision whether to resect or not the bowel depends upon the operative findings and the patient\'s condition [26].
Abdominal wall abscesses (psoas and rectus sheath) are less common and more difficult to control locally than intra-abdominal abscesses. In a retrospective review of 13 patients with an abdominal wall abscess treated by percutaneous and/or open operative drainage, all 13 required resection of the diseased segment even after successful drainage of the abscess [25].
Fistulas to adjacent organs (stomach, duodenum, bladder, vagina, and sigmoid colon) are treated by resection and anastomosis of the diseased segment of the bowel and closure of the fistula. Resection of the adjacent segment is necessary only when it is primarily involved with Crohn\'s disease. Bypasses should be avoided because persistent disease in the bypassed segment can lead to abscess formation, bleeding, perforation, bacterial overgrowth, and malignancy.
Intestinal strictures can be relieved by resection; synchronous small bowel resection in patients with multiple strictures is common [27]. Strictureplasty or balloon dilation may be a suitable alternative for selected patients.
Strictureplasty is performed by longitudinal incision across the stricture and a transversal closure that enlarges the lumen. Indication is represented by the patients that have isolated areas of short stricture and are at risk for short bowel syndrome due to previous surgery or extension of enterectomy. Strictureplasty can relieve obstruction, and is often performed in association with a small bowel resection [27, 28]. It can also be performed without excision of bowel [29, 30]. It should not be performed in acutely inflamed bowel.
To avoid large enterectomy for extensive and/or multiple strictures occurring over long intestinal segments, a side-to-side isoperistaltic or other type of nonconventional strictureplasty is safe and effective [31, 32].
Strictureplasty has been associated with excellent results, including relief of obstruction, the ability to withdraw steroids, and improvement in symptoms [31, 33] the risk of fistula or recurrent stricture formation is low and comparable to resection. Whether preservation of diseased bowel increases the long-term risk of malignancy is unknown, although case reports have documented adenocarcinoma arising from sites of previous strictureplasty [34].
The following examples illustrate the range of findings in two of the largest series
In a series of 1124 procedures of strictureplasty on 314 patients there was a synchronous bowel resection in 66% of cases, overall morbidity was 18%, septic complications in 5%, morbidity was higher in patients with preoperative weight loss and older age, recurrence after surgery was met in 34% during a median follow-up of 7.5 years, recurrence was higher in younger patients [30]:
Another study included 479 procedures of strictureplasty performed in 100 patients with a follow-up of 7 years in average [35]. Overall morbidity was 22% and included sepsis – 11%, obstruction 4%, hemorrhage - 4% percent, and mortality – 3%. After a first strictureplasty the reoperation rate were 52% at 40 months, 56% at 26 months after a second, 86% at 27 months after a third, 63% at 26 months after a fourth. The major risk factor for reoperation was young age. The early relaparotomy rate was 8 percent. One patient developed cancer after many years of disease. The authors biopsied suspicious lesions, rather than going for routine biopsy of all lesions.
Another method to dilate intestinal strictures is with a hydrostatic balloon Experience is relatively limited compared with strictureplasty or resection, and the long-term efficacy and safety is therefore less well-established. A meta-analysis of 13 studies (with a total of 347 patients) reported overall technical success in 86 % of cases and long-term efficacy in 58 percent, with up to 33 months of follow-up [36]. On multivariate analysis, a stricture length of ≤4 cm was associated with better surgery-free outcomes. The outcome of balloon dilatation to relieve obstruction from intestinal strictures in Crohn’s disease is not influenced by the type of concomitant medical therapy [37].
Couckuyte et al performed 78 dilatation procedures for 59 ileocolonic strictures in 55 patients, all procedures were carried out endoscopically under general anesthesia. Succes was registered in 90% with 11% perforations from which 30% needed surgery and 60% were solved only with medical treatment. Mean period of time to recurrence of obstruction was up to 11 months for 62% of patients. [38]
In pediatric patients injections of corticosteroids into strictures after balloon dilatations were followed by fewer redilatations than in placebo group. [39]. For adults it didn’t work the same [40]
Placement of an expandable metal stent within colonic strictures has been described, but experience is limited, and the safety of this approach is uncertain [41].
Options for surgery range from temporary diverting ileostomy to resection of segments of diseased colon or even the entire colon and rectum. Same conservative principles applied to disease involving the small intestine should also be applied to the surgical management of Crohn\'s colitis
The optimal procedure depends in part upon the extent of the disease and the clinical setting:
Segmental colectomy may be adequate for isolated areas of colonic involvement. An Ileorectal anastomosis can be carried out if the rectum is spared. A proctectomy will be required in half of the patients [42]. While no prospective randomized study has been undertaken to compare segmental colectomy and total colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis, both procedures appear to be equally effective as treatment options for colonic Crohn\'s disease. However, patients undergoing segmental resection may have earlier recurrence [43]. The choice of operation depends upon the extent of colonic disease; there may be better outcomes with ileorectal anastomosis in those who have two or more involved colonic segments.
Total proctocolectomy is indicated for patients with extensive, diffuse colorectal disease.
Subtotal colectomy with ileostomy is usually performed in emergency situations.
An abdominoperineal resection with a permanent end-colostomy is indicated in patients with severe Crohn\'s disease limited to the anorectum. An intersphincteric proctectomy will minimize the risk of a nonhealing wound and sexual or urinary dysfunction, by avoiding dissection near the hipogastric plexuses. In the presence of anorectal disease and sepsis a Hartmann procedure can be carried out in the first place leaving a small stump of distal rectum, followed by a perineal proctectomy. [44].
The management of anorectal disease, present in 14–38% of patients, remains difficult despite advances in medical therapy. Perianal fistula or abscess is the initial presentation of Crohn\'s disease in approximately 30% of cases and has been associated with increased extraintestinal symptoms and steroid resistance, resulting in significant disability [8].
The number of Crohn\'s patients who require surgery has, however, decreased with the advances in medical management.
Most of the abscesses are small, difficult to drain and can disappear with antibiotics alone. The antibiotic therapy should associate ciprofloxacin to metronidazole. Greater abscesses can be drained by placement of a seton or by ultrasound or CT guided large bore needle aspiration or drain placement.
Treatment of the perianal fistula depends on the type of fistula (simple vs. complex) and underlying rectal inflammation.
Simple fistulas are intersphincteric or transsphincteric below the dentate line in origin with a single opening and no associated stricture or abscess. Such fistulas have an excellent response to antibiotic and surgical therapy and heal 80–100% of the time with simple fistulotomy [8]
Complex fistulas on the contrary, involve the superficial, transsphincteric, or intersphincteric region below the dentate line, have multiple openings, and can be associated with rectal stricture or rectovaginal fistula.
Pelvic MRI provides the most accurate information (90% accuracy) about fistulous burden and underlying rectal inflammation and is instrumental in surgical planning and monitoring response to therapy. Accuracy approaches 100% when MRI is combined with examination under anesthesia. [45, 46]
Complex fistulas represent a challenge and require aggressive immunomodulating therapy in combination with surgical therapy. Many patients feel improvement in symptoms with antibiotic therapy (ciprofloxacin and metronidazole); however, symptom relief is transient with recurrence on withdrawal of antibiotics. Infliximab has proven to be the immunosuppressive drug of choice in treatment of complex perianal fistulas with two randomized trials showing decreased number of fistulas, increased disease-free period, and fewer required hospitalizations and surgeries.[47]
Surgical therapy has evolved for complex fistulas as well with the development of less invasive techniques for closure of high fistulas to prevent incontinence associated with damage to the anal sphincters. Some of the newest approaches use fibrin glue and collagen plugs to occlude fistulous tracts without requiring incision.
A study from Chung et al comparing collagen fistula plug to fibrin glue, rectal advancement flap, and seton placement for treatment of 51 patients with complex perianal fistulas showed a 75% resolution rate with use of the plug compared with less than 30% for each of the other modalities. [48]
The systematic review by Soltani and Kaiserof evaluating the efficacy of endorectal flap advancement for complex perianal Crohn\'s disease found a 46% resolution [49].
The review by Lewis and Maron on anorectal Crohn\'s disease provides an algorithm for management of complex perianal fistulas, stressing that surgical therapy in excess of seton placement should not be attempted during active proctitis due to inflammation [50].
Postoperative medical treatment for prevention of Crohn\'s disease recurrence is controversial in light of data supporting increased incidence of complications with preoperative immunosuppressive therapy. However, a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial showed no difference in incidence of adverse events (anastomotic leak, wound complications, infection, obstruction, bleeding, death) between postoperative patients treated with infliximab within 4 weeks of surgery and those untreated. [51]
Bordeianou et al studied the effect of immediate vs. tailored medical prophylaxis on endoscopic and/or symptomatic recurrence in 199 patients who underwent ileocecectomy for Crohn\'s disease. The group found that there was no difference in recurrence rates between patients treated with medication immediately after surgery and those treated based on endoscopic finding, adding to the debate on whether perioperative and postoperative medical suppression is advantageous. [52]
The laparoscopic approach was already proven feasible both for UC and CD.
A way to use laparoscopy is only for the mobilization of the colon (cecum, ascendent, descendent, sigmoid) and to perform the rest of the operation in open but with a smaller incision [53]
Laparoscopic subtotal colectomy performed in emergency conditions was followed by acceptable outcomes and shorter hospital stay, although in such cases is not usually recommended [54].
Another possibility is to perform colon and rectal mobilisation, section of the mesocolon and even the rectum with liniar ENDO-GIA. Some authors do that by hand assisted technique.
This is a question still under debate. Ky et al had a series of 32 laparoscopic IPAA (29 for UC) in which they didn’t divert and had a morbidity of 34% and 3% leak rate [55]. Hasegawa et al performed 18 cases all with diversions and had 33% morbidity and 0% leak rate [56]. Others like Marcello et al from 20 cases (13 for UC) divert only in 60% of cases and had 5% leak rate.[57]
Is laparoscopy superior to open approach? In short term yes – as already proven by comparison between them, with faster recovery (including faster ambulation, less postoperative pain, faster return of bowel movement and time to first passage of flatus and feces).
Brown et al compared laparoscopic-assisted restorative proctocolectomy to open approach and found shorter operative time in open group, and similar functional outcome and recovery, only better cosmesis by shorter abdominal scar. The hand-assisted method seems to reduce the operative time with more than 30 minutes [58].
Postoperative morbidity is still relatively high duet o extensive procedure (25-34%) [55, 56, 57]
Laparoscopic approach have the potential of decreasing morbidity, speeding recovery, and reducing costs, while decreasing the incidence of small bowel obstruction and ventral (abdominal wall) hernias [59,60].
A randomized comparative trial between open and laparoscopic ileo-colic resection found a conversion rate of 6% and no significant difference in immediate postoperative recovery (passage of flatus and length of hospital stay). The only benefice was a faster recovery of forced expiratory volume and forced expiratory vital capacity. [61]
Maartense et al performed a comparative randomized controlled trial between laparoscopic-assisted ileocolonic resection performed by experienced surgeons in laparoscopy with open resections in Crohn\'s disease [62]. Morbidity, hospital stay, and costs were lower in the laparoscopic group, although there were no significant differences in quality-of-life at three months follow-up.
Alves et al found that the need for conversion to an open procedure was predicted by the severity of disease; independent predictors of conversion including a history of recurrent medical episodes of Crohn\'s disease and the presence of intra-abdominal abscess or fistula at the time of laparoscopy [63].
Recurrences after laparoscopic surgery were similar after conventional surgery. Laparoscopic colectomy was found to be safe and effective in the hands of experienced surgeons for selected patients with Crohn’s colitis [64].
In the review by Fichera et al on Crohn\'s disease, the author highlights three meta-analyses that compared laparoscopic with open ileocolic surgery that demonstrated earlier return of bowel function leading to shorter hospital stay, fewer late small bowel obstructions, and decreased early complications such as wound infections and bleeding with laparoscopic surgery. [20]
Two large studies on laparoscopic surgery for isolated colonic disease found similarly good outcomes with fewer complications. Holubar et al reported their outcomes for 92 patients who underwent laparoscopic colectomy, showing a total complication rate of 34%, reintervention rate of 7.6%, and anastomotic leak rate of 3.8%, all consistent with reported outcomes for open colectomy. Fifteen percent of laparoscopic cases were converted to open and presence of small bowel disease was the only predictive factor identified, independent of presence of phlegmonous or fistulous disease. [65]
Umanskiy et al compared outcomes of 125 patients who underwent laparoscopic vs. open colectomy and/or proctectomy for Crohn\'s disease. The most common procedure in both groups was total proctocolectomy with end ileostomy and the only statistically significant difference in procedures performed applied to completion proctectomies, which were more likely to be open. Patients in the laparoscopic group had earlier return of bowel function, reduced length of hospital stay, and decreased intraoperative blood loss. Interestingly, the reduced blood loss did not result in fewer transfusions, which were similar in both groups [66].
There was also no clinical recurrence at 20 months [60]. In a study by Tabet et al with 39 months follow up, there were similar rates of recurrence 48% vs 45%. [67]
Watanabe et al and Bemelman et al performed laparoscopic-assisted resection for Crohn’s disease, including patients with enteric fistulas. Postoperative outcome was better in laparoscopic group [68, 69]. Same results were noted by Duepree et al., Tabet et al, and Young Fadok et al. (all comparative studies) who found short term outcome benefits associated with the minimally invasive approach [60, 67, 70].
For Duepree et al costs per case were higher for laparoscopic group.[70]. Young-Fadok et al reported an overall cost for laparoscopic cases significantly less than for the open ones [60].
There is a broad range of conversion rates (1.4-24 %), morbidity (10-29 %), length of stay (3.3-8.8 days), and leak rates (0-5%). Most of the series involve relatively small numbers of patients. [59, 69, 70]
Laparoscopic surgery is considered to generate less postoperative adhesions and less incisional hernias.
Bergamaschi et al reported the results of a comparative study with long term follow up between laparoscopic and open ileocecal resections. At 5 years, they found a rate of 11.1 % small bowel obstructions for laparoscopic group and 35.4 percent for the open group, and the result was statistically significant.[59]
Generally, laparoscopic colectomy is followed by lower incidence of incisional hernia and small bowel obstruction, with significant differences, as reported by Duepree et al [70].
Functional outcome [71], quality of life [71] are similar but cosmetic results [71] especially for women [72] are higher after laparoscopy.
Are usual after restorative proctocolectomy.
The most frequent are bowel obstruction, pouch bleeding, pelvic and wound sepsis, transient urinary dysfunction, and dehydration from temporary loop ileostomy with high output. Surgery is not mandatory in many of those cases. Incidence of pelvic abscess after IPAA is estimated to 5% [73]. Pelvic abscesses lead to transabdominal or local surgery in most of the cases, failure of pouch in quarter of cases, incontinence, need for constipating or bulking medications was in the patients in whom the reservoir was preserved. There was also a decrease in the quality of life of those patients.
Portal vein thrombosis can occur after IPAA. Clinical manifestations may include pain, fever, vomiting, leukocytosis, and unexplained postoperative ileus. Diagnose is made with CT-scanner. Treatment with anticoagulation will lead to full resolution.
stricture of the anastomosis,
poor postoperative anorectal function,
anal fistula and abscess,
reduced fertility [74],
pouchitis - this is the most frequent. In one series, the cumulative probability of suffering at least one episode of clinical pouchitis was 18 and 48 % at 1 and 10 years, respectively [75],
irritable pouch syndrome and anismus (anorectal dysfunction)[76].
Majority of the pouch related complication can be solved by medical treatment consisting mainly in local measures, surgery being required in a minority. In one series of almost 1000 patients who had undergone IPAA, reoperation for complications was necessary in only 12 % [77].
As an example, ileal pouch fistulas and strictures refractory to dilatation are difficult to treat and may require revision of the pouch if Crohn\'s disease can be excluded. A transvaginal repair is favored for a pouch-vaginal fistula [78]. A combined abdominal perineal repair may offer better results compared with a local procedure [79]. A controlled septic condition does not preclude salvage surgery. Although pouch failure occurs more often than with primary IPAA, high patient satisfaction and quality of life can be achieved [80]. Furthermore, excision of the pouch is associated with a high risk of complications, especially delayed perineal wound healing [81, 82].
A number of unusual late complications have been described including [83, 84, 85]:
Solitary ileal ulcer
Traumatic ileal ulcer perforation
Superior mesenteric artery syndrome
Mucosal prolapse with outlet obstruction
Volvulus
Sacral osteomyelitis
Puborectal spasm
Fibroid polyps
Pharmacobezoar
The long-term success of surgery depends upon the type of operation, the clinical setting, and surgical expertise. Several studies have suggested that functional results are poor during the long-term follow-up in patients who had adverse personality factors before surgery (such as problems with sexual satisfaction, difficulty expressing emotions, perfectionist body ideals, and poor frustration tolerance) [79]. The following results were described in some of the largest series.
One series included 1885 patients who underwent an ileal pouch-anal anastomosis for ulcerative colitis and were followed for an average of 11 years. The mean number of stools was 5.7 per day at one year and 6.4 at 20 years, and also increased at night from 1.5 to 2.0. The incidence of frequent fecal incontinence increased from 5 to 11 percent during the day and from 12 to 21 percent at night. The overall rate of pouch success at 5, 10, 15, and 20 years was 96, 93, 92, and 92 percent, respectively. Quality of life remained unchanged and 92 percent remained in the same employment. [86]
In another report that included 486 patients who had undergone proctocolectomy and ileoanal anastomosis for ulcerative colitis or familial adenomatous polyposis, the cumulative probabilities of pouch failure were 1, 5, and 7 percent at 1, 5, and 10 years, respectively [87] The most common cause of pouch failure was fistula formation.
Tulchinsky et al reported 634 patients who underwent restorative proctocolectomy for IBD. Patients were followed for a mean of 85 months. Failure (defined as removal of the pouch or the need for an ileostomy) was divided into early (occurring within one-year) or late (occurring more than one-year postoperatively). Three patients died postoperatively while an additional 23 died (of a variety of causes) during follow-up. Of the remaining patients, there were a total of 61 failures (10 %) of which 24.6% were early and 75.4% late. Failures were due to pelvic sepsis (52 %), poor function (30 %), pouchitis (11 %), and miscellaneous causes (four patients, all early failures). Predictors of failure included a final diagnosis of Crohn\'s disease, a type J or S reservoir, female gender, postoperative pelvic sepsis, and a one-stage procedure. Failure rates increased with time from 9% at five years to 13% at 10 years. [88]
Another series showed that results in older patients (>65) are not as good; however, appropriate case selection was followed by acceptable function and quality of life to patients of all ages [89].
Anal canal strictures were described in up to 11 percent of 213 patients [82]. Strictures that were not fibrotic responded well after anal dilation while fibrotic strictures were more commonly associated with intra- or postoperative complications and frequently required surgical therapy.
A systematic review of 43 observational studies (with a total of 9317 patients) found a pouch failure rate of 6.8%, increasing to 8.5% in those with more than five-year follow-up [90]. Pelvic sepsis occurred in 9.5%. Severe, mild, and urge fecal incontinence was reported in 3.7, 17, and 7.3 percent, respectively. These results suggest that current techniques are associated with non-negligible complication rates and leave room for improvement and continued development of alternative procedures.
IPAA may have long-term effects:
on female reproductive health [91],
some women experience increased dyspareunia [92], although the ability to experience orgasm and coital frequency remain unchanged,
female fertility is significantly decreased [93], possibly due to pelvic adhesions, although successful pregnancies occur regularly [94], patients may experience a transient increase in stool frequency (including incontinence) during pregnancy, which resolves after delivery, pregnancy and delivery are safe in patients with IPAA. Patients should not be discouraged from childbearing because of the pouch. Whether vaginal or cesarean delivery is better for women with a pelvic pouch remains controversial.
Satisfactory long-term functional outcome and excellent quality of life have also been described after stapled restorative proctocolectomy. In a series of 977 patients, quality of life increased for two years after surgery, with no deterioration thereafter [95]. The prevalence of perfect continence increased from 76 percent before surgery to 82 percent after surgery and, although continence deteriorated somewhat more than two years after surgery, it was no worse than preoperative values. Ninety-eight percent of patients would have recommended the surgery to others. In another prospective, observational study, patients who had a stapled anastomosis had higher rates of daytime, nighttime, and complete continence compared with patients who underwent a hand-sewn anastomosis [32].
Beddy et al believed the evidence showed that recent biologic agent administration in a patient with Crohn\'s disease should not cause the surgeon to delay surgery or employ fecal diversion proximal to an anastomosis. However, they felt that patients with ulcerative colitis preoperatively managed with infliximab and immunosuppressant medications should undergo a three-stage rather than two-stage restorative proctocolectomy and ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (IPAA); the first operation would be a total or subtotal colectomy and creation of ileostomy that allows patients to be withdrawn from medications prior to performing the IPAA procedure. They proposed this approach in hopes of improving long-term ileal pouch function by decreasing the risk of short-term infectious complications attributed to combination therapy.[83]
Gainsbury et al, remarked that there is an increased risk of septic complications associated with preoperative infliximab and elective surgery for ulcerative colitis, growing evidence appears to refute that notion. [99]
Whether immunosuppressive therapy increases the risk of postoperative complications is still controversy. For some authors [98, 99, 100, 101] it may not be responsible but for others [102, 103, 104] it is, increasing risk for sepsis, intraabdominal abscesses [102,104], and especially when associated with other immunomodulators (ciclosporin) [103]. In this conceptual area there is need for more controlled trials.
Ellis et al found that unlike surgical mortality for most disorders, the operative mortality associated with colectomy for ulcerative colitis has increased in recent years despite centralization of care. This finding raises considerable concern that patients potentially are not receiving prompt or appropriate surgical care because of alterations in medical therapy. [105]
Outside of the perioperative period, the most common late complication of ileal pouch anal anastomosis is pouchitis, occurring in up to 60% of patients.[106] Pouchitis is thought to be the result of immunologic reaction to altered bowel flora. Symptoms range from mild diarrhea to severe abdominal pain and fistulization with neighboring organs. In a recent review from the Cleveland Clinic, multivariate analysis identified pulmonary co-morbidities, S-pouch reconstruction, disease proximal to the splenic flexure, and extraintestinal disease are the factors predictive of subsequent pouchitis. Patients who developed pouchitis had higher incidence of obstruction, fistula, and stricture and reported lower quality of life than controls [94]. Once identified, the treatment of pouchitis is primarily medical, with most patients showing excellent response to antibiotics and/or probiotics and immunomodulators. A Cochrane database review of trials through 2010 found that ciprofloxacin was more effective than metronidazole and budesonide enemas were equally effective to metronidazole in the treatment of acute pouchitis. The probiotic VSL#3 was more effective than placebo for prevention and treatment of chronic pouchitis[108]. Haveranet al reported complete resolution of symptoms in stricturing and antibiotic resistant pouchitis with azathioprine and 6-mercaptorpurine. However, fistulizing disease required the addition of infliximab, with 46% of such patients ultimately requiring diverting ileostomy for relief. Alternatives to ileostomy for pouch failure include pouch salvage techniques such as transanal mobilization or abdominoperineal revision of the pouch, with success rates ranging from 48 to 93%.[18] A small percentage of patients will ultimately be identified as having Crohn\'s disease as the cause of their fistulae and pouch complications.[109]
In a review of almost 1800 IPAA attempts from the Mayo Clinic, abandonment was required in 4.1 % [97].
Risk of dysplasia and cancer
All patients who undergo surgical procedures for ulcerative colitis should be monitored regularly for the development of long-term complications.
In addition to functional problems, complications can occur at any stage, including the development of dysplasia and possibly cancer.
However, in a study of potentially high-risk patients (eg, Kock pouch for ≥14 years, a pelvic pouch for ≥12 years, a history of dysplasia or cancer in the proctocolectomy specimen or troublesome pouchitis), the development of dysplasia was rare [98].
The presence of inflammatory changes in a retained rectal stump, anal transitional zone, and ileal reservoir after stapled pouch-anal anastomosis is a cause of concern because of the long-term risk of dysplasia.
A systematic review of 23 observational and case control studies estimated that the prevalence of confirmed dysplasia in the pouch, anal transitional zone, or rectal cuff was 1.13 % (0-19%) The prevalence of high-grade, low-grade, or indefinite dysplasia was 0.15, 0.98, and 1.23 %, respectively. Dysplasia was equally frequent in the pouch and rectal cuff or anal transitional zone [112].
If dysplasia and cancer are identified before or at operation the risk for postoperative dysplasia is higher. The risk of neoplasia is not completely eliminated by colectomy and mucosectomy. A retrospective review of 3203 patients with a preoperative diagnosis of IBD who underwent restorative proctocolectomy found that the cumulative incidence for pouch neoplasia at 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 years were 0.9, 1.3, 1.9, 4.2, and 5.1 %, respectively 11 patients developed adenocarcinoma of the pouch or at the anal transitional zone, one developed lymphoma in the pouch, three developed squamous cell carcinoma at the anal transitional zone, and 23 developed pouch dysplasia. The prognosis of pouch adenocarcinoma appeared to be poor [100].
If the rectal cuff becomes symptomatic or develops dysplasia, the retained rectal mucosa from the restorative proctocolectomy can be removed by a transanal completion mucosectomy and reconstructing the ileal pouch-anal anastomosis as an alternative to a complete anal rectal resection and permanent ileostomy. The mucosectomy removes all rectal mucosa, confers a highest likelihood of a surgical cure, and reduces the risk of future dysplasia. Short term results in a series of 27 patients included reduced pouchitis symptoms and 90 % of patients were moderately to very satisfy with the procedure. Incontinence was reduced by 70 percent at 12 months of observation [101].
The optimal frequency of pouch endoscopy and biopsy is not well established. It is recommended to perform an initial screening five years after creation of an ileal pouch in children or when the total disease duration exceeds seven years [102].
In patients that had severe villous atrophy or dysplasia in the resected colon or rectum the aforementioned interval may be reduced. In patients with pouch or anal high-grade dysplasia detected during surveillance, resection of the ileal pouch and anal canal should be considered.
In a retrospective review of 222 patients who required operative intervention for Crohn\'s colitis, there were 2.3% dysplasia and 2.7% adenocarcinoma. In this small cohort, the risk factors for the development of dysplasia or adenocarcinoma included longer disease duration (over 17 years), extensive disease, and older age at diagnosis (38 years of age or older). These findings support colonoscopic screening and surveillance of patients with Crohn\'s colitis. [116]
The postoperative recurrence rate for patients undergoing a resection and anastomosis is high in Crohn’s disease. In most series up to 20 percent of patients will not have a clinical recurrence even at 15 years after surgery Those with severe endoscopic or radiologic findings are at increased risk to have or develop symptoms (72 versus 42%). An increased risk for reoperation has been associated with perforating disease and smoking [117].
A laparoscopic approach does not appear to decrease the risk of recurrence. A retrospective review of 89 patients undergoing laparoscopically resected primary ileocolonic Crohn’s colitis found recurrent disease in 61 percent [118]. The median time to recurrence was 13 months (range 1.3 months to 8.7 years). Only the presence of granulomas in the resected specimen was identified as a risk factor for time to recurrence, and these patients were almost three times more likely to develop a recurrence.
The recurrence rate is lower in patients with Crohn\'s colitis who undergo a total colectomy and ileostomy compared to those with disease involving other segments of the digestive tract. We already know, from a study in 1985 by Goligher et al Such patients have only a 10 percent recurrence rate in the small intestine at 10 years [106]. A number of medical options are available that may reduce the risk of recurrence. A relatively aggressive approach should be considered in patients with diffuse and distal Crohn\'s colitis. Total proctocolectomy in properly selected patients is associated with low morbidity, a decreased risk of recurrence, and a longer time to recurrence [20]
Knowledge guarantees sustainable competitive advantage for an organization according to Grant [1] and classified as one of the most valuable and tangible resources that is acquire or replicated according to Nonaka et al. [2]. However, using knowledge as a strong competitive advantage require a unique resource which is hard to duplicate. The description of this resource matches with tacit knowledge [2]. All these arguments imply that tacit knowledge is a significant subject for discussion in recent advances in knowledge management. There is substantial evidence on the importance of knowledge management (KM) in organizational performance. Experts from a variety of fields, including management, economics, and sociology have made meaningful contributions to this subject [1, 3, 4]. Earlier studies proposed that the relevance of knowledge management necessitated a paradigm shift, given the increasing level of competiveness. This revelation led to organizations constantly embracing knowledge concepts and associated strategic models for performance and growth, meanwhile corporate executives are often confronted with the concerns of tacit knowledge sharing [5]. That is because knowledge management is seen as a necessity for efficiency in all sectors of business, whether public or private. Mårtensson [6], asserts that massive forces are shaping the business and financial sectors, resulting in significant changes to human capital and resource strategies. In addition, uncertainties in the form of natural calamities, pandemics, rapid economic and technological development, as well as shifting consumer expectations are all catalysts for knowledge requirements. Nevertheless, organizations are recognizing technological advantages to achieve long-term competitiveness through utilizing the stock of tacit knowledge and limiting the barriers to knowledge sharing within the organization.
As a result of businesses’ efforts to adapt rapidly, respond quickly to changes in their industries aggressively, steep learning curves are emerging. However, to make the competition irrelevant, businesses are concentrating their efforts on retaining experienced people, developing and using the employee potentials [7]. Knowledge application is attributed to availability raw material, labor and capital in past, today that perception has changed as the information age progresses and knowledge management advances. It is worth noting that, in modern management knowledge has superseded natural resources as the principal economic resource and a significant competitive advantage tool, and has remained a key component of all management operations.
Recent studies have highlighted several barriers to knowledge utilization, including individuals who lack the necessary educational background, training, and knowledge platforms to operate effectively in a knowledge-based environment [8]. A solution to this problem requires management to recognize and value knowledge through the development of existing human capital.
As a result, experienced personnel will be more willing to contribute to the organization’s success, sinceemployees retain approximately 90% of an organization’s knowledge, according to knowledge management literature [9]. These efforts were followed by various arguments describing the difference between knowledge and information. The essential features of knowledge management are made up of the mix of experience, values, skills contextual information and expertise that provides the framework for analyzing and absorbing new experiences and finding relevant information [10]. An individual’s knowledge is their human personal asset whereas information is just a message being communicated that is deemed unusable except understood meaningfully and used. Recent advances in knowledge management are focusing on knowledge other than natural wisdom, which researchers attribute to tacit knowledge, which is closely related to Polanyi’s claim that humans may have two forms of knowledge that may be used in different ways.
This chapter is organized according to the following sections; (i) the introduction consist of general overview of knowledge management, purpose and justification for the study (ii) section two contains the main literature review covering the main body of discussion, on tacit knowledge, objective knowledge, barriers to knowledge sharing, a proposed conceptual framework and factors affecting knowledge sharing. (iii) the third section covers the discussion of the main points relative to emerging issues and future research agenda and finally section (iv) presents a summary of the study outcome and the way forward.
Several attempts to define tacit knowledge later acknowledged that it can be compared to objective knowledge, and that become one of the conversional definitions of tacit knowledge and established by many authorities in knowledge management literature [11]. In some explanations Smith [12], opined that it is the type of knowledge shared using symbolic gestures or signs between individuals and groups. The recipients of this knowledge can be as much in the known as the originator. It implies that objective knowledge may consist of two components. According to [13] the first category of objective knowledge is the ability to communicate; it is easily encoded, comprehended, written or documented and explained. The second classification is concerned with possessing objective knowledge. In the views of Lee et al. [14, 15] this type of knowledge is not peculiar to the individual possessing it or the organization. According to Inkpen and Dinur [16] this form of knowledge may be shared among a group of people. The diverse opinions of tacit knowledge and the few consensus has featured countless time in literature with the possibility of defining exactly what objective knowledge is. Irrespective of the consensus meanings of this term many scholars prefer to conceive their own terminologies that best describe objective knowledge. Hedlund [17] refers to it as articulated knowledge. Dampney et al. [18] defined it as articulable knowledge and according to Nonaka and von Krogh [19] the main attribute of objective knowledge is explicit, Fernandez and Sabherwal [20] consider it verbal while documented it as declarable in nature. These terminologies and definitions are the fundamental of knowledge management. However, these terms are often interpreted in contexts, but most importantly they tend to explain what tacit knowledge is not.
It is relevant at this point to emphasize on the contributions of great authors like [21], when discussing the concept of knowledge management. According to [21], as humans we can know more than we can reveal. Put in another way, an individual has the potential to know much more then they can narrate or describe to others. These phases of [21] meant to describe tacit knowledge, which he identifies as almost impossible to document, interpret and encode. On the other hand, the rules and directions associated with executing it may not be known to the one possessing it. For example an experienced architect may be unaware of the some of the unique attributes a competent engineer and the individual may find it difficult to explain in detail what his main capabilities are. That goes to explain the tacitness of the knowledge we can possess. A different approach to define tacit knowledge is that, it is a kind of individualized talent or attributes. Titi Amayah [22], suggests that tacit knowledge is only discovered when certain conditions are met, since it is deeply buried in the mind. According to Sobel [23], it has cognitive dimension programed in the mind. These cognitive dimensions consist of mental models which only manifest under peculiar circumstances. Other opinions agree that, because these are embedded attributes and can go unnoticed, they are often disregarded and overlooked. Fu et al. [24], opined that tacit knowledge may be neutral due to the degree of emboddedness. These conditions describe tacit knowledge in a way that the knower may find it inexpressible. Recent scholars describe tacit knowledge as fully applied, descriptive and experimental. When one attempts to differentiate between a resource in the form of input and the process of utilizing the resource which is capability, it is more appropriate to avoid the generic term “resource” which incorporates both terms, but instead refer to capability, in the context of tacit knowledge. This is similar to Cardy and Selvarajan [25], who opined that technical knowhow is preferably used interchangeably with tacit knowledge. This assertions implies that tacit knowledge is partly constituted of technical skill with informal components difficult to account for or quantify. Above all, Martinsons et al. [26] tacit knowledge is occasional or manifest in peculiar situations and it is typically and conventionally acquired on the job through long period of application or apprenticeship. Therefore, tacit knowledge is inherently tied to activities and people.
Resource- based viewpoint examines the relationship between a firm’s performance and the value and characteristics of internal resources. This relationship is examined for the sake of measuring a firm’s competitive advantage according to Hedlund [17]. This approach indicates that every entity can be regarded as a pool of resources which are valuable, inimitable, and rare and without substitutes and that the resources are the main source of competitive advantage for the organization. The resource based view rather emphasizes more on the attributes of tacit knowledge which can be a source of sustainable competitive advantage. The value of tacit knowledge makes it irreplaceable, imprecisely transferrable and imitable because it is ingrained in the knower or the entity. It is also implicit, taken for granted and almost impossible to replicate by competitors. In Sanchez and Mahoney [27] opinion tacit knowledge is somehow shared between specific relationships or members of a group; such as colleagues of the same rank and people in the same department, it difficult for other firms to imitate. Additionally, tacit knowledge cannot be conveyed accurately or completely in a whole, like a mathematical formula or a computer language from person to person. On the other hand, this level of tacitness may not be in the known to the organization because tacitness also breeds insecurity Dalkir [5], under certain conditions an organization may overlook or undermine some of the precise actions and processes that contribute to their competitive advantage. Willem and Buelens [28], defines tacit knowledge as what is commonly termed skilled. But in a more elaborated way, it is defined it as sub element of knowhow with the opinion that a recipe is similar tacit knowledge [29]. Alternatively, tacit knowledge is referred to as procedural knowledge, undocumented informal knowledge which is a critical success factor of an entity. At the back of this argument, the term “knowledge” is instantly associated with “Scientific” and “Objectivity” This also creates a lot of anxiety and complexity of understanding the concept of tacit knowledge and by implication, knowledge is linked to tacit and tacit indicate subjectivity. Knowledge-based view of an organization require diverse and unique resources that should be hard to imitate or transferred and should be sustained longer [30]. Preserving knowledge based resources and assets may guarantee long term sustainability even in a hostile industry. Nonetheless, knowledge is termed as a belief which contributes to an organizations effective capability to execute certain positive actions. In this regard, tacit knowledge is a significant strategic asset capable of inspiring the future of an entity [31]. In any context, knowledge classified into tacit and explicit, where tacit is gained through long term practical experience and actions. As tacit knowledge is specific and pragmatic it is only absorbed, used without awareness and that makes it impossible to explain to others. This way, tacit knowledge is only shared in an interactive conversation through common experience. Old and current literature refer to tacit knowledge as personal intuition, talent and practical intelligence [32]. Despite the argument that tacit knowledge is most valuable and expensive, explicit knowledge is required to complement tacit knowledge. For example when tacit knowledge is identified, it the duty of the knowledge manager to ensure that it is transferred to those who require it through formal means such as documented information systems or in the form of communicated processes [33]. There, within an organization there are two ways identified tacit knowledge can be utilized through explicit knowledge; through organizational policies and set of laid down principles or by means of systemic procedures which are practiced on daily basis. According to Farzin, Kahreh, Hesan, and Khalouei [34] explicit knowledge is an island surrounded by tacit knowledge in an organizational setting. Tacit knowledge is required for the generation of explicit knowledge, its execution and retention such as the selection of a suitable software application, database and sequencing of operations to execute, and also for the analysis of results.
Furthermore, Pucik [35] stated that explicit, formal, or procedural knowledge may be viewed as a tool for both structure of experience and communicative involvement. Organizational tacit knowledge can be described as those unique qualities and strategies certain individuals possess which have repeatedly reproduced a pattern of positive results due the experience.When tacit knowledge is described as articulated it serves a unique purpose such as new knowledge creation and the motivation to promote internal capacity such as individual skill to meet the demand of present and future requirements [29]. In the context of strategic management protecting organizational tacit knowledge is a strategic mechanism for overcoming rivals.This level of competence enables an organization deploy the best internal capability to attain its objectives. Competence is the most appropriate term when referring to knowledge in the context of business since it incorporates various classes of qualities including; individual skills, talent, experience, value judgment and internal social networks. This is because individual competence may not be exactly duplicated, rather it is acquired through practical experience and application and it is difficult to imitate when buried in complex managerial policies and frequent procedures. In some exceptional cases business rivals may engage in comparable experience to acquire equal tacit knowledge, in long term [36]. One more significance of tacit knowledge is that, it is useful in conflict situations and hostile rivalry, competitors are unable to develop appropriate substitutes to control price and cost of resources. Finally, in the views of [37] the most important organizational resource for sustainable and renewable competiveness in tacit knowledge.
Key empirical studies have highlighted the relevance knowledge sharing and highlighted some major barriers to knowledge sharing [38]. Knowledge sharing is an activity through which; information, skills, expertise and experience is exchanged among people in an organization and it is a valuable and tangible asset for creating sustainability, performance and competitive advantage. From what is currently known, knowledge sharing activities occur generally with the support of knowledge systems designed by the board and knowledge managers [13]. Technology is one of the tools that support knowledge sharing, though other factors exist, and have been examined such as organizational culture, trust, leadership and management philosophy, incentives and internal control systems according to Sanchez and Mahoney [27]. In this study, the researchers intend to explore possible knowledge sharing opportunities and associated barriers, particularly with the board level.
Experts suggest that identifying tacit knowledge and protecting it from depleting is a challenging task for organizations. Although, knowledge sharing is now a common practice, there are major challenge in the field of management, particularly where some employees including board of directors may resist sharing their tacit knowledge. In other words people decline to share their long standing experiences, expertise and important ideas with the rest of the organization. Lee et al. [14, 15], this lowers the general efficiency, productivity and performance. In the context of sustainability this study re-emphasize the reasons why public organizations must encourage knowledge sharing at the board level to promote sustainability procurement.
Unlike tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge is available to everyone, therefore when an organization is committed to knowledge sharing, adequate procedures must be designed to document every important operational step that will help others improve and prevent existing knowledge from depleting, and from the perspective of corporate governance, it require knowledge sharing to pursue sustainability in today’s public administration.
Knowledge sharing occurs when exclusive knowledge is properly described in the information provided, and the audience are aware that the knowledge is available and accessible without difficulties [39]. Moreover, knowledge sharing can be beneficial when the body of knowledge is precisely defined and differentiated in contexts and domain of sustainability. This study is of the view that knowledge sharing can support sustainability when there is easy access to appropriate and relevant materials. Within the organization, board of directors are key components of the knowledge sharing system and are responsible for creating new knowledge to lead the organization.
According to a sample of recent findings, tacit knowledge is difficult to identify but could be influenced by developing informal social networks Willem and Buelens [28], thus daily interactions in a defined work environment. Existing knowledge platforms encourage individuals to demonstrate problem solving capability. The exchange of views and opinions lead to organizational learning. Knowledge sharing provides solutions to the challenges confronting others and in the end lowers cost and enhances efficiency. Creating thinking is also promoted using structured and unstructured experiments. Embedded knowledge is shared through routine processes and scenario planning. Arora [40], emphasized on management training and deliberate integration of people and activities to foster knowledge sharing.
In this section, the study elaborate precisely on the barriers to knowledge from different perspectives as documented in literature. According to the founding fathers of the concept of knowledge management there has always been some key factors which have been highlighted and that include; (a) people or individual attributes, (b) organizational culture or ethics (c) emergence of technology and (d) internal organizational challenges [41], discovered that impediments to knowledge transfer begins at the individual level and then the cultural and philosophy as well as the corporate level. Loss of power, insecurity, disclosure and motivation are responsible for individual level challenges to knowledge sharing [42]. The assertion further narrate that people occupying positions and having a certain level of influence may not be willing to share their experience for the fear of losing their privileges. Also, someone possessing a certain unique talent may not pass on this knowledge to others for the purposes of job security and status in the organization. As rightly mentioned in Lindsey [43], knowledge is power and individuals may exercise fear to share their knowledge due to lose of supremacy. Additionally, individuals are motivated by their unique expertise which promote their value, couple with people feeling uncertain about their rank particularly for the fear of being replaced with young energetic and talented subordinate. In a similar comparison, it was opined that, people who lack continence and ability to estimate the impact of the knowledge may be consumed by inferiority complex. In such situations, they may either not share or avail themselves to learn. Wendling et al. [44], posit that lack or incentives may also compel certain individuals from airing their opinions irrespective of whether the platform is created for knowledge sharing or not. In a complex organizational environment inter personal conflicts, excessive bureaucracy and the consciousness of ranks within the organizational hierarchy contribute to lack of knowledge sharing. In a recent studies [45, 46], observed organizational culture contained in the leadership philosophy demonstrates managerial commitment to knowledge sharing. If the core values of an organization supports internal socials networks and encourage organizational learning, individuals would be motivated to offer constructive contributions which will break the barriers to knowledge sharing. Although [46] outline similar organizational level challenges including trust between superiors and subordinates. As people are rewarded and encouraged to transfer their experiences to others, non- availability of technology infrastructure, technology orientation or training and management overlooking the potential benefit of social media are some of the technological factors affecting knowledge sharing. In summary, although literature highlighted several factors, it appears the most dominant issues are associated with the individual, as the discussion is often centered on tacit knowledge being held by the individual. Figure 1 is a theoretical framework capturing the barriers and factors affecting knowledge sharing with the directions of hypotheses to support future empirical investigation.
Conceptual framework. Source: Authors own elaboration.
Castellani et al. [47], observed that organizations with higher knowledge capital are more likely to build a strong competitive advantage in any sector and enjoy long term sustainability against their rivals. In this regard, access and locating a particular knowledge resource by the individual is key to performance and other accomplishments. As the individual is an important stakeholder and the custodian of tacit knowledge in the organization they are a great addition to the knowledge resource [48]. Therefore, whether to protect, retain or share tacit knowledge, it concerns the individual and their personal unique attributes towards willingness to share. Some empirical studies concluded that, the individual brilliance, talent are vital that is why the concept of tacit knowledge is primary centered on people as revealed that knowledge sharing have a significant impact on individual performance and generally the organizational success [49]. The study further recommended the understanding of how tacit knowledge directly affect the economic and financial performance. Subsequently, Ode and Ayavoo [50] analyzed the impact of knowledge transfer on organizational innovation and the findings suggest that, knowledge sharing has a significant relationship with individual and organismal performance, invocation leading to individual creativity. A similar comparative analysis suggest that, although sharing explicit knowledge positively contributes to organizational innovation, tacit knowledge sharing promotes the additional quality effects to the individual and organizational achievements.
This generally means the method of leadership mechanism made up of the philosophy and style the organization can be identified with. The culture of the organization could be bureaucratic, extreme rigidity, regards for high ethical standards, less concrete supervision, openness and collectivity. Whichever cultural elements are implemented by the organization, the impact on tacit knowledge could be advantageous or detrimental. Other elements of culture that may be associated with knowledge sharing as identified by Khaksar et al. [51], include interpersonal relationships and social trust, effective internal communication and information system dedicated to support knowledge transfer among people could be beneficial in this regards. Reward systems and the structure of the organization are likely determinants of knowledge flow within between people. When individuals are extremely conscious of their titles such as regard for seniority and rank, it may bread the tendency of knowledge sharing obstacles. Milne [52], studied the negative impact of imposition of strange cultures on people and the adverse impact on willingness to share knowledge. McDermott and O’dell [53] confirmed that usually a culture of intolerance is a major obstacle while culture of involvement encourages knowledge initiatives. It is risky for an organization to have knowledge sharing embedded in the culture as it could hurdle creation of new knowledge initiatives.
In other words, positive organizational cultures may promote knowledge sharing example; diversity, social behavior, informal relationships and organizational learning aimed at promoting individual creativity. Culture is aspect of organizational structure that describes people by their shared core values. A very common definition of culture is credited to Collins and Porras [54] organizational culture defines the organizational behavior, philosophy and values observed by the people, including management, employees and the board in manner that influences the conduct of individuals to pursue the objectives of the enterprise” rather than the corporate values based on the structure and hierarchy, social factors (social networks, social relationships, hierarchical relationship, trusting relationships among individuals), which impacts more on the attitude of the people to work towards the strategic objectives of the organization in relations to expectations.
An essential requirement for any knowledge sharing initiative is designing a central database for storing and disseminating knowledge among people in an organization. Therefore technology function as the mode of communication, identification of the source of relevant knowledge and transporting this relevant knowledge to the intended persons timely. Some earlier arguments suggest that knowledge management has no connection with technology as it is entirely associated with people. However, many reasons suggest that in contemporary management science, technology facilitates effective knowledge transfer irrespective of the geographical location. According to, Willem and Buelens [28] technology has brought total reformation into corporate culture and that has influenced interactions between people such as the frequency of holding discussions and disseminating relevant information. According to Neches et al. [55], technology has enhanced knowledge accessibility, interaction and rapid responses. Technology has made available various dynamic options through which individuals and corporations can access knowledge and important information more rapidly. Irrespective of the volume of data or information required, with the use of technology mediums large amount of data and information can be shared in the matter of seconds. A major hurdle to the use of technology in KM is the lack of expertise and an organizational culture that does not support technology adoption [56]. Additionally, technology adoption could pose a major risk if management fails to initiate effective controls and protect access to important documents except authorized persons.
Internal conflicts, structural dimensions, managerial procedures, and assessment and incentive structures that prevent knowledge sharing frequently obstruct necessary positive initiatives [57]. The uniqueness of an entity is expressed in a variety of ways, depending on its underlying values and beliefs. The organizational or corporate principles are constantly referred to as its values, concepts, and systems, which either support or obstruct knowledge creation and internal collaboration within firms [58]. It is well established that organizational culture plays a significant role in the development of a learning organization. Additionally, positive relationships among employees and a strong company culture may be beneficial. Develop their desire to offer their expertise [59]. There are several variables that promote information exchange and give motivation to adopt new technologies. Methods of communication [60, 61]. The most critical, however, are training and incentive systems. Management provisions, donation guidelines, and a designated responsible person.
This chapter adds to the body of knowledge on knowledge management (KM) literature by identifying research gaps, articulating new arguments, and charting a new course for future research in relation to the work of Bureš [42], Ahammad et al. [62], Dalkir [5], Hafeez and Abdelmeguid [63], Lindsey [43], Mårtensson [6], Lartey et al. [8], McDermott and O’dell [53], Smith [12]. Additionally, identifying critical factors affecting knowledge transfer may assist a variety of stakeholders in academia, industry, and diverse practitioners involved in this field, thereby advancing the culture of knowledge dissemination.
The findings of this study captures the viewpoints of notable experts in the field, following a thorough review of literature on key research questions and identified the following primary areas of concern reported in past research that have generated significant debate:
Knowledge managers’ inability to catalog internal barriers to any sort of knowledge exchange between individuals is a significant barrier to the organization’s success.
The act of transforming implicit -to- explicit knowledge is referred to as “externalization,” which consists of capturing tacit knowledge by means of coding aided by initiating organizational learning, social interactions, technology infrastructure to facilitate rapid information dissemination, informal relationships between the people irrespective of ones rank and the designing knowledge program to support succession planning so as to protect the knowledge stock of the organization from depletion in the event that a key personnel retires or leave. These are the views of prominent researchers [1, 4, 34, 45, 53]. However, the main challenge facing knowledge mangers is the inability to capture and document known ideas and talents of their workers prior to their retirement. A critical argument is how tacit knowledge can be expressed openly in the same ways as explicit knowledge, taking into account the resource and competence levels of large and small enterprises, public and private entities with varying R&D programs.
In another observation Mooradian [64] associated the main disadvantage of tacit knowledge to the process of transformation which require a lot of skills and competence. In reality, if people do not exchange their tacit knowledge it may remain unknown though interpersonal communication exist it may reveal information to only one person at a time, while other group members may require time to gather tacit information. More so a significant downsides is that once tacit knowledge is lost, it may revert to tacit, and subsequently take a toll on the organization. Two research questions arise as a result of this discovery. (i) is tacit knowledge sufficient to create competitive advantage? (ii) does an organization’s intellectual capital generate tacit knowledge?
Furthermore, this study observes that as tacit knowledge is difficult to define in simple terms, the criteria and dimensions are often interpreted wrongly without taking into account distinct organizational context, industry, and sector fit elements. As cited in Nonaka and von Krogh [19] the inexpressible nature of tacit knowledge is a significant barrier to knowledge sharing despite several studies discussing tacit knowledge institutionalization through interdisciplinary approach using organizational learning, intellectual assets, social capital, human resource management and strategic management a significant research gaps still exist. This observation requires an in-depth investigation in this field of discourse to generate a more informed perspective.
The impact of information technology may be an underutilized emerging factor that could break down barriers to knowledge sharing; however, there is evidence in current literature of the use of technological solutions to facilitate the integration and exchange of new knowledge between persons; thus, the following question may be useful to investigate: how is tacit knowledge identified, stored, and codified with the aid of information technology? In conclusion, evaluating the aforementioned research problems may allow for a better understanding and broadening of the theoretical underpinnings of tacit knowledge in specific knowledge management disciplines, which is currently absent in existing literature.
This study built on prior studies and provided an overview of current research on the importance of tacit knowledge in organizations and possible barriers to knowledge sharing. By implication the chapter explored the application of knowledge management and how it is seen and executed in a variety of knowledge-based research studies that focused on tacit knowledge. The study discovered that there are numerous components to tacit knowledge inquiry, including human capital, intellectual capital, organizational learning, creativity, competitive advantage, organizational culture, social networks, and the role of technology in knowledge sharing. The study argues that these dimensions are critical for comprehending tacit knowledge. The study concludes that extensive scientific research into the foundation of tacit knowledge is necessary in order to facilitate continuous dissemination knowledge in any organizational environment. Regardless of the value of tacit knowledge, a strong combination with explicit knowledge is necessary. In summary knowledge sharing benefit organizational accomplishments because the classifications of knowledge are critical for organizational success when individuals freely exchange experiences. According to experts, discovering tacit knowledge and preventing its depletion is a difficult task for enterprises. Although knowledge sharing is now a widespread practice, there are significant challenges in the field of management, particularly since some employees, including board members, may be hesitant to share their tacit knowledge. In other words, individuals refuse to share their extensive knowledge, competence, and critical thoughts with the rest of the organization. This has a detrimental effect on overall efficiency, production, and performance. This study re-emphasizes the importance of recognizing the barriers to knowledge sharing and pursuing solutions to increase organizational learning. Unlike tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge is publicly available; therefore, when an organization is committed to knowledge sharing, sufficient protocols must be developed to document each critical operational step that will aid others in improving and preventing current knowledge from depletion.
This work has been supported by the Humanities and Social Sciences Project Funded by the Ministry of Education of China (Grant number: 21YJC630112) and National Natural Science Funding of China (Grant number: 72102090).
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Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10165",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Prospects, Production and Uses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ce648cbd64755df57dd7c67c9b17f18",slug:"legume-crops-prospects-production-and-uses",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10165.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8152",title:"Modern Fruit Industry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4ea4aff1aa2988e552a7a8ff3384c59a",slug:"modern-fruit-industry",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Kahramanoglu, Nesibe Ebru Kafkas, Ayzin Küden and Songül Çömlekçioğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8152.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178185",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kahramanoglu",slug:"ibrahim-kahramanoglu",fullName:"Ibrahim Kahramanoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7014",title:"Horticultural Crops",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"62d269dbecb5881a63b040c9ec933e9d",slug:"horticultural-crops",bookSignature:"Hugues Kossi Baimey, Noureddine Hamamouch and Yao Adjiguita Kolombia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7014.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201690",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugues",middleName:null,surname:"Kossi Baimey",slug:"hugues-kossi-baimey",fullName:"Hugues Kossi Baimey"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6996",title:"Strawberry",subtitle:"Pre- and Post-Harvest Management Techniques for Higher Fruit Quality",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dc740162f400a4dd3e9377a140424917",slug:"strawberry-pre-and-post-harvest-management-techniques-for-higher-fruit-quality",bookSignature:"Toshiki Asao and Md Asaduzzaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6996.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"106510",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Asao",slug:"toshiki-asao",fullName:"Toshiki Asao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6492",title:"Vegetables",subtitle:"Importance of Quality Vegetables to Human Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9b3988b64bc40ab0eb650fe8a2b2493",slug:"vegetables-importance-of-quality-vegetables-to-human-health",bookSignature:"Md. Asaduzzaman and Toshiki Asao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6492.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171564",title:"Dr.",name:"Md",middleName:null,surname:"Asaduzzaman",slug:"md-asaduzzaman",fullName:"Md Asaduzzaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:26,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"43317",doi:"10.5772/54833",title:"Extreme Temperature Responses, Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Defense in Plants",slug:"extreme-temperature-responses-oxidative-stress-and-antioxidant-defense-in-plants",totalDownloads:11635,totalCrossrefCites:70,totalDimensionsCites:156,abstract:null,book:{id:"3226",slug:"abiotic-stress-plant-responses-and-applications-in-agriculture",title:"Abiotic Stress",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress - Plant Responses and Applications in Agriculture"},signatures:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Kamrun Nahar and Masayuki Fujita",authors:[{id:"47687",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",middleName:null,surname:"Fujita",slug:"masayuki-fujita",fullName:"Masayuki Fujita"},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"},{id:"166818",title:"MSc.",name:"Kamrun",middleName:null,surname:"Nahar",slug:"kamrun-nahar",fullName:"Kamrun Nahar"}]},{id:"51934",doi:"10.5772/64420",title:"Seed Priming: New Comprehensive Approaches for an Old Empirical Technique",slug:"seed-priming-new-comprehensive-approaches-for-an-old-empirical-technique",totalDownloads:8069,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:127,abstract:'Seed priming is a pre-sowing treatment which leads to a physiological state that enables seed to germinate more efficiently. The majority of seed treatments are based on seed imbibition allowing the seeds to go through the first reversible stage of germination but do not allow radical protrusion through the seed coat. Seeds keeping their desiccation tolerance are then dehydrated and can be stored until final sowing. During subsequent germination, primed seeds exhibit a faster and more synchronized germination and young seedlings are often more vigorous and resistant to abiotic stresses than seedlings obtained from unprimed seeds. Priming often involves soaking seed in predetermined amounts of water or limitation of the imbibition time. The imbibition rate could be somehow controlled by osmotic agents such as PEG and referred as osmopriming. Halopriming implies the use of specific salts while "hormopriming" relies on the use of plant growth regulators. Some physical treatments (UV, cold or heat,..) also provide germination improvement thus suggesting that priming effects are not necessarily related to seed imbibition. A better understanding of the metabolic events taking place during the priming treatment and the subsequent germination should help to use this simple and cheap technology in a more efficient way.',book:{id:"5218",slug:"new-challenges-in-seed-biology-basic-and-translational-research-driving-seed-technology",title:"New Challenges in Seed Biology",fullTitle:"New Challenges in Seed Biology - Basic and Translational Research Driving Seed Technology"},signatures:"Stanley Lutts, Paolo Benincasa, Lukasz Wojtyla, Szymon Kubala S,\nRoberta Pace, Katzarina Lechowska, Muriel Quinet and Malgorzata\nGarnczarska",authors:[{id:"94090",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanley",middleName:null,surname:"Lutts",slug:"stanley-lutts",fullName:"Stanley Lutts"},{id:"181730",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Benincasa",slug:"paolo-benincasa",fullName:"Paolo Benincasa"},{id:"181732",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukasz",middleName:null,surname:"Wojtyla",slug:"lukasz-wojtyla",fullName:"Lukasz Wojtyla"},{id:"181733",title:"Dr.",name:"Szymon",middleName:null,surname:"Kubala",slug:"szymon-kubala",fullName:"Szymon Kubala"},{id:"181734",title:"Mrs.",name:"Katzzarina",middleName:null,surname:"Lechowska",slug:"katzzarina-lechowska",fullName:"Katzzarina Lechowska"},{id:"181735",title:"Dr.",name:"Muriel",middleName:null,surname:"Quinet",slug:"muriel-quinet",fullName:"Muriel Quinet"},{id:"181736",title:"Prof.",name:"Malgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Garnczarska",slug:"malgorzata-garnczarska",fullName:"Malgorzata Garnczarska"}]},{id:"44143",doi:"10.5772/54592",title:"Production of Anthocyanins in Grape Cell Cultures: A Potential Source of Raw Material for Pharmaceutical, Food, and Cosmetic Industries",slug:"production-of-anthocyanins-in-grape-cell-cultures-a-potential-source-of-raw-material-for-pharmaceuti",totalDownloads:7997,totalCrossrefCites:24,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:null,book:{id:"3143",slug:"the-mediterranean-genetic-code-grapevine-and-olive",title:"The Mediterranean Genetic Code",fullTitle:"The Mediterranean Genetic Code - Grapevine and Olive"},signatures:"Anthony Ananga, Vasil Georgiev, Joel Ochieng, Bobby Phills and Violeta Tsolova",authors:[{id:"74792",title:"Dr.",name:"Joel W.",middleName:null,surname:"Ochieng",slug:"joel-w.-ochieng",fullName:"Joel W. Ochieng"},{id:"126149",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Ananga",slug:"anthony-ananga",fullName:"Anthony Ananga"},{id:"136830",title:"Dr.",name:"Devaiah",middleName:null,surname:"Kambiranda",slug:"devaiah-kambiranda",fullName:"Devaiah Kambiranda"},{id:"137412",title:"Dr.",name:"Violetka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsolova",slug:"violetka-tsolova",fullName:"Violetka Tsolova"},{id:"165414",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasil",middleName:null,surname:"Georgiev",slug:"vasil-georgiev",fullName:"Vasil Georgiev"},{id:"165415",title:"Dr.",name:"Bobby",middleName:null,surname:"Phills",slug:"bobby-phills",fullName:"Bobby Phills"}]},{id:"43341",doi:"10.5772/54859",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants and Metabolic Responses",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-and-metabolic-responses",totalDownloads:5336,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:65,abstract:null,book:{id:"3226",slug:"abiotic-stress-plant-responses-and-applications-in-agriculture",title:"Abiotic Stress",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress - Plant Responses and Applications in Agriculture"},signatures:"Saúl Fraire-Velázquez and Victor Emmanuel Balderas-Hernández",authors:[{id:"51144",title:"Dr.",name:"Saul",middleName:null,surname:"Fraire",slug:"saul-fraire",fullName:"Saul Fraire"},{id:"156646",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Balderas-Hernández",slug:"victor-emmanuel-balderas-hernandez",fullName:"Victor Emmanuel Balderas-Hernández"}]},{id:"43220",doi:"10.5772/52779",title:"Abiotic Stress Responses in Plants: Unraveling the Complexity of Genes and Networks to Survive",slug:"abiotic-stress-responses-in-plants-unraveling-the-complexity-of-genes-and-networks-to-survive",totalDownloads:7395,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:null,book:{id:"3226",slug:"abiotic-stress-plant-responses-and-applications-in-agriculture",title:"Abiotic Stress",fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress - Plant Responses and Applications in Agriculture"},signatures:"Ana Sofia Duque, André Martinho de Almeida, Anabela Bernardes da Silva, Jorge Marques da Silva, Ana Paula Farinha, Dulce Santos, Pedro Fevereiro and Susana de Sousa Araújo",authors:[{id:"59945",title:"Dr.",name:"Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"dulce-santos",fullName:"Dulce Santos"},{id:"59946",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Fevereiro",slug:"pedro-fevereiro",fullName:"Pedro Fevereiro"},{id:"156799",title:"Dr.",name:"Susana",middleName:null,surname:"Araújo",slug:"susana-araujo",fullName:"Susana Araújo"},{id:"165802",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Duque",slug:"ana-sofia-duque",fullName:"Ana Sofia Duque"},{id:"165803",title:"Dr.",name:"André",middleName:null,surname:"Almeida",slug:"andre-almeida",fullName:"André Almeida"},{id:"165804",title:"Prof.",name:"Anabela",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"anabela-silva",fullName:"Anabela Silva"},{id:"165805",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Marques Da Silva",slug:"jorge-marques-da-silva",fullName:"Jorge Marques Da Silva"},{id:"165806",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Farinha",slug:"ana-paula-farinha",fullName:"Ana Paula Farinha"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50720",title:"Use of Organic Fertilizers to Enhance Soil Fertility, Plant Growth, and Yield in a Tropical Environment",slug:"use-of-organic-fertilizers-to-enhance-soil-fertility-plant-growth-and-yield-in-a-tropical-environmen",totalDownloads:5116,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Soils rarely have sufficient nutrient for crops to reach their potential yield. Applying organic fertilizers without prior knowledge of their properties may cause yield decline under low application or pollute the environment with excessive application. Understanding the nutrient variability and release pattern of organic fertilizers is crucial to supply plants with sufficient nutrients to achieve optimum productivity, while also rebuilding soil fertility and ensuring protection of environmental and natural resources. This chapter presents the authors’ experiences with different organic amendments under Hawaii's tropical conditions, rather than an intensive literature review. For meat and bone meal by‐products (tankage), batch‐to‐batch variability, nutrient content/release pattern and quality, and plant growth response to the liquid fertilizer produced from tankage were evaluated. For animal livestock, dairy manure (DM) and chicken manure (CM) quality, changes in soil properties, and crop biomass production and root distributions were evaluated. For seaweed, an established bio‐security protocol, nutrient, especially potassium (K) variability, and plant growth and yield response were evaluated in different tropical soils.",book:{id:"5179",slug:"organic-fertilizers-from-basic-concepts-to-applied-outcomes",title:"Organic Fertilizers",fullTitle:"Organic Fertilizers - From Basic Concepts to Applied Outcomes"},signatures:"Amjad A. Ahmad, Theodore J.K. Radovich, Hue V. Nguyen, Jensen\nUyeda, Alton Arakaki, Jeana Cadby, Robert Paull, Jari Sugano and\nGlenn Teves",authors:[{id:"178933",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"A.",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"amjad-ahmad",fullName:"Amjad Ahmad"},{id:"184973",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore",middleName:null,surname:"Radovich",slug:"theodore-radovich",fullName:"Theodore Radovich"},{id:"184974",title:"Prof.",name:"Hue",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"hue-nguyen",fullName:"Hue Nguyen"},{id:"184975",title:"MSc.",name:"Jensen",middleName:null,surname:"Uyeda",slug:"jensen-uyeda",fullName:"Jensen Uyeda"},{id:"184976",title:"MSc.",name:"Alton",middleName:null,surname:"Arakaki",slug:"alton-arakaki",fullName:"Alton Arakaki"},{id:"184977",title:"Mr.",name:"Glenn",middleName:null,surname:"Teves",slug:"glenn-teves",fullName:"Glenn Teves"},{id:"184978",title:"MSc.",name:"Jeana",middleName:null,surname:"Cadby",slug:"jeana-cadby",fullName:"Jeana Cadby"},{id:"184979",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Paull",slug:"robert-paull",fullName:"Robert Paull"},{id:"184980",title:"MSc.",name:"Jari",middleName:null,surname:"Sugano",slug:"jari-sugano",fullName:"Jari Sugano"}]},{id:"59450",title:"Health Benefits of Fruits and Vegetables: Review from Sub-Saharan Africa",slug:"health-benefits-of-fruits-and-vegetables-review-from-sub-saharan-africa",totalDownloads:3454,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"A fruit is defined as the edible part of a plant that consists of the seeds and surrounding tissues, while vegetables are plants cultivated for their edible parts. Fruits and vegetables are important sources of micronutrients and dietary fibres and are components of a healthy diet, which help in preventing major diseases. Due to the fact that fruits and vegetables have health promoting properties, they contribute to dietary guidance. This chapter defines the basic concepts related to health benefits of fruits and vegetables, reviews the previous literature on health benefits of fruits and vegetables and enumerates the health benefits of some common fruits and vegetables. It also examined the dietary recommendation of fruits and vegetables in less developed countries as well as present situation of fruits and vegetables consumption with particular reference to sub-Saharan Africa.",book:{id:"6492",slug:"vegetables-importance-of-quality-vegetables-to-human-health",title:"Vegetables",fullTitle:"Vegetables - Importance of Quality Vegetables to Human Health"},signatures:"Ifeoluwapo Amao",authors:[{id:"223341",title:"Dr.",name:"Ifeoluwapo",middleName:null,surname:"Amao",slug:"ifeoluwapo-amao",fullName:"Ifeoluwapo Amao"}]},{id:"51934",title:"Seed Priming: New Comprehensive Approaches for an Old Empirical Technique",slug:"seed-priming-new-comprehensive-approaches-for-an-old-empirical-technique",totalDownloads:8066,totalCrossrefCites:58,totalDimensionsCites:127,abstract:'Seed priming is a pre-sowing treatment which leads to a physiological state that enables seed to germinate more efficiently. The majority of seed treatments are based on seed imbibition allowing the seeds to go through the first reversible stage of germination but do not allow radical protrusion through the seed coat. Seeds keeping their desiccation tolerance are then dehydrated and can be stored until final sowing. During subsequent germination, primed seeds exhibit a faster and more synchronized germination and young seedlings are often more vigorous and resistant to abiotic stresses than seedlings obtained from unprimed seeds. Priming often involves soaking seed in predetermined amounts of water or limitation of the imbibition time. The imbibition rate could be somehow controlled by osmotic agents such as PEG and referred as osmopriming. Halopriming implies the use of specific salts while "hormopriming" relies on the use of plant growth regulators. Some physical treatments (UV, cold or heat,..) also provide germination improvement thus suggesting that priming effects are not necessarily related to seed imbibition. A better understanding of the metabolic events taking place during the priming treatment and the subsequent germination should help to use this simple and cheap technology in a more efficient way.',book:{id:"5218",slug:"new-challenges-in-seed-biology-basic-and-translational-research-driving-seed-technology",title:"New Challenges in Seed Biology",fullTitle:"New Challenges in Seed Biology - Basic and Translational Research Driving Seed Technology"},signatures:"Stanley Lutts, Paolo Benincasa, Lukasz Wojtyla, Szymon Kubala S,\nRoberta Pace, Katzarina Lechowska, Muriel Quinet and Malgorzata\nGarnczarska",authors:[{id:"94090",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanley",middleName:null,surname:"Lutts",slug:"stanley-lutts",fullName:"Stanley Lutts"},{id:"181730",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Benincasa",slug:"paolo-benincasa",fullName:"Paolo Benincasa"},{id:"181732",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukasz",middleName:null,surname:"Wojtyla",slug:"lukasz-wojtyla",fullName:"Lukasz Wojtyla"},{id:"181733",title:"Dr.",name:"Szymon",middleName:null,surname:"Kubala",slug:"szymon-kubala",fullName:"Szymon Kubala"},{id:"181734",title:"Mrs.",name:"Katzzarina",middleName:null,surname:"Lechowska",slug:"katzzarina-lechowska",fullName:"Katzzarina Lechowska"},{id:"181735",title:"Dr.",name:"Muriel",middleName:null,surname:"Quinet",slug:"muriel-quinet",fullName:"Muriel Quinet"},{id:"181736",title:"Prof.",name:"Malgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Garnczarska",slug:"malgorzata-garnczarska",fullName:"Malgorzata Garnczarska"}]},{id:"61691",title:"Role of Vegetables in Human Nutrition and Disease Prevention",slug:"role-of-vegetables-in-human-nutrition-and-disease-prevention",totalDownloads:3332,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Vegetables are important for human health because of their vitamins, minerals, phytochemical compounds, and dietary fiber content. 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He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. 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In recent years, emerging technologies such as multi-omics, high-throughput technologies, and genome editing tools could assist plant physiologists in unraveling molecular mechanisms in specific critical pathways. The global picture of physiological processes in plants needs to be investigated continually to increase our knowledge, and the resulting technologies will benefit sustainable agriculture.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11409,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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