1. Introduction

Over the past decades, policymakers, researchers, school managers and practitioners all shared the concern of enhancing the process quality of early childhood education and care (ECEC) which is the key to support children’s learning and development [1, 2, 3]. To improve the quality of children’s classroom experience, the Ministry of Education in China has initiated an educational reform and released the Teaching Guidelines for Kindergarten Education (2001). It aims to introduce progressive educational ideas and promote child-centred and developmentally appropriate practice [4], regardless of traditional Chinese culture which features collectivism and children’s obedience. Moreover, how Chinese teachers deliver interactions during instruction, what is the quality of teachers’ teaching practice and their professional development needs after the revolution remain little known. A serious disparity between centralized policies and early childhood practitioners’ pedagogical practices deserves more empirical investigations. To fulfill the knowledge gap, this study will investigate teachers’ pedagogical practice and their perceptions of professional development in Chinese kindergartens.

2. Instruction and interactional aspects of process quality

Decades of researchers have obtained a consensus that process quality has a direct impact on child outcomes [5, 6]. Instructional and interactional aspects of process quality have been discussed and studied to explore how process quality influences child outcomes. The instructional aspect of process quality is domain-specific, which captures the extent and quality of the promotion and stimulation of early learning in various domains, such as early numeracy or literacy skills [7]. For example, the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale – Extension (ECERS-E) [8] was developed to measure the instruction quality in literacy, numeracy, science and diversity. The Instructional Quality Assessment (IQA) Mathematics Toolkit captures mathematic teachers’ pedagogical practice and students’ engagement in mathematical discourses during discussion [9]. This perspective is attributed to teachers’ domain-specific or subject-matter knowledge. Research that includes comprehensive assessments of teachers’ educational backgrounds and their coursework in specific subjects indicates that, particularly in the fields of mathematics and science, the level of teachers’ academic preparation has a positive impact on students’ academic performance [10].

In addition, the interactional aspect of process quality focuses on child interactions with teachers as well as with material and learning environment, which is often evaluated using the widely recognized and commonly employed Classroom Assessment Scoring System [11] (CLASS) and Sustained Shared Thinking and Emotional Well-being [12] (SSTEW) scales. The CLASS evaluates teacher-child interaction across three dimensions: emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support. Emotional support focuses on nurturing a positive and caring relationship between teachers and children. Classroom organization primarily examines the proactive behavior management strategies employed by teachers to enhance student involvement in learning and play. Instructional support pertains to how effectively teachers promote children’s higher-order thinking skills and language abilities through classroom instructional activities. Similarly, SSTEW measures the interaction quality in building trust, confidence and independence, supporting children’s social and emotional well-being, extending children’s language and communications, supporting learning and critical thinking, assessing learning and language [12]. The interactional aspect of process quality focuses on teachers’ pedagogical knowledge which is characterized as the distinct proficiency educators exhibit in constructing and fostering efficacious teaching and learning environments, and a skill applicable to all students and transcending individual subject domains [13].

The dimensions of process quality have consistently been shown to play a vital role in shaping children’s cognitive and social-emotional development. For instance, a study conducted by Sylva et al. [8] examined a sample of 2857 children from 141 early childhood settings in the UK and found that higher average scores on the ECERS-E were indicative of better pre-reading skills in children. Similarly, Howard et al. [2] discovered a positive association between scores on the ECERS-E and SSTEW and children’s number concepts and early numeracy development in Australia. To enhance process quality in early childhood education and care (ECEC), the current research emphasizes the significance of implementing effective professional development (PD) programmes. These programmes provide educators with valuable theoretical knowledge, content expertise and alternative instructional methods that challenge their existing beliefs and foster continuous improvement [14].

Professional development in ECEC refers to purposeful and interactive learning experiences designed to enhance educators’ professional knowledge, skills, and attitudes and their application in practice [15]. In the ECEC field, various in-service training opportunities, such as coaching, consultation, mentoring and communities of practice, are provided to improve teaching practices and enhance children’s learning outcomes [15, 16]. For example, [17] Early et al.’s (2017) randomised controlled trial (RCT) demonstrated that the Making the Most of Classroom Interaction (MMCI) and MyTeachingPartner PD programmes significantly enhance teachers’ emotional and instructional support for children. Furthermore, research suggests that engaging in multiple coaching cycles leads to improved instructional support [18]. Despite the availability of various PD programmes for preschool teachers, there is a lack of research exploring teachers’ perceptions of these programmes and their specific PD needs. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate teachers’ instructional and interactional performance through a combination of quality evaluation and interviews. Additionally, it seeks to explore teachers’ PD experiences and examine their perceptions of the effects of these PD programmes, providing valuable insights for future research on the professional development of preschool teachers.

3. Process quality in Chinese early childhood settings

Kindergartens in China serve as the primary institutions for early childhood education (ECE), catering to children between the ages of 3 and 6. The establishment of the first Chinese kindergarten dates back to 1903, marking the beginning of a long history of early childhood education in China that has seen influences from Japanese schooling systems, Soviet approaches, and American pedagogy [19]. Consequently, cultural inappropriateness has persisted in teaching process. Prior to the introduction of progressive educational philosophy, Chinese kindergarten teachers were formally required to employ whole-class, teacher-directed, and academically oriented pedagogy [4]. This approach neglected children’s active learning and interactions with teachers, as traditional pedagogy rooted in Confucian principles emphasized conformity, discipline, and behavioral control among children [20].

In recent times, a promising period of transformation has emerged with the aim of replacing traditional pedagogy with developmentally appropriate practices. This shift is supported by the new Guideline for Kindergarten Curriculum, which advises Chinese kindergarten teachers to adopt pedagogical approaches that are play-based, child-centred, and constructive [21]. However, certain distinctive features still persist in kindergarten classrooms, such as teacher-directed instruction, whole-class teaching, larger class sizes, and structured daily routines [20]. Whole-class teaching continues to dominate kindergarten classrooms, resulting in pedagogical interactions characterised by frequent teacher questions and simple oral responses from the entire class, or teachers delivering direct instruction while children sit quietly and attentively listen [20].

Previous research has predominantly described the characteristics of teacher-child interaction, with limited attention given to the quality of pedagogical interactions. Only Hu and colleagues (2016) [21] utilised the CLASS to assess such interactions. In their study of 180 classrooms, they found that Chinese kindergarten teachers demonstrated low levels of instructional support, receiving an average score of 3 on the 7-point scale. This can be attributed to the prevalent use of whole-class teaching methods in Chinese kindergartens, with limited instances of one-to-one or small-group interactions. When considering the Chinese socio-context, including factors like overcrowded classrooms and larger class sizes, the SSTEW scale, which evaluates both instructional form and teacher-group interactions, is suitable for the Chinese context, providing a more comprehensive understanding of interaction quality in Chinese kindergartens. Additionally, the ECERS-E, which examines teachers’ instructional practices across different learning domains, is also relevant to Chinese classrooms where teachers provide domain-specific activities. Based on the literature review and within the Chinese context, this research aims to explore the characteristics of process quality in Chinese kindergartens, as guided by the following questions:

What is the process quality of early childhood settings in China?
What are teachers’ perceptions of their teaching practice and their professional development needs?

4. Method

In this study, quantitative and qualitative approaches were employed to investigate the characteristics of process quality and teachers’ perceptions of professional development in Chinese kindergartens. More specifically, classroom observations were conducted to measure the process quality. Semi-structured teacher interviews were conducted to discern their perspectives towards pedagogical practice and perceptions of professional development.

4.1 Participants

The research was carried out in Shenzhen, China. A stratified random sampling method was utilised to choose 24 kindergartens distributed across socio-economically diverse regions (lower-middle, middle, and upper-middle areas). From each kindergarten, two K1 and two K2 classrooms (catering to children aged 3–4 and 4–5 years, respectively) were randomly selected, summing up to 96 classrooms. Subsequent to determining the participating kindergartens and classrooms, 11 teachers were randomly chosen from the participating kindergartens for an interview. The demographic information of the participating classrooms is presented in Table 1.

Classroom characteristics	Total N = 96
Grade, n (%)
K1	48 (50)
K2	48 (50)
School type, n (%)
Private	44 (45.83)
Public	52 (54.17)
School classification, n (%)
Province level	32 (33.33)
City level	36 (37.50)
District level	28 (29.17)
School location, n (%)
Urban	48 (50)
Sub-urban	48 (50)

Table 1.

Demographic information of participating classrooms.

4.2 Measures

Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale – Extension (ECERS-E) [22]. The ECERS-E was developed by Sylva et al. [22] in the longitudinal Effective Pre-school, Primary and Secondary Education (EPPSE) project. This measure aims to estimate the instruction quality including literacy, numeracy, science and diversity which was used to describe the children’s development process. It includes 18 items grouped into four subscales. The scores for each item range from 1 (indicating inadequate quality), 3 (indicating minimal quality), 5 (indicating good quality), to 7 (indicating excellent quality) based on the indicators. It has shown good reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.83–0.97, [22]) and good validity (CMIN/DF = 1.102, CFI = 0.939, RMSEA = 0.034, and TLI = 0.919) in Chinese preschools [13].

Sustained Shared Thinking and Emotional Well-being Scale (SSTEW). Furthermore, trained classroom observers used SSTEW [12] to measure teachers’ pedagogical practice which supports children’s sustained shared thinking and emotional well-being. This scale was developed by Siraj et al. (2005) and it consists of 14 elements rated from 1 (inadequate) to 7 (excellent) and focuses on teachers’ practice in (1) building trust, confidence, and independence; (2) social and emotional well-being; (3) supporting and extending language and communication; (4) supporting learning and critical thinking; and (5) assessing learning and language. It has shown good validity (CMIN/DF = 1.042, CFI = 0.977, RMSEA = 0.070, and TLI = 0.970) in Chinese preschools [13].

Interview protocol. The interview protocol was developed to elicit participating teachers’ reflections on their teaching practice and their professional development needs. This protocol comprises two parts and a total of 10 questions. The first part of the interview explores the challenges that the teachers face in their daily teaching practice (e.g., what kind of difficulties have you met in daily teaching?). The second part of the interview seeks to understand the teachers’ prior PD experiences and their perceived PD needs (e.g., what type of PD programmes have you ever participated in?). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 participating teachers after observing their pedagogical activities. Each interview lasted around 45 min and was recorded and transcribed for analysis.

4.3 Procedure

The quality evaluation was conducted by a team of four researchers, each holding a master’s degree in early childhood education or a related field. Prior to initiating the evaluation process, consent was obtained from both educators and parents through official consent forms. The lead researcher established pairs among the three other researchers who proceeded to jointly conduct classroom observations and evaluations. This process was continued until they achieved a minimum 80% agreement in item-level scores. Throughout, the scoring alignment was regularly monitored, with any discrepancies discussed post-observation and post-quality rating to reach a consensus on all evaluated elements.

After attaining the required 80% agreement threshold, the researchers proceeded with individual observations and evaluations. They employed a non-intrusive approach to observe the pedagogical practices of the teachers, ensuring there was no interference with regular teaching routines. For each classroom, the researchers dedicated 4–5 h to observation and an additional hour for interviewing teachers. This rigorous methodology aimed to produce a thorough and unbiased evaluation of classroom quality.

4.4 Data analysis

In order to initiate an exploratory analysis of the caliber of teachers’ pedagogical practice and quality, the IBM SPSS 23.0 software was employed for descriptive statistical analyses and the Shapiro-Wilk test for testing the normality of the data. The audio-recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim and imported into EXCEL. The subsequent analysis involved open coding, axial coding, and selective coding [23], utilised to dissect the transcriptions and discern emergent themes. The analysis procedure was bifurcated into two steps: the initial stage involved scrutinising the transcripts and pinpointing crucial data, while the latter stage entailed structuring the vital data into consistent themes and categories. To ensure the trustworthiness of our qualitative data analysis, peer debriefing was employed [24]. Peer debriefing involved engaging a colleague, who held the position of Professor in ECEC, to verify the accuracy of the identified themes in capturing patterned responses and the meaningful interpretation of the interview data.

5. Results

5.1 Instruction and interaction quality of teachers’ practice

As shown in Table 2, the total average ECERS-E score was M = 2.93 (SD = 0.48), which illustrated the inadequate level of instruction quality on the 7-point scale. Regarding the subscales, classrooms received slightly higher scores in literacy M = 3.63 (SD = 0.57) and the lowest score in diversity M = 1.74 (SD = 0.41). The scores in mathematics (M = 3.24, SD = 0.87) and science (M = 3.11, SD = 1.07) also indicated the minimal quality of instruction. Results suggest that teachers showed minimal quality of instruction regarding literacy, mathematics, and science, and they displayed inadequate quality of diversity.

	Literacy M (SD)	Math M (SD)	Science M (SD)	Diversity M (SD)	ECERS-E M (SD)
Total average	3.63 (0.57)	3.24 (0.87)	3.11 (1.07)	1.74 (0.41)	2.93 (0.48)
School type
Private	3.63 (0.62)	3.25 (0.90)	2.87 (0.89)	1.76 (0.39)	2.88 (0.45)
Public	3.63 (0.52)	3.23 (0.85)	3.31 (1.16)	1.71 (0.43)	2.97 (0.50)
School classification
District	3.46 (0.50)	2.96 (0.82)	2.78 (1.08)	1.67 (0.50)	2.72 (0.45)
City	3.71 (0.64)	3.42 (0.87)	2.97 (0.94)	1.67 (0.37)	2.94 (0.46)
Province	3.69 (0.54)	3.30 (0.86)	3.51 (1.06)	1.85 (0.35)	3.09 (0.46)
School location
Suburban	3.56 (0.54)	3.10 (0.81)	3.12 (0.94)	1.70 (0.42)	2.87 (0.42)
Urban	3.70 (0.60)	3.39 (0.91)	3.10 (1.19)	1.78 (0.40)	2.99 (0.53)

Table 2.

Instruction quality measured by Early childhood environment rating scale-extension (ECERS-E).

Table 3 demonstrates the interaction quality measured by SSTEW. Classrooms received a minimal quality of interaction (M = 3.92, SD = 0.60). Regarding the subscales, classrooms received the highest scores in extending children’s language and communications (M = 4.68, SD = 0.89), and the lowest scores in assessing children’s learning (M = 2.19, SD = 0.86). In terms of other subscales, classrooms received minimal quality in building trust and confidence and supporting social-emotional well-being (M = 4.44, SD = 0.81), and supporting learning and critical thinking (M = 3.68, SD = 0.71).

	Build TCI & SE Well-bg M (SD)	Lang-Comm M (SD)	Learn-Crit M (SD)	Assessing M (SD)	SSTEW M (SD)
Total average	4.44 (0.81)	4.68 (0.89)	3.86 (0.71)	2.19 (0.86)	3.92 (0.60)
School type
Private	4.29 (0.88)	4.51 (1.02)	3.74 (0.70)	2.00 (0.71)	3.77 (0.69)
Public	4.57 (0.71)	4.84 (0.72)	3.99 (0.70)	2.38 (0.96)	4.07 (0.46)
School classification
District	4.36 (0.74)	4.55 (0.69)	4.64 (0.69)	2.13 (0.88)	3.97 (0.66)
City	4.27 (1.01)	4.38 (1.11)	3.79 (0.72)	1.85 (0.71)	3.71 (0.76)
Province	4.63 (0.81)	5.03 (0.71)	4.10 (0.88)	2.53 (0.87)	4.18 (0.46)
School location
Suburban	4.25 (0.81)	4.62 (1.00)	3.74 (0.66)	2.19 (0.92)	3.81 (0.61)
Urban	4.61 (0.77)	4.73 (0.79)	3.99 (0.74)	2.19 (0.81)	4.03 (0.58)

Table 3.

Interaction quality measured by sustained shared thinking and emotional well-being scale (SSTEW).

In summary, results indicated that teachers generally showed minimal quality of instruction and interaction in Chinese kindergartens. In addition, the quality of providing instruction according to children’s diversity and assessing children’s learning during instruction was inadequate.

5.2 Teachers’ perceived difficulties in instruction and interaction

According to the interview, teachers identified difficulties in their instruction and interaction practice, involving science activities, child-centred approach, scaffolding, and child assessment.

When considering instruction practices, seven teachers reported challenges associated with the development and execution of science-based activities. They perceived these challenges to be more intricate than alternative learning activities, including language, mathematics and art. The educators confronted a dilemma in establishing an equilibrium between encouraging children’s autonomous exploration and offering structured guidance throughout the scientific experimental process. These teachers held the conviction that science activities demand a methodical and scientific approach that calls for gradual, systematic guidance from the teacher. However, this level of direction could potentially curtail children’s creative ingenuity during their exploratory endeavors.

Science activities contain scientific knowledge and are fun at the same time. So the children could not control their behavior and manipulated the materials involuntarily. The teacher does not know how to control it, whether to let the children manipulate more or to guide them step by step. There is such a conflict (Ms. Wu).

Furthermore, the teachers expressed difficulties in implementing a child-centred approach, namely, maintaining a keen sensitivity to the rapid shifts in children’s interests and needs. Even as school principals and governmental guidelines encouraged educators to remain attuned to individual children’s interests and to differentiate instruction accordingly, they encountered significant challenges. Integrating children’s spontaneous interests into educational activities and devising differentiated lesson plans tailored to address each child’s unique needs proved to be a complex task for educators. Such complexities highlight the ongoing tension between pedagogical principles and their real-world implementation within the educational landscape.

The teacher may not be able to capture the interest of the children to extend the activity. The teacher may see that the child is interested, but he or she does not take the appropriate action to turn the child’s interest into a curriculum. It is difficult for teachers to develop an activity based on children’s interests to support their interests (Ms Yang).

In the realm of teacher-child interaction, the educators involved in this study confronted obstacles in effectively posing questions to and fielding responses from, the children. Specifically, their questioning strategy tended to be circumscribed, primarily prompting children to recollect prior activities or affirm previously learned knowledge, rather than scaffold their cognitive processes or introduce more challenging tasks. In scenarios where children were unable to address the teachers’ questions, the educators often stepped in to provide the answers. On the other hand, the teachers encountered difficulties when tasked with responding to children’s questions that surpassed their anticipated range. Consequently, they found it challenging to decipher the children’s cognitive processes and furnish suitable scaffolding or present appropriate challenges.

I think it’s still quite difficult to communicate with children because children will have all kinds of different answers. For example, last week I did an activity on the reflection of light, and when I asked the children questions, I found that they gave you different answers, even if they did not have much to do with the activity. It’s hard to imagine what questions the children will ask, what they will observe, and how we should respond (Ms Duo).

The interviewed teachers universally identified child assessment as a significant challenge in their teaching practice. They experienced a dearth of systematic observation tools or guiding frameworks to enable purposeful observation, resulting in uncertainty about what aspects to observe and how to execute such observations. A notable knowledge gap regarding child development impeded their ability to accurately document children’s developmental trajectories. Moreover, deriving actionable insights from their observations, such as determining the appropriate support to provide, and identifying effective methods of delivering it, was a source of considerable confusion. This emphasises the necessity for more comprehensive training and support mechanisms in the domain of child assessment.

We cannot always invite children who are active speakers to participate in activities, but if you do not invite them, it will affect their motivation. But if you do not pay extra attention to the group of children with low ability, you cannot give them the opportunity to improve, so they cannot improve. Because there will always be a group of children who love to speak and children who do not speak, I do not know how I can take care of them at the same time, so I can better promote them (Ms. Li).

5.3 The provision of professional development in preschools

According to the interview, four primary types of PDs that preschool teachers typically engage in were identified:

apprenticeship or coaching, which aims to provide teachers with little to no teaching experience with real teaching experience by working alongside or assisting senior teachers in the same classroom;
workshops, where principals invite professionals or experienced teachers to share their educational experience related to a specific topic (e.g., how to use the project approach);
problem-based discussions, where principals or year-group leaders prompt kindergarten teachers to discuss their teaching problems and devise solutions;
school visits, where teachers visit high-quality kindergartens to learn about environmental decorations and teaching strategies.

Problem-based discussions were found to be the most common PD approach experienced by the teachers, with all of them reporting engaging in at least one such discussion each week. Teachers pinpointed three domains—pedagogical content knowledge, learning environment settings, and parent-teacher communication—as areas where they lacked confidence and sought additional PD training.

Last semester, the director organized more training, and they would share some examples and previous experiences with us, and then we would talk about the problems we encountered and discuss them with each other. If there was something we did not understand, we could bring it up and we would work it out together (Ms Li).

Despite receiving some level of PD training within their kindergarten settings, they critiqued these opportunities as being disjointed and deficient in post-training guidance, which is essential for the effective translation of learnt concepts into practice. This highlights a disparity between current PD offerings and the teachers’ perceived needs, indicating a demand for a more integrated and practice-oriented approach to professional development. Consequently, they stressed the importance of coherent PD content that is relevant to their daily routine and that involves follow-up classroom visits to ensure the effective implementation of new strategies.

I do not think these trainings are effective. I do not think these trainings are appropriate for everyone. When we particularly need the training content, we may absorb more of it. But I do not think that over the past 2 years, no matter what kind of training it was, it did not feel very useful or solid at the time (Ms Yao).

In terms of the perceived efficacy of PD, teachers underscored the value of participatory training over passive listening formats. They emphasised the importance of observing practical applications of novel strategies, as such exposure was crucial to their understanding and subsequent implementation. On the contrary, PD endeavors that relied solely on the lecture-based instruction or bore little relevance to their daily teaching practices were deemed to hold minimal value. This feedback points to the necessity of experiential and contextually relevant professional development in effectively enhancing teaching capacities.

I do not like the purely theoretical ones. Because in purely theoretical training, you just sit there and listen to the lecture, and you cannot watch him in action. So when I listen to those theoretical lectures, I really get sleepy. I prefer to see the practical operation, and in the process of practical operation, he shares his experience, and his teaching method, I think this is more practical (Ms. Cai).

6. Discussion

6.1 The characteristics of process quality

The results of the observations with the ECERS-E showed that teachers displayed minimal instruction quality in literacy, numeracy and science and inadequate quality in diversity. The minimal quality of literacy, numeracy and science instructions is similar to the existing research in Australia [2], the UK [8], and Germany [25], as well as a meta-analysis [26] which indicated the average domain-specific quality between 1.13 and 3.9. The result is also in line with previous research in China that identified the minimal quality of teaching and interaction scores measured by the Chinese Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (CECERS) [27], an adapted quality tool based on ECERS-R. A similar overall pattern appears in Chinese preschools. Teachers were observed to conduct literacy, numeracy and science instructions in their classrooms, however, they did not explicitly highlight the learning content, such as rhyme, shapes and speculations. Their instructions were unable to scaffold children’s understanding of the key concepts or encourage children to generalise what they have learned across a variety of contexts [8]. Despite the similarity, the domain-specific quality in diversity is relatively weak in Chinese kindergartens than in other contexts, which was also been revealed by previous research. This might be related to the Chinese culture which features collectivism and the importance of celebrating diversity is rarely recognised in the curriculum guideline. On the contrary, the ECERS-E Diversity subscale encourages teachers to draw children’s attention to ethnic minority people in non-stereotypical roles and challenge gender and race stereotypes. Celebrating diversity in ethnicity, culture, gender, and ability could be further promoted in Chinese preschools.

In terms of the interaction quality measured by the SSTEW scale, teachers generally demonstrated a minimal quality of interaction. Furthermore, a similar pattern of the subscales was also observed regarding the subscales, that is, the interaction quality in Chinese preschools was minimal to good regarding building trust and confidence, supporting social-emotional well-being, extending children’s language and communications, but lower regarding supporting learning and critical thinking and learning assessment, which is consistent with findings in other countries [2]. The results indicate that teachers provide a respectful and positive environment to encourage children’s autonomy, feeling expressions, play, and communication, while they may miss opportunities to extend children’s thinking and provide support for learning [12]. Meanwhile, it is worth noting that the quality of assessing language and learning in Chinese preschools is relatively weaker. Teachers showed inadequate quality in learning assessment which requires teachers not only to understand the curriculum contents and student performance but also to tailor their teaching methods to children’s specific needs. This might be related to the official curriculum guidelines. Specifically, the official Kindergarten Education Guideline (trial) [28] in China focused more on summative assessment to certify children’s development. These stands of works may contribute to teachers’ different teaching practices. The results suggest that teachers need to improve their skills of formative assessment to adapt their instruction and respond to children’s thinking appropriately.

From the analysis of the mean scores of instruction and interaction quality, this study revealed that the overall interaction quality was relatively higher than instruction quality. It aligns with existing research which indicated that Chinese teachers provided high-quality classroom interactions rather than implementing learning activities [29]. These preliminary findings suggest the independencies between interaction and domain-specific instruction quality, as teachers may show moderate quality in providing positive and sensitive interactions, however, this does not mean they can translate content knowledge into quality instruction [30]. Therefore, either focusing on instruction or on instruction quality might risk over- or underestimating process quality. Further research with a larger number of classrooms from a range of different cultures and contexts could be conducted to explore their difference and interrelatedness before generalising the finding reported here.

6.2 Teachers’ perceived teaching difficulties and PD needs

Consistent with the results of quality measurement, teachers also reported the challenges of instruction practice in science activities, scaffolding children’s learning and child assessment. Specifically, they were struggling with initiating activities based on children’s spontaneous interests, balancing teachers’ directions and children’s explorations during the science activities and providing high-quality questions and responses. These dilemmas might be related to the educational reforms in China which aim to replace traditional teacher-led approaches with child-centred pedagogy. For one thing, there is a lack of guidance on how to conduct a child-centred approach that makes it difficult for preschool teachers to encourage children’s explorations, construct knowledge and scaffold children’s learning. For the other thing, existing research revealed that implementing a child-centred approach can be challenging and problematic in China due to its relatively larger class size, exam-oriented education systems and parents’ expectations of children’s academic achievements [20]. Therefore, a balance between a teacher-centred approach and a child-centred approach has been advocated by recent research [31, 32]. This dual approach to teaching requires teachers to comprehend the viewpoints of children, provide opportunities for them to develop their own strategies and concepts and ensure that they assume complete responsibility for organizing the trajectory of their learning [33].

Teachers’ previous PD experiences revealed various forms of PD, such as workshops, lectures, problem-based discussions, coaching and school visits. While their primary goal was to enhance their pedagogical content knowledge, classroom management skills and communication with parents, they found that lectures had limited effectiveness in influencing their actual teaching practices. Instead, they found PD programmes that integrated interactive activities, real teaching examples and opportunities for teacher engagement in discussions to be more impactful. This aligns with previous research that the theory-oriented content presented in lectures is challenging to apply in practice [34]. And the significance of modeling teaching techniques and receiving follow-up support was emphasised as crucial aspects of effective PD. Additionally, teachers expressed a strong desire to engage in PD programmes that specifically address authentic teaching problems, utilise interactive activities and modeling instruction, and offer constructive feedback for further improvement. Thus, it is essential to incorporate these elements into future PD programmes.

Teachers also reported difficulties in implementing newly acquired strategies from PD due to their busy schedules and uncertainty about their appropriateness in their own classrooms. To overcome these challenges, teachers may benefit from external support and perspectives to apply these strategies effectively. Follow-up school visits can serve as a helpful approach to assess progress and provide guidance. Research indicates that mentorship for teachers enhances their ability to reflect on and adapt their pedagogical practices, leading to advancements [35]. Critical dialogs with external experts, such as mentors, can aid in identifying and analysing teaching practice issues. Therefore, integrating mentorship programmes and opportunities for critical reflection can be an effective means to help teachers overcome obstacles in professional development and improve their instructional practices.

7. Conclusions

This study utilised the ECERS-E to assess the instructional aspects of process quality and identified that teachers showed minimal instruction quality in literacy, mathematics, science, and inadequate quality in diversity. The findings underscore the need to improve teachers’ understanding of race and gender equality and their ability to cater to individual needs. Additionally, the results from the SSTEW scale revealed minimal quality in supporting learning, critical thinking and social and emotional well-being, as well as inadequate quality in assessing children’s learning. Accordingly, the PD programme should target these areas of inadequacy in teacher-child interaction. For instance, training should focus on fostering children’s higher-order thinking skills and promoting their social-emotional development. Moreover, encouraging sustained shared thinking through activities like storytelling, book sharing, singing, and rhymes is crucial. Teachers should also receive training in appropriate assessment practices, including reading with children, to effectively gauge their learning and development.

Based on the interview findings, teachers expressed encountering two significant challenges during their participation in the PD programmes. First, they perceived the theory-oriented and fragmented nature of the training as irrelevant to their actual practice. Second, the passive learning experience, where trainers delivered content without facilitating discussion or hands-on practice, hindered their professional growth. Consequently, the effectiveness of these PD programmes was limited. To address this issue, it is recommended that PD programmes adopt a more practice-oriented approach by providing teachers with relevant examples and ample opportunities to practice newly acquired skills. Encouraging active participation and incorporating hands-on activities during PD sessions would foster more effective professional growth among teachers.

Francisco Saez

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