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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8465",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Trends in Computational Intelligence",title:"Recent Trends in Computational Intelligence",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Traditional models struggle to cope with complexity, noise, and the existence of a changing environment, while Computational Intelligence (CI) offers solutions to complicated problems as well as reverse problems. The main feature of CI is adaptability, spanning the fields of machine learning and computational neuroscience. CI also comprises biologically-inspired technologies such as the intellect of swarm as part of evolutionary computation and encompassing wider areas such as image processing, data collection, and natural language processing. This book aims to discuss the usage of CI for optimal solving of various applications proving its wide reach and relevance. Bounding of optimization methods and data mining strategies make a strong and reliable prediction tool for handling real-life applications.",isbn:"978-1-83880-706-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-705-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-707-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78839",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-trends-in-computational-intelligence",numberOfPages:198,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ed1a280abdc24c8367170d2aff2d1a68",bookSignature:"Ali Sadollah and Tilendra Shishir Sinha",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8465.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8388,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:71,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 13th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 17th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 4th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 4th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"147215",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Sadollah",slug:"ali-sadollah",fullName:"Ali Sadollah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/147215/images/system/147215.jpeg",biography:"Ali Sadollah received his BSc degree in mechanical engineering, solid states, from Azad University, Semnan Branch, Iran in 2007 and MSc degree in mechanical engineering, applied mechanics, from the University of Semnan, Semnan, Iran in 2010. He obtained his Ph.D. at the Faculty of Engineering, the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 2013. He has also served as a postdoctoral research fellow for more than 2 years at Korea University, Seoul, South Korea. In 2016, for a year, he served as a research staff member at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Afterward, he was a guest assistant professor at Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran for 2 years. Currently, he is an assistant professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at University of Science and Culture, Tehran, Iran. His research interests include algorithm development, optimization and metaheuristics, applications of soft computing methods in engineering, artificial neural networks, and computational solid mechanics.",institutionString:"University of Science and Culture",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Science and Culture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"39255",title:"Dr.",name:"Tilendra",middleName:"Shishir",surname:"Sinha",slug:"tilendra-sinha",fullName:"Tilendra Sinha",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39255/images/system/39255.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Tilendra Shishir Sinha, born in July 1968 in Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India, received his BE in Computer Technology from Nagpur University, Maharashtra, India, in 1992. He completed his MSc(Engineering) in Electrical Engineering (Power Electronics Specialization) from the National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India, in 2002. He moved on to complete his PhD(Engineering) in Computer Science & Engineering from the National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, West Bengal, India, in 2009. He has more than 25 years of experience in teaching, industry, and research. He is an IEEE member, ISTE member, and fellow member of IEI and Chartered Engineer in CSE. He has co-authored numerous publications in journals and conferences, and also published four book chapters in the area of natural language processing, speech processing, signal and image processing, information security, and cyber security. \nHis research interests include natural language processing, promoting global cyber security, information security through biometrical patterns, underwater objects detection and recognition, digital signal and morphological image processing, and applied engineering mathematics in various applications of core engineering.",institutionString:"Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"520",title:"Machine Learning",slug:"computer-and-information-science-artificial-intelligence-machine-learning"}],chapters:[{id:"71338",title:"Boundary Element Modeling and Optimization of Three Temperature Nonlinear Fractional Generalized Photo-Thermoelastic Interaction in Anisotropic Semiconductor Structures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91230",slug:"boundary-element-modeling-and-optimization-of-three-temperature-nonlinear-fractional-generalized-pho",totalDownloads:826,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main objective of this paper is to introduce a new fractional-order theory called nonlinear fractional generalized photo-thermoelasticity involving three temperatures. Due to strong nonlinearity, it is very difficult to solve the wave problems related to this theory analytically. Therefore, we propose a new boundary element algorithm and technique for simulation and optimization of the considered problems related to this theory. The genetic algorithm (GA) as an optimization method has been applied based on free form deformation (FFD) technique to improve the performance of our proposed technique. In the formulation of the considered problem, the profiles of the considered objects are determined by FFD technique, where the FFD control point positions are treated as genes, and then the chromosome profiles are defined with the gene sequence. The population is established by a number of individuals (chromosomes), where the objective functions of individuals are achieved by the boundary element method (BEM). A nonuniform rational B-spline curve (NURBS) was used to model optimized boundary where it reduces the number of control points and provides the flexibility to design several different shapes for solving the considered photo-thermoelastic wave problems. The numerical results verify the validity and accuracy of our proposed boundary element technique.",signatures:"Mohamed Abdelsabour Fahmy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71338",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71338",authors:[{id:"233766",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Abdelsabour",surname:"Fahmy",slug:"mohamed-abdelsabour-fahmy",fullName:"Mohamed Abdelsabour Fahmy"}],corrections:null},{id:"70944",title:"Using Discrete Geometric Models in an Automated Layout",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90941",slug:"using-discrete-geometric-models-in-an-automated-layout",totalDownloads:688,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The application of discrete (voxel) geometric models in computer-aided design problems is shown. In this case, the most difficult formalized task of computer-aided design is considered—computer-aided layout. The solution to this problem is most relevant when designing products with a high density of layout (primarily transport equipment). From a mathematical point of view, these are placement problems; therefore, their solution is based on the use of a geometric modeling apparatus. The basic provisions and features of discrete modeling of geometric objects, their place in the system of geometric modeling, the advantages and disadvantages of discrete geometric models, and their primary use are described. Their practical use in solving some of the practical problems of automated layout is shown. This is the definition of the embeddability of the placed objects and the task of tracing and evaluating the shading. Algorithms and features of their practical implementation are described. A numerical assessment of the accuracy and performance of the developed geometric modeling algorithms shows the possibility of their implementation even on modern computers of medium power. This allows us to hope for the integration of the developed layout algorithms into modern systems of solid-state geometric modeling in the form of plug-ins.",signatures:"Leonid V. Markin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70944",authors:[{id:"312671",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid",surname:"Markin",slug:"leonid-markin",fullName:"Leonid Markin"}],corrections:null},{id:"69613",title:"Effective Pitch Value Detection in Noisy Intelligent Environments for Efficient Natural Language Processing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89697",slug:"effective-pitch-value-detection-in-noisy-intelligent-environments-for-efficient-natural-language-pro",totalDownloads:614,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The performance of applications based on natural language processing depends primarily on the environment in which these applications are applied. Intelligent environments will be one of the major applications used to process natural language. The methods for speaker’s gender classification can adapt and improve the performance of natural language processing applications. That is why, this chapter will present an effective speaker’s pitch value detection in noisy environments, which then allows more robust speaker’s gender classification. The chapter presents the algorithm for the speaker’s pitch value detection and performs the comparison in various noisy environments. The experiments are carried out on the part of the publically available Aurora 2 speech database. The results showed that the automatically determined pitch values deviate, on average, only by 8.39 Hz from the reference pitch value. A well-defined pitch value allows a functional speaker’s gender classification. In this chapter, presented speaker’s gender classification works well, even at low signal to noise ratios. The experiments show that the speaker’s gender classification performance at SNR 0 dB is higher than 91% when the automatically determined pitch value is used. Speaker’s gender classification can then be used further in the processes of natural language processing.",signatures:"Damjan Vlaj, Andrej Žgank and Marko Kos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69613",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69613",authors:[{id:"306398",title:"Dr.",name:"Marko",surname:"Kos",slug:"marko-kos",fullName:"Marko Kos"},{id:"306773",title:"Dr.",name:"Damjan",surname:"Vlaj",slug:"damjan-vlaj",fullName:"Damjan Vlaj"},{id:"306776",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrej",surname:"Žgank",slug:"andrej-zgank",fullName:"Andrej Žgank"}],corrections:null},{id:"70393",title:"Classification Problem in Imbalanced Datasets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89603",slug:"classification-problem-in-imbalanced-datasets",totalDownloads:1003,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Classification is a data mining task. It aims to extract knowledge from large datasets. There are two kinds of classification. The first one is known as complete classification, and it is applied to balanced datasets. However, when it is applied to imbalanced ones, it is called partial classification or a problem of classification in imbalanced datasets, which is a fundamental problem in machine learning, and it has received much attention. Considering the importance of this issue, a large amount of techniques have been proposed trying to address this problem. These proposals can be divided into three levels: the algorithm level, the data level, and the hybrid level. In this chapter, we will present the classification problem in imbalanced datasets, its domains of application, its appropriate measures of performances, and its approaches and techniques.",signatures:"Aouatef Mahani and Ahmed Riad Baba Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70393",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70393",authors:[{id:"300915",title:"Dr.",name:"Aouatef",surname:"Mahani",slug:"aouatef-mahani",fullName:"Aouatef Mahani"},{id:"310335",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed Riadh",surname:"BABA ALI",slug:"ahmed-riadh-baba-ali",fullName:"Ahmed Riadh BABA ALI"}],corrections:null},{id:"71118",title:"Applications of Mining Arabic Text: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91275",slug:"applications-of-mining-arabic-text-a-review",totalDownloads:735,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Since the appearance of text mining, the Arabic language gained some interest in applying several text mining tasks over a text written in the Arabic language. There are several challenges faced by the researchers. These tasks include Arabic text summarization, which is one of the challenging open areas for research in natural language processing (NLP) and text mining fields, Arabic text categorization, and Arabic sentiment analysis. This chapter reviews some of the past and current researches and trends in these areas and some future challenges that need to be tackled. It also presents some case studies for two of the reviewed approaches.",signatures:"Qasem Al-Radaideh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71118",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71118",authors:[{id:"303628",title:"Prof.",name:"Qasem",surname:"AlRadaideh",slug:"qasem-alradaideh",fullName:"Qasem AlRadaideh"}],corrections:null},{id:"71286",title:"Categorizing Patient Disease into ICD-10 with Deep Learning for Semantic Text Classification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91292",slug:"categorizing-patient-disease-into-icd-10-with-deep-learning-for-semantic-text-classification",totalDownloads:763,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"How to leverage insights into big electronic health records (EHRs) becomes increasingly important for accomplishing precision medicine to improve the quality of human healthcare. When analyzing big Chinese EHRs, there are a lot of applications that we need to categorize patients’ diseases according to the medical coding standard. In this paper, we develop natural language processing (NLP), deep learning, and machine learning algorithms to automatically categorize each patient’s individual diseases into the ICD-10 standard. Experimental results show that the convolutional neural network (CNN) algorithm outperforms the recurrent neural network (RNN)-based long short-term memory (LSTM) and gated recurrent unit (GRU) algorithms, and it generates much better results than the support vector machine (SVM), one of the most popular conventional machine learning algorithms, demonstrating the great impact of deep learning on medical big data analysis.",signatures:"Junmei Zhong and Xiu Yi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71286",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71286",authors:[{id:"306304",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Junmei",surname:"Zhong",slug:"junmei-zhong",fullName:"Junmei Zhong"}],corrections:null},{id:"71081",title:"Deep Learning Approach to Key Frame Detection in Human Action Videos",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91188",slug:"deep-learning-approach-to-key-frame-detection-in-human-action-videos",totalDownloads:867,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A key frame is a representative frame which includes the whole facts of the video collection. It is used for indexing, classification, evaluation, and retrieval of video. The existing algorithms generate relevant key frames, but additionally, they generate a few redundant key frames. A number of them are not capable of constituting the entire shot. In this chapter, an effective algorithm primarily based on the fusion of deep features and histogram has been proposed to overcome these issues. It extracts the maximum relevant key frames by way of eliminating the vagueness of the choice of key frames. It can be applied parallel and concurrently to the video sequence, which results in the reduction of computational and time complexity. The performance of this algorithm indicates its effectiveness in terms of relevant key frame extraction from videos.",signatures:"Ujwalla Gawande, Kamal Hajari and Yogesh Golhar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71081",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71081",authors:[{id:"312168",title:"Dr.",name:"Ujwalla",surname:"Gawande",slug:"ujwalla-gawande",fullName:"Ujwalla Gawande"},{id:"312350",title:"Mr.",name:"Kamal",surname:"Hajari",slug:"kamal-hajari",fullName:"Kamal Hajari"},{id:"312351",title:"Prof.",name:"Yogesh",surname:"Golhar",slug:"yogesh-golhar",fullName:"Yogesh Golhar"}],corrections:null},{id:"68953",title:"Machine Translation and the Evaluation of Its Quality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89063",slug:"machine-translation-and-the-evaluation-of-its-quality",totalDownloads:1535,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Machine translation has already become part of our everyday life. This chapter gives an overview of machine translation approaches. Statistical machine translation was a dominant approach over the past 20 years. It brought many cases of practical use. It is described in more detail in this chapter. Statistical machine translation is not equally successful for all language pairs. Highly inflectional languages are hard to process, especially as target languages. As statistical machine translation has almost reached the limits of its capacity, neural machine translation is becoming the technology of the future. This chapter also describes the evaluation of machine translation quality. It covers manual and automatic evaluations. Traditional and recently proposed metrics for automatic machine translation evaluation are described. Human translation still provides the best translation quality, but it is, in general, time-consuming and expensive. Integration of human and machine translation is a promising workflow for the future. Machine translation will not replace human translation, but it can serve as a tool to increase productivity in the translation process.",signatures:"Mirjam Sepesy Maučec and Gregor Donaj",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68953",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68953",authors:[{id:"305414",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mirjam",surname:"Sepesy Maučec",slug:"mirjam-sepesy-maucec",fullName:"Mirjam Sepesy Maučec"},{id:"309288",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregor",surname:"Donaj",slug:"gregor-donaj",fullName:"Gregor Donaj"}],corrections:null},{id:"70785",title:"Pedestrian Detection and Tracking in Video Surveillance System: Issues, Comprehensive Review, and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90810",slug:"pedestrian-detection-and-tracking-in-video-surveillance-system-issues-comprehensive-review-and-chall",totalDownloads:1359,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pedestrian detection and monitoring in a surveillance system are critical for numerous utility areas which encompass unusual event detection, human gait, congestion or crowded vicinity evaluation, gender classification, fall detection in elderly humans, etc. Researchers’ primary focus is to develop surveillance system that can work in a dynamic environment, but there are major issues and challenges involved in designing such systems. These challenges occur at three different levels of pedestrian detection, viz. video acquisition, human detection, and its tracking. The challenges in acquiring video are, viz. illumination variation, abrupt motion, complex background, shadows, object deformation, etc. Human detection and tracking challenges are varied poses, occlusion, crowd density area tracking, etc. These results in lower recognition rate. A brief summary of surveillance system along with comparisons of pedestrian detection and tracking technique in video surveillance is presented in this chapter. The publicly available pedestrian benchmark databases as well as the future research directions on pedestrian detection have also been discussed.",signatures:"Ujwalla Gawande, Kamal Hajari and Yogesh Golhar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70785",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70785",authors:[{id:"312168",title:"Dr.",name:"Ujwalla",surname:"Gawande",slug:"ujwalla-gawande",fullName:"Ujwalla Gawande"},{id:"312350",title:"Mr.",name:"Kamal",surname:"Hajari",slug:"kamal-hajari",fullName:"Kamal Hajari"},{id:"312351",title:"Prof.",name:"Yogesh",surname:"Golhar",slug:"yogesh-golhar",fullName:"Yogesh Golhar"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6806",title:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fedf4479b910cbcee3025e391f073417",slug:"fuzzy-logic-based-in-optimization-methods-and-control-systems-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Ali Sadollah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6806.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147215",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Sadollah",slug:"ali-sadollah",fullName:"Ali Sadollah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7607",title:"Recent Trends in Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"from Training to Prediction",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7f92b054dddc49df32d4f9c9e71507c",slug:"recent-trends-in-artificial-neural-networks-from-training-to-prediction",bookSignature:"Ali Sadollah and Carlos M. 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Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10749",leadTitle:null,title:"Legumes Research - Volume 1",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tLegume crops provide a significant sources of plant-based proteins for humans. Grain legumes have outstanding nutritional and nutraceutical properties, while they are affordable food that contributes to achieving future food and feed security.
\r\n\r\n\tDue to an increasing world population, global food security requires a major re-focusing of plant sciences, crop improvement and production agronomy towards grain legumes (pulse crops) over coming decades, with intensive research and development to identify climate-resilient species and cultivars with improved grain characteristics. In this context, genetic developments have played a critical role to increase crop production, whose applications will undoubtedly contribute to sustainable agriculture and food security.
\r\n\r\n\tThis research topic aims to bring together a collection of outstanding studies for a better understanding of current improvements in agricultural and seed traits from both the biological (physiological and nutritional/nutraceutical) and genetic viewpoints. We welcome submissions of all types of articles falling under, but not limited to, the research topic highlighted in this book.
\r\n\t
In the past decades, after the widespread therapeutic use of antisecretive drugs (cimetidine, ranitidine, and proton pump inhibitors), the incidence of peptic ulcer disease showed a real and significant decrease. The treatment of the
The pathophysiology of the gastric ulcers is characterized by the reduction of acid secretion, chronic gastritis, duodenogastric reflux of bile and pancreatic juice; on the other hand, in the duodenal ulcers there are elevation of gastric acid secretion, increase of parietal cell mass, and duodenal acid/pepsin charge. The identification of
Most evident symptom is the epigastric pain. This symptom can show a characteristic temporal cadency: the pain becomes worse in gastric ulcer after eating, but, on the contrary, it decreases over a period of time in duodenal ulcer after taking some meal. This traditional symptomatological distinction between gastric and duodenal ulcer is no longer the evident clinical data. Often the epigastric pain can be radiated to the back and linked to dyspepsia with the symptoms such as nausea, gastroduodenal reflux, heartburn, belching, etc. The diagnostic program for uncomplicated peptic ulcer encompasses gastroduodenal endoscopy as first step. In the gastric ulcer it is necessary to complete the examination with biopsy of the lesion for the risk of malignancy; endoscopy will be repeated, also with biopsy if it needs, to check for healing after the therapy. In the duodenal ulcer biopsies and further endoscopies are less required. In the diagnosed or suspected peptic ulcer, the test for
The more frequent complication of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is the bleeding (hemorrhage), followed by perforation and obstruction [13]. Some differences in the frequency among various complications can be found in the geographic distribution, due to amount of NSAIDs and ASA use, diffusion of
In most cases peptic ulcer hemorrhage is connected with the use of NSAIDs and ASA. The risk degree is dose-dependent: the therapeutic employment of high dose is a greater risk factor for bleeding, compared with the use of medium or low dose of drugs [14]. The bleeding risk by NSAIDs is also drug-specific, for example, higher for Ketoralac and certainly higher for the synchronous use of aspirin and NSAIDs. Moreover these drugs play a real, concrete role in the occurrence of peptic ulcer perforation [15]. Likewise the presence of
The occurrence of hemorrhage complication is clearly higher than perforation. The evaluation of annual incidence of bleeding shows a large range of variation from 36 to 44%, followed by perforation with the range from 6 to 14% [22]. Bleeding complications can develop with various degrees of severity. Peptic ulcers cause almost half of all cases of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage. The more serious events of bleeding usually are due to chronic duodenal ulcers; however, both gastric and duodenal ulcers have the overlappable trend to bleed. Gastroduodenal bleeding from peptic ulcer is a well-known clinical occurrence, in some cases with high morbidity. The reason of major severity of this complication in the duodenal ulcer is connected to anatomical condition: the ulcer situated on the posterior wall of duodenal bulb penetrates and exposes the gastroduodenal artery, which can be eroded followed usually by copious hemorrhage. In the other sites of the duodenal bulb, as anterior wall, there are no major blood vessels. The peptic ulcers in the second portion of duodenum, so-called postbulbar ulcers, are less usual than bulbar ulcers; however, bleeding complication is frequent also in this site. The clinical manifestation of bleeding is characterized by the amount and speed of hemorrhage. The massive and sudden bleeding appears with hematemesis, followed by melena, can cause hypovolemic condition and, in some cases, hypovolemic shock. Blood loss that develops less rapidly manifests with melena, also accompanied in some cases by hemodynamic alterations. In other cases continuous and moderate blood loss induces chronic anemia. Clinical data achieve the evaluation of the severity of hemorrhage and the general conditions, as hemodynamic stability, hypovolemic status, etc. The knowledge of these findings is central for the starting of urgent resuscitation therapy. However, the diagnosis must be completed by endoscopy to define the pathological features of bleeding ulcer, essential notion to perform the correct therapeutic approach: medical, endoscopic, surgical therapy. In the context of hemorrhagic complication, the control of possible active blood losses is necessary by checking stably the nasogastric tube, the stool, and the value of hematocrit and hemoglobin level. After the bleeding has stopped, rebleeding is possible, also within a short period of time. The urgent and current therapeutic approach in the patients with bleeding peptic ulcer includes fluid resuscitation, intravenous proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy, blood transfusions in some cases if necessary, therapeutic endoscopic procedures, if required. Usually this approach stops bleeding and cures the ulcer. However, the evolution of the bleeding complication is not favorable in the minority of patients, and the therapeutic resolution demands the surgical procedures. There are some clinical conditions that require surgery: patient with hypovolemic status and hemodynamic alteration not responding to powerful fluid resuscitation therapy; recurrent bleeding after early interruption, in most cases after unsuccessful further endoscopic treatment; finally in the patients with moderate, small, but continuous hemorrhage that needs prolonged fluid infusion and repeated blood transfusion.
The global frequency of perforation in the evolution of peptic ulcer disease ranges between 2 and 10%. However, the sites of lesion, in the gastroduodenal tract, show different occurrence chance of the complication. The major frequency of perforation is in duodenal ulcer, reaching 60%; in the antral and gastric body site, the ulcer perforation develops by 20% [23, 24]. This clinical event is spontaneous. The free perforation in the peritoneal cavity causes upper abdominal pain; typically this pain is sudden, that is, the patient recalls precisely its onset and associates it with what he was doing. The first step of the peritoneal flogosis is a chemical peritonitis due to the gastric and biliopancreatic secretions. However, the reaction of peritoneal serous mitigates the gastroduodenal irritants with the light exudate, and the abdominal pain can ameliorate for a short frame time. This first phase is followed quickly by the return of the severe epigastric and then diffuse abdominal pain. The patient appears very suffering and reduces the movements of the abdominal wall with short breaths and bending off the thighs upward. The objective abdominal examination shows hypomobility of the wall, usually its board-like rigidity; with percussion tympanic sound instead of the normal dullness over the liver, because of the air leaking from the stomach; on auscultation, peristaltic sound is weak or absent. There are also atypical or less typical clinical presentations of peptic ulcer perforations. A small duodenal perforation with a small amount of gastroduodenal secretion flowing out along the right parietocolic douche can simulate acute appendicitis. Anyway in some patients the clinical appearance of perforation can be less pronounced with little symptomatological evidence and possible diagnostic pitfall. Finally, the so-called covered or sealed perforation is possible, due to the closure by the omentum or by the liver, or also the posterior, retroperitoneal perforation (epiploon retrocavity); these start with discrete clinical symptoms. However, the septic focus is active and usually develops in circumscribed peritonitis, as subhepatic or subdiaphragmatic abscess and also in generalized peritonitis [25, 26]. Within the laboratory findings, there is evidence of leukocytosis, with mild level in the early phases, after some hours more elevated. In the imaging studies, plain X-rays, with patient upright, of the lower chest and the abdomen reveal in most cases (plus than 80%) free subdiaphragmatic air. The clinical and this imaging data allow the diagnosis of ulcer perforation [27]. If the free intrabdominal air cannot be detected, the imaging study may be completed by US and CT. Both these exams can demonstrate also little amount of free air or fluid; the small fluid collection can be detected in the pelvic space. In particular there is evidence of the possible findings of little leaks through perforated ulcer by CT with oral contrast [27]. The early management of perforated peptic ulcer encloses fluid infusion, intravenous proton pump inhibitor, antibiotics with wide antimicrobial activity, and positioning of the nasogastric tube. The central therapeutic role in the peptic ulcer perforation is played by surgery, usually by mini-invasive approach, following one of several procedures of surgical ulcer closure [23, 24, 28]. The altered conditions in the patients with every free perforation are indication to urgent surgery. In the patients with little leaks through perforated ulcer or spontaneous closing of perforation, localized intraperitoneal inflammatory disease and well stable clinical conditions can be performed by nonoperative treatment by nasogastric tube, PPI, and antibiotics. However, the conservative management should allow a quick amelioration, that is, within 24 hours; but any delay in the improvement or also small deterioration of clinical condition requires urgent surgical procedure [29, 30].
The stenosis is the less frequent complication of the peptic ulcer, based on the evolution of the disease due to inflammation, edema, muscular spasm, followed by repair process with scaring. The detected frequency ranges between 5 and 8%. In detail, the development of this complication comprises various factors, some functional, other pathological. The functional factors are spasm, pyloric dysmotility, decrease of gastric motility, due to peptic ulcer disease; the pathological factors are inflammation, edema, fibrosis, and finally, scarring and stenosis. The first phase of dysfunction with edema and inflammation causes the reversible gastric obstruction, the following phase of fibrosis and scarring induces the irreversible obstruction [23]. The majority of patients who complain symptoms of gastric outlet obstruction have an history of peptic ulcer disease. The clinical appearance is characterized by anorexia, nausea, early satiety, epigastric pain, vomiting. This long untreated clinical condition is followed by weight loss and deterioration of general condition. A typical symptom is the decreased efficacy of antiacid drugs. This is the clue for the indication of altered acid gastric secretion condition: pyloric obstruction conducts to stasis with increase in the gastric pH, following rise of gastrin issue and overflow of acid secretion. Usually the diagnosis of stenosis and exclusion of malignancy are achieved by endoscopy, endobiopsy, and imaging exams, such as conventional radiography and CT scan. The initial medical management is based on re-establishment of hydroelectrolytic balance and gastric decompression by nasogastric tube for 48–72 hours. In some cases these procedures allow the resumption of oral diet and recovery of nutritional status. There are some studies that report the positive role of the treatment of
Peptic ulcer complications are still remarkable medical problem. Although the current medical therapy of peptic ulcer, as PPI drugs, control of
In this chapter, the possible Engineering solutions for the problems faced in the implementation of road infrastructure in the Brazilian Amazon are discussed, seeking technical alternatives allied to the reduction of logistics costs and the reduction of environmental impacts.
This study fundamentally addresses the general characterization of natural, technical, economic, and environmental problems for road construction in the Amazon environment, pointing out possible solutions to circumvent these difficulties. The characterization was performed by reviewing the available technical literature, while the solutions were indicated by case studies of works conducted in the region.
It should be noted, however, that while there is a long tradition of environmental studies in the Amazon, involving biotic and abiotic environments, and the environmental impacts resulting from anthropic actions, the same tradition does not apply to studies of road constructions, from the point of view of Engineering.
The main cause of this problem is the low rate of research data publication and its application on highways in the specialized technical literature.
Thus, although the application of a certain material or technique in each construction of a highway is known, it is difficult to make a deeper analysis, due to the absence of published data.
For this reason, the literature review and case studies discussed here were mostly restricted to academic research of master and doctoral thesis, presenting the results of field monitoring reported by their respective authors.
In the preceding items, the general characteristics of the International Amazon were contextualized, with emphasis on the Brazilian Amazonia, in addition to addressing the problems faced in the construction of highways in this region. This Item presents some case studies that sought to circumvent the problems of scarcity of stone material near the construction site and the presence of soil layers with low bearing capacity in the natural foundation (subgrade) of the highways built in the Brazilian Amazonia environment.
Figure 1 shows the locations of the case studies analyzed here.
Locations of the case studies analyzed.
An unpaved rural road located at 53 km of the state highway AM-010, north of the city of Manaus (Point 1 of Figure 1), is used to access a military base. This road has a natural subgrade consisting of a layer of yellow-red sandy silt containing a 55% silt fraction, 35% sand, and 9% clay and is classified as a latosol, with a 30% LL, a PI of 10%, a CBR of 31% and an optimal moisture content of 12.6%, both in the intermediate compaction energy. The soil pH is acidic, with a value of 5.39, kaolinite being the predominant clay mineral. The soil is classified as CL (USCS), A-4 (TRB), and LG′ (MCT).
The efficiency of chemically stabilizing the subgrade soil with cement supplemented with ZS was evaluated, resulting as a single layer of the stabilized base; for this purpose, was constructed an experimental section of 70 m in length and 7.5 m in width. In order to control the performance of executive technical procedures, SCS and TSDC tests were made before, during, and after construction, in addition to evaluating the overall quality of the road paving and its superficial drainage elements.
The ZS-based additive (RoadCem®) used is a fine, odorless, grayish powder with a specific mass of approximately 1,100 kg/m3 and pH of 10–12 (in water, at 20°C). Its chemical composition is mainly composed of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals (60–80%), including sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium chlorides; ZS and oxides (5–10%); and activators (5–10%).
Based on the characteristics of the experimental section subgrade soil, a soil-cement–the additive mix was made with 1.7 kg/m3 of ZS (0.09% per dry mass) and 160 kg/m3 of cement (8.20% per dry mass).
The SCS test results of the specimens molded in the laboratory before the fieldwork found values of approximately 8 MPa at 28 days. In general, the construction stages begin with the addition and mixing of the ZS additive and cement, followed by leveling, compaction, and surface finishing. In this process, the ZS additive may be added one day before the application of the cement (Figures 2 and 3).
a) Distribution of cement and ZS additive in the experimental runway by manual spreading; b) homogenization of the soil, cement, and ZS additive
Steps of a) compaction; b) bulging; c) surface finishing; and d) curing of the stabilized base [
The mechanical strength of the stabilized base was verified by molding PCs in three stages. In the laboratory, before starting the stabilization process, specimens were prepared with the pre-established dosage, and the SCS and TSDC test results were evaluated at the rupture ages of 3, 7, 14, and 28 days in wet curing.
During the execution of the stabilization step, a new molding of specimens was performed by collecting the homogenized mixture of soil-cement–ZS immediately before starting the field compaction procedure. In the third stage, after 28 days of stabilization, six samples were extracted directly from the runway. The laboratory results of the samples molded in the laboratory, those molded with a field mixture, and those extracted from the runway are shown in Figure 4.
a) Comparison of SCS for samples molded in the laboratory, during stabilization, and extracted directly from the experimental runway; b) TSDC for laboratory-molded samples [
Of the specimens molded with the field mixture during the construction, the SCS results were observed to be close to the values of those specimens molded in the laboratory. The quality of the mixture made by the recycler and the time between homogenization and compaction are the main factors underlying the difference between the SCS of the samples molded in the laboratory and molded with the filed mixture, around 16%.
Conversely, the samples extracted directly from the runway reached only 42% of the SCS resistance value of the samples molded in the laboratory at 7 days of curing (Figure 4a), but these values were still higher than the minimum Brazilian road standard, which is 2.1 MPa. The difference is mainly caused by the construction techniques, the quality of the mixture, and compaction by the equipment in the field, under conditions not always optimal, while in the laboratory, technological control is easier to achieve. In addition, the extraction process of field samples can damage the cemented structure of the specimens, reducing their real strength.
Regarding the tensile stresses that the lower regions of the pavement receive due to the transient loads imposed by the traffic, the TSDC of the stabilized base material reached values above 1 MPa at a curing age of 7 days (Figure 4b).
In the visual inspection of the work during the first 48 hours of curing, some transverse, superficial, and isolated cracks with average depths of 1 mm emerged. In this period, there was the volumetric expansion that generated internal tensile stresses in the material that was still in the fresh state. The microstructure in the formation is subjected to secondary growth of the impure phase of ettringite; because of the continued hydration of C3S, hydrated calcium silicate began to form inside the hydrated carapace [2]. This effect was more intense in plastic clays with high levels of cement exposed to the high humidity of the night-time forest and the intense heat of the day. However, the continuous strength gain of the material interrupted the propagation of cracks in later days, which naturally incorporated dust, showing an aspect of natural base regeneration. Four years after construction, the pavement showed no cracks, abatements, or pathologies that would compromise the durability and assimilation capacity of traffic surcharges (Figure 5).
Final aspect of the experimental section. a) One day of stabilization, in Oct. 2016; b) after 490 days, in Feb. 2018; c) after 4 years, Oct. 2020 [
Cabral et al. [3] and Cabral [4] conducted laboratory and field studies on the use of SCACC in asphalt mixtures, with raw material from the state of Pará. The authors obtained excellent results when comparing SCACC to the natural coarse aggregate (crushed stone), indicating that the synthetic aggregate supports severe mechanical compaction, according to the results obtained in the degradation tests (analysis of the comparison between the granulometric composition of the SCACC in the conditions of no compaction on the experimental runway, and after two years of service completion). The study site was an experimental section of the pavement restoration work on federal highway BR-163, between 101 km and 102 km (Point 2 of Figure 1), whose differential treatment was the incorporation of SCACC in the base layer of the pavement.
The base course of this segment was built in mid-November 2007, totalling 1,000 m in length, 12 m in width (two lanes of 3.5 m each and two shoulder lanes of 2.5 m each), and 20 cm thick. Not only in this section, but throughout the extent of the pavement restoration work, the project established the need to incorporate approximately 30% of coarse aggregate into the lateritic soil (
Figures 6 and 7 show the stages of the use of SCACC, from the preparation of the ceramic bricks (which were later crushed into coarse aggregate sizes) to the execution of the base course in the field.
Use of SCACC in highway paving: a) burnt of ceramic bricks following a controlled firing temperature; b) crushing of the ceramic blricks. c) Stacking of the mixture of lateritic soil and SCACC in the field [
Use of SCACC in highway paving: a) scattering of the mixture of lateritic soil and SCACC for the execution of the base course; b) completed experimental runway, with asphalt course in double surface treatment. c) Conditions of the experimental runway approximately 2 years after completion [
To observe the behavior of an application of soil–asphalt emulsion mixture, Sant’Ana [5] studied a 200-m unpaved experimental section located at gate 3 of the access to the State University of Maranhão (Point 3 of Figure 1), which had a highly irregular surface, composed of a base course in laterite that was very deteriorated (Figure 8) overlying a subgrade layer formed by fine sandy soil (no subbase layer was observed). After the collection of deformed samples to characterize the existing layers, satisfactory results of the subgrade were observed (CBR of 12% under the normal compaction energy). On the other hand, the material of the base layer fit the subbase properties (CBR of 23% under intermediate compaction energy), so it needed to be reinforced and regularized with material imported from a deposit, resulting in a new base course.
View of the experimental section before stabilization with asphalt emulsion [
Regarding the stabilization of the new base layer with RL-1C asphalt emulsion (cationic, slow rupture), the surface (base) was regularized and the existing road widened, keeping the transverse slopes at 3–5% to allow the accelerated flow of rainwater. Then, over the first 100 m, scarification was performed at a thickness of 5 cm (Figure 9a), followed by wetting until the layer reached the optimum moisture content; homogenization with a disc harrow (Figure 9b); application of RL-1C asphalt emulsion at the rate of 5 l/m2, corresponding to 5% by weight of the dry soil, but in three stages (Figure 9c and d); and homogenization with the disc harrow between asphalt emulsion steps. A grader was used to move the soil–asphalt emulsion mixture to the side of the road, sometimes on one bank, sometimes on another (Figure 9e). Next, the mixture was compacted with a smooth roller (Figure 9f). Finally, the preliminary sealing layer was applied, with the emulsifying agent spreading (Figure 9g) and the release of clean sand (Figure 9h), which was then compacted again by a smooth roller. Figure 9i shows the finishing appearance of the stabilized base 7 days after execution. The remaining 100 m were subjected to the same procedure as above.
Some records of the execution stages of the experimental section with soil–emulsion [
To evaluate the stabilization efficiency, two non-destructive tests using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) equipment were carried out on the finished surface, one 12 days and the other 20 months after execution. The current service value of the road surface was characterized using the method developed by the United States Department of Army in 1995, with the objective of calculating the Unsurfaced Road Condition Index (URCI). Surface distress surveys were carried out in December 2007 and September 2008, that is, 10 months and 20 months after the stabilization was completed, respectively.
Although the material was in good general condition, the defects that were most common in the analyzed sections were surface dust, the loss of aggregate due to abrasion, and the “pothole” or “potholes”. The classification of all sections of the experimental stretch as “very good” or “excellent” by URCI method, after almost 2 years of operation (Figure 10), showed that the soil–asphalt emulsion technique is applicable in the region where it was studied for roads with low traffic volume.
Surface condition of the stabilized base with asphalt emulsion after 20 months of execution [
There are four cases to be reported here (Points 4 to 7 of Figure 1). All cases dealt with the construction of a road in a location with a thick layer of soil with low bearing capacity, in which it would be uneconomical to purge this material.
Figure 11 shows the implementation details of the project (Point 4 of Figure 1). The largest thickness of the very soft organic clay layer observed was 7.55 m (Figure 11a), with a penetration resistance index (NSPT) value under net energy of 72% (N72, typical of Brazilian energy test) with an average of 1/45 blows/30 cm, on which a road embankment and bridge abutments (with a height of 6.65 m) were built to cross a watercourse called “Igarapé Miri” in the State of Pará. Figure 11b indicates the solution adopted. It entailed precast reinforced concrete piles, with square sides of 20 cm (to support the embankment) and 25 cm (to support the embankment and the bridge abutments), that were 8 m in length, spaced every 1.5 m, in both directions in plan view. On average, the pile tips were embedded at least 1 m into the resistant layer of very dense silty sand. Figure 11c and d shows a high stiffness geogrid for reinforcement of the embankment, installed over the cap piles, with the function of distributing the loads of the embankment and the bridge abutments for the piles.
Reinforced piled embankment executed for crossing watercourses. a) Stratigraphic profile; b) arrangement of the piles and the geogrid reinforcement, in cross-section; c) and d) installation of the geogrid on the capitals of the piles (photo: Maccaferri [
Figure 12 shows the implementation details of the project (Point 5 of Figure 1). The largest thickness of the very soft organic clay layer was 13.30 m (Figure 12a), with a mean N72 value of 1/70 blows/30 cm (region under the tidal influence, located in mangrove), on which a road embankment and bridge abutments (with a maximum height of 4 m) were built to cross a small watercourse in the city of Abaetetetuba, Pará State.
Reinforced piled embankment built for crossing the watercourse in the city of Abaetetetuba, Pará state. a) Stratigraphic profile; b) arrangement of the piles and the geogrid reinforcement, in cross-section; c) installation of piles in the abutment bridge (photo: NS Campelo).
Figure 12b indicates the solution adopted: There were used precast piles of reinforced concrete, with square sections of 35 cm on the side, 20 m in length, spaced every 3 m in plan view. On average, the tips of the piles were embedded approximately 5 m inside the resistant layer of very dense sand. A geogrid was used to reinforce the embankment, and a geotextile of high stiffness was placed between the geogrid and the top of the pile cap to avoid tearing of the geogrid when it was subjected to the embankment surcharge. Figure 12c shows the piles supporting the retaining wall of the bridge abutments.
Figure 13 shows the details of the project (Point 6 of Figure 1), a connection road to state highway PA-150, in the State of Pará. The largest thickness of the very soft organic clay layer observed was 8.00 m (Figure 13a), with a mean N72 value of 1/45 blows/30 cm, on which a road embankment and an abutment bridge were built with a height of 2.3 m. Figure 13b indicates the adopted solution. There were used precast reinforced concrete piles, with 25 cm square side, spaced every 1.5 m. On average, the tips of the piles were embedded approximately 1 m inside the resistant layer of very hard silty clay. A geogrid and a geotextile were placed at the top of the pile caps.
Connection road to state highway PA-150, state of Pará. a) Stratigraphic profile; b) arrangement of the piles and the geogrid reinforcement, in cross-section.
Figure 14 shows the implementation details of the project (Point 7 of Figure 1). The highest thickness of the soft clay silt layer observed was 5.75 m (Figure 14a), with a mean N72 value of 3 blows/30 cm, on which a road embankment with a height of 4–6 m was built, in the
Reinforced piled embankment executed in the
As reported in Item 2.8 of the Chapter “Challenges in the Construction of Highways in the Brazilian Amazonia Environment: Part I: Identification of Engineering Problems”, laterites are widely used in road pavings in the Brazilian Amazonia, but their occurrence is limited in some highland regions (
Use of
Figure 16a shows some detail of a typical coarse lateritic concretion (
Use of laterites in Amazonian highways. a) Detail of lateritic concretion, with a predominance of iron and aluminum oxides; b) primary coating layer aiming at the durability of the pavement until the execution of the asphalt course (photos: NS Campelo).
Sometimes, when the layer of low bearing capacity of the natural foundation (subgrade) is not very thick (2–3 m), then it is possible to replace all of it with another, better-quality material, imported from the deposit. When the layer is deeper (Figure 17a), and the total removal of the layer or the use of reinforced piled embankment is uneconomical (discussed in Item 4.4 of the Chapter “Challenges in the Construction of Highways in the Brazilian Amazonia Environment: Part I: Identification of Engineering Problems”), it is possible to partially replace the layer by introducing a layer of coarse crushed stone material (locally known as
Partial replacement of natural foundations with low support capacity by drainage layers and greater shear strength in road construction.
Figure 18 shows the phases of partial excavation of the soft clay layer for the execution of an urban connection corridor in the city of Manaus, Amazonas (Point 11 of Figure 1). The thickness of the
Construction of an urban corridor with partial replacement of the natural ground with low bearing capacity. a) Partial excavation of the layer; b) placement of the coarse crushed stone material (
Item 1 described that the Amazon Basin encompasses a vast area of lowland and relatively flat lands, with numerous watercourses crossing them. The highlands, which are not flooded, constitute the
However, in
Figure 19 shows two Brazilian federal highways that cross the State of Amazonas. Figure 19a shows a stretch of highway BR-174, with a total length of 3,320 km, which connects the States of Mato Grosso, Rondônia, Amazonas, and Roraima and from this to Venezuela and the rest of the Americas and Caribbean (see Figure 7 of the Chapter “Challenges in the Construction of Highways in the Brazilian Amazonia Environment: Part I: Identification of Engineering Problems”); only 210 km of this highway cross the state of Amazonas. Throughout almost its whole length, deposits of
Different reliefs cut by highways in the state of Amazonas. a) Wavy, in the “
Due to the period of river flooding in the
Lowering of the river water level on both sides of the road.
Large river floods have become more frequent in the Amazon Basin, leading to increasing maxima water levels year by year. Thus, in some regions of the BR-319 highway, overtopping occurs (Figure 21), and in the ebb cycle, partial rupture of the slopes may occur in the higher embankments when conditions are favorable (Figures 22 and 23).
River flooding causing overtopping at some places on federal highway BR-319 (photos: NS Campelo).
Rupture of road slopes, after the river ebb cycle (photos: NS Campelo).
Rupture of road slopes, after the river ebb cycle (photos: NS Campelo).
Figure 22a (point 12 of Figure 1) is located near 23 km of highway BR-319, while the other occurrences are in a range between 20 km and 60 km.
Souza [7] and Souza et al. [8] studied the phenomenon of
Natural phenomenon known as
This phenomenon causes damage to the riverine population, as a large amount of land detaches from the massif, reaching the residences (wooden
As reported in Items 2.8 and 2.9 of the Chapter “Challenges in the Construction of Highways in the Brazilian Amazonia Environment: Part I: Identification of Engineering Problems”, tropical soils present some behaviors dictated by the pedogenetic process of laterization and soil suction when in an unsaturated state. Together, they significantly increase the resistance of cutting (mainly) and embankment slopes (in relation to the matric suction) in the case of shear resistance against rupture and erodibility processes.
There are records of cutting slopes existing for more than 50 years that are almost vertical (Figure 25a and b), which, even without anti-erosion protection – by vegetation cover (grasses or native vegetation) – or even without the existence of any superficial drainage of rainwater (in a region of high rainfall, above 2,500 mm per year, see Figure 2b of that Chapter), remains in a stable condition, except for some non-lateritic stratum (saprolitic), where it is vulnerable to erosion (Figure 25b and c), or when it is sandy or silty lateritic soil (Figure 25a). Figure 25a,b, and c corresponds to Points 14 to 16 of Figure 1, respectively. Other times, the distinction between the lateritic and saprolitic horizons is given by the existence of a “stone line” of lateritic concretions, as shown in Figure 26a, on state highway AM-070 (Point 17 of Figure 1).
Cutting slopes. a) Erodible horizons (sandy/silty soil). b) and c) lateritic and saprolitic horizons (highly erodible) (photos: NS Campelo).
a) Presence of a “stone line” (lateritic concretions) separating the lateritic and saprolitic horizons. b) and c) presence of thin film of lateritic crust in slopes (photos: NS Campelo).
In some cases, a thin film (1–3 mm) of lateritic crust forms on the surface of the slope, of dark red color, which acts as an anti-erosion protectant, allowing the stability of the slope against the deleterious action of the rains for decades, even with almost vertical slopes. Figure 26b and c shows these thin films (Points 18 and 19 of Figure 1, respectively) that occur in the city of Manaus.
There are reports of the use of milled asphalt waste (reclaimed asphalt pavement-RAP) from the recycling of asphalt coatings on federal highways BR-163 and BR-364 in the State of Mato Grosso [10] but in the initial state. An interesting application of ceramic materials occurs in some urban streets in the city of Rio Branco, State of Acre, where traditional ceramic bricks are applied as linings in streets with low traffic volume (Figure 27 – Point 20 of Figure 1).
Use of ceramic block as a coating for urban roads with low traffic volume (photo: Jornal AcreAgora (
There are no reports of the use of lightweight fill materials (e.g., expanded polystyrene – EPS) for embankments to be constructed over soft soils in road paving in the Brazilian Amazonia. This type of solution could be used in highways that cross natural subgrade in
In general, there is a lack of technical information on the construction procedures and use of construction materials on the highways of the Brazilian Amazonia, which is reflected in the few publications on the subject.
In order to overcome technical problems reported in the Chapter “Challenges in the construction of highways in the Brazilian Amazonia environment: Part I: Identification of Engineering Problems”, can be employed solutions with materials found in the vicinity, in most cases. Thus, for problems of the absence of stone material at the construction site, the use of natural materials (lateritic concretion), synthetic materials (SCACC), and recycled materials (e.g., from ceramic waste and milled RAP) can be used, while for problems of the natural foundations of roads with low bearing capacity can be used partially or fully replacement of natural soil for a layer composed of coarse crushed stone (
Although the Brazilian Amazonia brings some hindrances to the construction of highways in the
For rural roads with low traffic volume, ceramic waste can also be used as recycled material in primary coatings.
The authors would like to thank CAPES for the grant of a scholarship for an academic master’s degree to the Civil Engineer Daniel Jardim Almeida.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\n\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\n\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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After the healing process was completed, the healing efficiency was defined using the fracture energy values. In this study, the healing process was repeated two times with the acceptable healing efficiencies. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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Topics will include overviews of the health of the oral cavity, from prevention and care to different treatments for the rehabilitation of problems that may affect the organs and/or tissues present. The different areas of dentistry will be explored, with the aim of disseminating knowledge and providing readers with new tools for the comprehensive treatment of their patients with greater safety and with current techniques. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This series of books will focus on various aspects of the properties and results obtained by the various treatments available, whether preventive or curative.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 4th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},subseries:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",keywords:"Oral Health, Dental Care, Diagnosis, Diagnostic Imaging, Early Diagnosis, Oral Cancer, Conservative Treatment, Epidemiology, Comprehensive Dental Care, Complementary Therapies, Holistic Health",scope:"\r\n\tThis topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
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