Social value framework for urban rooftop farming.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tCardiac disease is one of the largest categories of diseases affecting industrialized nations. Furthermore, cardiac disease is becoming more prevelant in developing nations especially as the socio-economic status of these countries increases. It is an all encompasing term for conditions of the heart and blood vessels. Whilst there have been great advances in the diagnosis and treatment options available for symomatic cardiac disease there is a pressing need to undestand the pathophysiological mechanisms with a view to altering the risk of development of these conditions. Survivial following an acute cardiac event such as myocardial infarction is increasing however patients develop chronic heart failure which is becoming a growing health concern both medically and economically.
\r\n\r\n\tIt was once thought that the damaged heart was a dying heart. Recent advances in molecular techniques and stem cell therapy challenge this doctorine and research is focused on cellular repair mechanisms to regenerate cardiac tissue. This book will provide a comprehensive narrative of the state of the art with respect to epidemiology, diagnosis, intervention and research advances in cardiac disease.
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Gaze and Dr. Aleksandar Kibel",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9578.jpg",keywords:"Coronary Artery Disease, Atherosclerosis, Thrombosis, Risk Factors, Economic Burden, Percutaneous Coronary Intervention, Cardiac Ablation, Cardiac Disease Diagnosis, ECG, Echocardiography, Therapeutic intervention, Statins",numberOfDownloads:1991,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 14th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 27th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 26th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 13th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Member of the Royal Society of Medicine of London, The Association for Clinical Biochemistry, the American Association of Clinical Chemistry, the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, the Institute of Biology, the European Society of Pathology, the Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland and he is associate member of the Royal Institution of London.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"71983",title:"Dr.",name:"David C.",middleName:null,surname:"Gaze",slug:"david-c.-gaze",fullName:"David C. Gaze",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71983/images/system/71983.jpeg",biography:"Dr. David Gaze studied biochemistry at undergraduate and Masters level in West Yorkshire followed by a Ph.D. in Clinical Biochemistry in London, United Kingdom. He is currently Lecturer in Clinical Biochemistry at the University of Westminster and Honorary Cardiac Research Scientist within the Department of Chemical Pathology, Clinical Blood Sciences at St George’s Hospital and Medical School, London. \r\nHe has authored and co-authored in excess of 150 peer-reviewed papers and 200 abstracts, as well as presented at over 50 internationally invited conferences. He has contributed five book chapters to cardiovascular-related textbooks as well as writing a textbook on cardiac troponin. He is a peer reviewer for 25 medical journals. 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He is also a member of the American Association of Clinical Chemistry; Institute of Biomedical Sciences; Institute of Biology; European Society of Pathology; The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland and the associate member of the Royal Institution of London. \r\nGaze and colleagues have won a number of awards including two distinguished Abstract awards from the National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry as well as Diploma for Oral Presentation regarding D-dimer, natriuretic peptide and cardiac troponin in dialysis patients presented at the 17th IFCC-FESCC European Congress of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine and the 60th National Congress of the Netherlands Society of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine in Amsterdam in 2007.",institutionString:"University of Westminster",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Westminster",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"183303",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandar",middleName:null,surname:"Kibel",slug:"aleksandar-kibel",fullName:"Aleksandar Kibel",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/183303/images/system/183303.jpeg",biography:"Aleksandar Kibel is assistant professor at the Department of\nPhysiology and Immunology at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Osijek, as well as an internal medicine specialist and\ncardiology subspecialist at the Department for Heart and Vascular Diseases, Osijek University Hospital Centre, Croatia. He\ngraduated from the Faculty of Medicine, University of Osijek,\nwith an MD degree in 2009 with a maximum possible grade\naverage, conducting experimental research activities during almost all study years\nand receiving awards that included the country’s top scholarship (“Top Scholarship for Top Students”). His research activities include laboratory practicums and\nresearch visits at a number of foreign institutions, including the University Clinic\nHamburg-Eppendorf (Germany), the Medical College of Wisconsin (USA), Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok (Thailand), etc. He obtained his PhD degree at\nthe Department of Physiology and Immunology with a focus on vascular physiology\nand pathophysiology and teaches at medical high school, university, and postgraduate doctoral levels. He was a mentor on several diploma works. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"69221",title:"Social Value of Urban Rooftop Farming: A Hong Kong Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89279",slug:"social-value-of-urban-rooftop-farming-a-hong-kong-case-study",body:'\nWith the intense contest for ground-level space within high-density urban districts, urban agriculture has taken on multiple forms and occurs in different locations, such as peri-urban farming, urban soil-based farming, indoor farming and rooftop farming [1]. Urban agriculture was initially conceptualized as a response to increasing concerns for food security within the city, with the focus on the potential for mass production within a localized food system that includes production, processing, distribution, consumption and recycling [2]. More than 30% of the food requirements of the City of Oakland are planned to be provided from within the physical limits of the city through city council’s sustainable food system [3]. However, within the complex morphology of high-density cities, the contest for space and strict land use and building controls, the large-scale contiguous spaces required for economic mass agricultural production are seldom available. Many micro-farming enterprises, however, have emerged in cities around the world as community gardens and allotment gardens [4]. Occupying small-scale, marginalized and fragmented “leftover” spaces, these occur on sites of uncertain ownership and ambiguous regulatory control.
\nA clear expression of this phenomenon is the spontaneous appearance in the last decade of more than 60 rooftop farms on underutilized flat roof spaces across the dense urban districts of Hong Kong [5]. These urban rooftop farms are composed of numerous lightweight surficial planter boxes (as opposed to the built-in planting constructions typical of green roofs) which are individually rented to the general public through community enterprise organizations or provided to relevant groups by corporate or institutional owners. Proximity to the people’s living and working spaces have made urban rooftop farms popular, with all farms reporting that they are constantly heavily oversubscribed. Farm owners have suggested that the strong demand for participation is motivated by the opportunities it provides for social interaction, passive recreation, health, education and self-achievement. This contrasts with the HKSAR Government’s recent policy initiatives for urban agriculture which are focused on economic and productive values [6]. In consequence, urban rooftop farms in Hong Kong are in an ambiguous situation between formal centralized city planning and informal community enterprise action. To understand the social benefits of rooftop farming within an urban context of contested space and extreme land value, this study looked to monetize social value through cost-benefit analysis and willingness among participants to pay for extra social benefits derived from the practice.
\nSocial value has long been a consideration within environmental justice discourses; however there has been relatively little research on the social values of urban agriculture and almost none on urban rooftop farming [7]. As with urban agriculture, the few policy debates that have occurred on urban rooftop farming have focused on the potential economic value—the monetary profits that might be generated by selling food produced within the city and generalized concerns for global food security. Around the world, however, very few large-scale commercial urban rooftop farms have been successfully established, and these have only been achieved by retrofitting rooftops with large-scale greenhouses, e.g., AeroFarms in the USA [8] and urban farmers in the Netherlands [9]. The large majority of urban rooftop farms have been small-scale social and community enterprises. In recent years, discussion about the practice has migrated onto to potential contribution to urban environment and greening [1, 10, 11, 12, 13]. Urban rooftop farms have been suggested as possible patches that might visually and ecologically link existing green spaces and corridors within an integrated green infrastructure system and help mitigate urban heat island effects [14]. It has been shown that urban rooftop farms support far higher biodiversity (some have upwards of 200 plants species) than green roofs [15].
\nOnly recently have discussions of the social values of urban rooftop farming begun to appear in the literature. Although social values are considered an important principle within broader concepts of urban sustainability, their recognition and development are lagging [16]. This is commonly attributed to the fact that social values associated with the external environment, such as green spaces and allotment gardens, are intangible and difficult to measure [17]. Social value is usually assumed to be generated through communal physical activity within a space, for example, social groups collaborating on planting activities [18]. Long return on investment makes social value hard to calculate and difficult to monetarize, metrics that are commonly required for inclusion in policy decision-making [19].
\nThrough a review of international case studies, social values of urban rooftop farming were initially investigated from three aspects: social capital theory, landscape projects and urban agriculture practices and with the aim of building a systematic framework of social values for urban rooftop farming. As Dika and Singh [20] noted, the decomposition of a broad concept into factors and indicators can improve understanding and help the policy adaptation in specific contexts.
\nIdeas of social values are based on social capital theory which focuses on balancing different social groups by creating a sense of fairness from collaboration [21]. Social group integration and empowerment are key factors discussed by scholars. Dubos [22] suggests that social capital should be considered in two forms: structural network and cognitive value. Doherty further explains that the structural network in an inclusive society should cross generations and identities and consist of the behaviour-related indices of trust, informal networking, mutual support, reciprocity and solidarity [23, 24]. At the same time, cognitive value is a significant assessment for empowered citizens which is usually obtained from increasing self-satisfaction, achievement and leadership in the society [25, 26].
\nAs an emergent landscape typology, performance measures for urban rooftop farming have yet to be developed [27]. Methods of measuring performance of built landscape have tended to assess physical objects and functional efficiency [28, 29]. Of the few approaches that have evaluated changes in social aspects, Landscape Performance Series (LPS) and Case Study Investigation (CSI) contain the most instructive framework, as they categorize recreation, health, education and food production as core social value factors that enhance sustainability in landscape projects [27].
\nIn the absence of previous research on the specific social values of urban rooftop farms, this research drew upon discussions of social values related to urban agriculture in general. This allowed indicators for an urban rooftop farming social values framework to be identified. The urban agriculture matrices framework developed by Design Trust for Public Space program in New York highlighted the significant benefits through increased physical health and social empowerment from growing vegetables [30]. Specifically, physical, mental and dietary health can be summarized from the research outcome. Social empowerment has been further supported via environmental and food education, leadership and socializing activities which are increasingly important by-products of all forms of urban agriculture. Other researchers have identified unique collective social welfare being generated through urban rooftop farming [7, 31, 32]. Tian and Jim addressed the social value of additional open spaces to the surrounding communities through multifunctional roof spaces, noting that given the limited land in highly dense cities, retrofitting urban farms to rooftops can effectively activate large numbers of vacant spaces within the city for social benefits [32]. Prior research studies have also indicated that dynamic factors are involved in the generation of social values through the practice of urban agriculture.
\nBased on these interdisciplinary research studies, a social value framework for urban rooftop farming was developed, specific to the Hong Kong context (Table 1). This allows a spectrum of social benefits of urban rooftop farming to be considered, with respect to the diverse stakeholders’ (state and individual) interests. The framework compares the social values generated by urban agriculture, green roof installations and rooftop farms; identified from published research papers; and categorized under six factors: health, education, community recreation, urban improvement, social empowerment and social group integration. Urban rooftop farming generates the greatest amount of activity across all the different social values.
\nURF social value framework | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urban agriculture | \nGreen roof | \nRooftop farms | \nCategory | \nFactors | \nSocial benefits | \n
√ | \n\n | √ | \nSocial benefits | \nHealth | \nImprove physical health | \n
√ | \n\n | √ | \nImprove mental health | \n||
√ | \n\n | √ | \nExperience health habit and diet | \n||
√ | \n\n | √ | \nEducation | \nIncrease environmental awareness | \n|
√ | \n\n | √ | \nPromote sustainable living | \n||
√ | \n\n | √ | \nIncrease organic food knowledge and demand | \n||
√ | \n\n | √ | \nGain practical skills by working in urban rooftop farms | \n||
√ | \n√ | \n√ | \nCommunity recreation | \nProvide extra open space for communities | \n|
√ | \n√ | \n√ | \nProvide visual aesthetic value | \n||
√ | \n√ | \n√ | \nIncrease space using comfortableness | \n||
√ | \n√ | \n√ | \nUrban improvement | \nServe as a planning tool to fill vacant spaces in cities | \n|
\n | √ | \n√ | \nExtension of the life expectancy of roofs | \n||
\n | \n | √ | \nDiverse the multifunctions of roof spaces | \n||
\n | √ | \n√ | \nGood for urban or building retrofitting | \n||
√ | \n√ | \n√ | \nSocial empowerment | \nImprove users/residents’ life satisfaction | \n|
√ | \n\n | √ | \nEnhance community participation | \n||
√ | \n\n | √ | \nDevelop leadership | \n||
√ | \n\n | √ | \nProvide job opportunity to communities | \n||
√ | \n\n | √ | \nSocial group integration | \nEmpower marginalized groups | \n|
√ | \n\n | √ | \nEnrich aging life | \n||
√ | \n\n | √ | \nEnhance parent and children relationship | \n||
√ | \n\n | √ | \nForm social networks | \n||
√ | \n\n | √ | \nCreate social solidarity among diverse groups | \n
Social value framework for urban rooftop farming.
Within HKU’s broad-based “edible roof” initiative which examined the rooftop farming phenomenon across Hong Kong, this specific research study examined eight urban rooftop farms within Hong Kong (including enterprise, social enterprise and individually oriented modes) to determine the nature and scale of the social values that urban rooftop farms could generate.
\nHong Kong is an extreme example of high-rise high-density urban settlement, with severe contest for ground-level space, very high land values and a passive governance structure. Although HKSAR Government’s New Agricultural Policy 2014 and Hong Kong 2030+ strategic planning statement do acknowledge urban rooftop farming practices within the general concept of urban agriculture, intention has focused primarily on economic productivity, and no specific institutional, regulatory or technical support is offered to the small-scale grassroot organizations that practice farming. Despite this, more than 60 urban rooftop farms have spontaneously appeared in the city since 2008 covering some 15,000 sqm of previously underutilized roof space [5]. The majority of the farms are located on industrial or institutional buildings within the older urban districts (Figure 1). Based on a definition of the physical and operational limits of rooftop farming practices and subsequent suitability assessment of all existing buildings in the territory, the potential farmable roof spaces that might exist within the city have been estimated at approx. 595 ha [5]. Although typically small-scale and disparate, these spaces are all in close proximity to large urban populations and collectively offer an expansive opportunity for generating social value (and its attendant economic advantages) if activated for rooftop farming [33].
\nLocations of urban rooftop farms in Hong Kong, as of 2016 (data source: Mathew Pryor ongoing research and Google earth).
Physical and operational characteristics of the three modes of urban rooftop farming in Hong Kong were identified through systematic site survey and typological study (Figure 2). Social enterprise farms aim to promote social change through a sustained commercial business [34]. Social enterprises, such as City Farm and Fun n Farm, generate social impacts by renting out the planting plots to the public. Planting plots typically consist of shallow free-standing black plastic crates filled with lightweight soil, with bamboo or plastic pipe frames above supporting screen netting [33, 35]. Crops are selected and taken care of by farmers, although daily watering is undertaken by farm managers. Training courses (for different skill levels) and related social and craft activities are commonly offered. Farmers rent any number of boxes per month, depending on their ambition and commitment. All farms report extensive waiting lists. The depth of soil and exposure to wind limits species choice to some extent, but a wide range of leafy greens, climbing plants, root vegetables and herbs can be grown. Enterprise-oriented farms are operated by private companies and business or large institutions (universities, schools, hospitals) located on their own premises. Access to the farms is restricted to employees or institutional members. They are similar in physical form and nature to social enterprise farms but additionally provide leisure and social space for employees, with tables, chairs, etc. Individual rooftop farms were very small-scale and only found on residential buildings. Their form was typically more complex and less ordered, and both the form of the planter and the crop species were far more diverse. As they depend solely on the individual owner’s willingness and availability, they were seen as being more vulnerable.
\nTypological study of urban rooftop farm in Hong Kong (photo taken by Mathew Pryor and ting Wang).
Based on this understanding of the local context, the research study was structured around a participant opinion survey and semi-structured interviews with the operators from five selected farms. The survey aim was to validate the preliminary urban rooftop farming social value framework and to quantify the intangible social values from the perspective of the users, including those with and without experience of farming. Subjects were randomly selected from the five farms and from the surrounding residential communities, respectively. A total of 108 answers were collected.
\nSemi-structured interviews were conducted with farm operators from the five farms, in order to understand the monetary influence of social values in urban rooftop farming and to verify the findings from survey. Questions focused on topics such as modes of operation and costs, as well as physical arrangement and planting types. Farm cost data was used in cost-benefit analysis and “willingness to pay” based on contingent valuation methods and perception preference methods. As willingness to pay is influenced by the perceived utility, personal preference of use and socioeconomic environment of the subjects, the survey was designed to obtain the information about various degree of willingness and payments, preference of social values developed in framework and personal socioeconomic information including gender, employment, education and income levels.
\nThe majority of respondents (77%) perceived social values to be the most important benefits of urban rooftop farming, compared with environmental values (58%) and economic benefits (10%). Women and the middle-aged (30–50) were found to be the predominant users of urban rooftop farms—by both number and time. This finding was confirmed through farm membership records and observations of farm managers. Meanwhile, the majority of farm participants were from middle- to high-income groups.
\nThe perception of social values was complex, with individuals expressing degrees of perception toward the six different factors (Figure 3). However, personal socialization benefits were identified most strongly among the six factors. Health (53%) and education (62%) were the factors most perceived by respondents that directly link to the personal enhancement in social statues. Planning social welfare (40%), social group integration (40%), community recreation (35%) and social empowerment (25%) were of less importance by respondents.
\nPerception distribution.
Disparity of social benefit preferences reflects the difference between personal experience values and group conceptual values. Personal health and education are the most direct feelings obtained through daily activities; however, individuals perceive larger scale community and collective benefits indirectly. For instance, though social group integration was not perceived as very significant on the whole, the indicators for enriching the life of the aged and enhancing intergenerational relationships were perceived as highly significant because of the close personal feelings attached. “Developing leadership” and “providing job opportunities” were the two least important indicators among the social empowerment factors, in interview participants questioned “how can leadership be improved by just growing vegetables?” To some extent, this makes sense because it is hard for leadership development to be perceived by the users themselves unless there is an external instructor who guides the activity and highlights the purposes behind it. This may necessitate long-term observation of farm participation organized by experienced teams or working feedback from the employment company. At this point, there is no measurable index for conceptual benefits. In addition, the benefits of increased job opportunities for the society will only be realized when urban rooftop farming becomes a city-scale endeavor. Current rooftop farms are individually too small to be measured in the employment indicator.
\nMany respondents indicated willingness to pay for the social value experience derived from urban rooftop farming. While some were conservative about payment, “I don’t have extra time to enjoy the rooftop farms” (32%); “I cannot afford to pay or buy the service” (19%), the majority of respondents (87%) were willing to pay. The average payment reported during the survey was HK$ 220 per month/person/half square meter. In comparison with the current charge for renting a plot in an urban rooftop farm (HK$ 190), this suggested an increased perception of social values among users.
\nJust asking questions about individual payment decisions encouraged respondents to consider the benefits and the maximization of utility. Willingness to pay was found to be related significantly to the degree of understanding of urban rooftop farming, level of education and income level. Willingness to pay increased with the cognitive level of participants from “no idea” to “have participated in urban rooftop farming.” Practicing farmers were willing to pay more (HK$ 232) than those that had not previously participated (HK$ 194). Most of the respondents who are willing to pay were from higher levels of education (undergraduates and graduates), as well as higher-income groups (Figure 4).
\nSignificant factors in willingness to pay.
Apart from the multiple implications of social values in urban rooftop farming, this research also demonstrates the potential monetary influence through the application of cost-benefit analysis in comparing the marginal benefits (social values) with the existing benefits and costs (capital and recurrent). According to [25, 36], the following cost-benefit analysis components can provide an economic spectrum of social values in urban rooftop farming which can influence government decision-making and contribute to social well-being:
\nAmong the financial information obtained from operators, City Farm Kwun Tong was chosen as a prototype for this calculation due to its comprehensive operational mode and representativeness of other farms in Hong Kong. Cost-benefit analysis in the study used the basic scenario of a rooftop farm in Hong Kong. The prices and amounts were all generic estimates in order to provide the minimum costs and benefits.
\nFirst year revenues generated through urban rooftop farming were found to barely offset the costs in Hong Kong. In the prototype case, the gross costs and benefits of urban rooftop farming in the first year were HK$ 730,400 and HK$ 764,760, respectively. In subsequent years, the annual recurrent commercial benefits exceeded the annual recurrent costs HK$ 530,400, giving a benefit-cost ratio of 0.32 (234,360/7,304,000), which suggested a likely payback period of 38 months. This factors in the high initial capital cost to establish a rooftop farm which includes building retrofitting costs and the purchase of equipment. Farm managers reported that the business stabilized after the second year and revenues were expected to increase in a long term.
\nHowever, the current amount of payment is based on a narrow view of farming participation (HK$ 190 per month/person/half square meter). As suggested by the willingness to pay analysis, once participants took into account the social values derived from their farming activities, they might be willing to pay more (HK$ 220). If fees were raised to this level, it would significantly alter and increase the gross benefits (to HK$ 872,760 per year) and shorthorn the payback period (to 26 months). The results suggest that cost-benefit analysis provide a useful basis on which to reconceive the financial viability of the urban rooftop farms.
\nIn Hong Kong, formal green initiatives in the urban area have come a long way from the development of public parks in the 1970s to the promotion of green roof designs through sustainable building directives in the 2000s. However urban rooftop farming has not been formally recognized and exists still within gray areas of urban planning legislation and building control.
\nAs evidenced by these findings, the disparity of multifaceted social values aligns with previous literature on social capital theory. Cognitive values are directly related to the individuals in the society such as the effects of health and education improvement, while structure values are indirectly built through expanding network in society which needs more efforts to achieve. For instance, collective assets like the urban economy prosperity and social solidarity not only improved by mobilizing individuals through urban rooftop farming but also need more complex catalysts.
\nDifferent levels of understanding of social values have been identified within previous landscapes value research [37]. Individual perceived values in the landscape, concentrating on health and general wellbeing, have most readily been identified: collective values relating to spatial planning and resource management have been less mentioned by subjects. This disparity is also rooted in the physical nature of existing urban rooftop farming practices. According to observations made during this research, rooftop farming activity is explicitly individual due to space limitations. A large number of planting plots were arranged side by side within physically constrained roof spaces, inhibiting interaction. Participants work by themselves on individual plots while only “keeping an eye” on surrounding plots farmed by others. This mode of operation might explain the higher perception of direct personal health and education benefits. The lack of additional social space in social enterprise farms and the solitary nature of individual farms may reduce perceptions of collective social value such as engagement of the community or improvement of the urban environment.
\nPrevious research has not explored the monetary influence of social benefits, which is required for urban rooftop farming to be incorporated into urban policy-making. For instance, on average the payback period for farms is shorter than for green roofs in Hong Kong (27 months) and for ground-level urban agriculture projects (96 months) [25, 38]. The monetary influence of social values is likely to become amplified as urban density increased. Governments, as well as building owners, are likely to be more willing to invest in urban rooftop farming for both the economic benefit and social value through community sustainability.
\nA shift in the thinking about the products of urban rooftop farming from food security and urban greening to social benefits and positive support to activate urban rooftop spaces would create significant opportunities for aligning individual motivations and state interests, thereby achieving a more sustainable city. Though current urban rooftop farming is undertaken by individuals and grassroots organizations, with limited policy or technical supports from city authorities, users still perceived considerable social benefits in the form of sustainable living, environmental knowledge and enhanced relationships within social groups. Users’ willingness to pay for the experience indicates that urban rooftop farming is a passive social activity which can be enhanced by collaborative activities and by-products of farming which include talking, working side by side, standing and comparing.
\nThe implication of the multifaceted social values of rooftop farming suggests a changing perception of urban agriculture. With the increasing speed of urban densification, urban agriculture, constituted by complex social values and diverse interests from stakeholders, has the capacity to be a public good for cultural exchange and enhancing social coherence. This changing perception suggests the need for greater stakeholder support, recognition in legislation and integration with urban planning and building control processes. As an emerging urban activity, further studies are required. For instance, the higher preference for health and education as social benefits in this research requires more specific study to develop detailed instruments for those single indicators within particular groups. In addition, as this study only addressed the social values of urban rooftop farming in Hong Kong, further studies in different contexts and forms could help to expand the urban agriculture discourse.
\nThe authors would like to thank the staffs from City Farm, Rooftop Republic Urban Farming as well as an anonymous friend for their generous assistance in the data collection of this research. This research received publication fund from the University of Hong Kong Department of Architecture.
\nList of semi-structured interview questions:
When was your rooftop farm built?
How was your urban rooftop farm established? What kind of costs is included in the farm? Can you give me the rough number about the cost?
How does your farm operate on a daily basis? How many people did you hired and in what position? What kind of benefits can be earned in the urban rooftop farm? Can you give me the rough number about the benefits?
What are the difficulties you faced when setting up an urban rooftop farm in Hong Kong?
How big is your urban rooftop farm?
What kind of activities you have in your farm?
Can you estimate roughly how many people come to your rooftop farm on a regular basis?
What kind of species can you grow in your rooftop farm?
How do you think about the distribution characteristics of the participants in my questionnaire? Is it consistent with your observation every day?
How do you think about the existing result of questionnaire that shows the low perception of the collective social value in URF? Are you considering to add more public spaces or people to socialize in the future?
The use of both light and heat in medicine has roots that reside long back in history. In ancient times, sunlight was used to treat different kinds of skin and mental diseases. These treatments mimic, amplify, and in some cases focus on natural occurring phenomena to achieve a therapeutic goal.
\nDuring the nineteenth century, it was observed that prolonged heating, as fever or locally externally induced hyperthermia, could cause cancerous formations to disappear [1, 2, 3, 4]. Since then, many methods to treat cancer with heat were introduced, from whole body to local methods such as microwave ablation, radiofrequency ablation, and laser ablation. The main goals with innovative treatments that utilize heat are to give an alternative to patients that are not suitable for surgery and minimize the impact of the intervention on the patient. In addition, many of these methods have a lower economical impact on the treating institution budget, which enables clinics to offer treatment to a larger number of patients.
\nOther methods that do not make use of heat as treating source were also developed, such as cryogenic ablation that uses subfreezing temperatures to kill the tumor cells or photodynamic therapy (PDT) that uses a selective combination of light and photoactivatable drugs to induce radicals in the tumor.
\nInterest in focal ablation of tumors increased significantly in the last decades because of indications that local treatment may cause shrinkage of untreated, in some cases distant, tumors suggesting the involvement of the immune system in the process [5, 6, 7]. The so-called abscopal effect evoked by local treatments could be used to treat patients that lack effective treatments to date. Immune stimulating interstitial laser thermotherapy is an innovative hyperthermia treatment that uses a specifically tailored treatment protocol based on lower temperature heating for a prolonged period of time and designed to maximize the probability of triggering the immune system response to the treated tumor type. The medical device system uses laser as heat source; the same system is also used for interstitial laser ablation to burn tumorous and non-tumorous formation when imaging is challenging given its natural MR compatibility.
\nLaser-based hyperthermia, known as laser thermotherapy or laser ablation, is a focal hyperthermia technique that uses laser light as heat source. Its minimally invasive version for treatment of tumors located deeper in the body is called interstitial laser thermotherapy (LITT or ILT). The main goal in oncological treatments is to achieve tumor destruction without damaging tissue and structures surrounding the neoplastic lesion to be treated. Different factors concur to the tissue destruction, among these direct cell death and coagulation.
\nDuring laser-induced thermotherapy, light causes damage in tissue due to absorption of light and through heat conduction into the tissue of the absorbed energy. Laser thermotherapy therefore produces a lesion that is larger than the volume where light is absorbed due to this heat conduction.
\nThese two phenomena, direct light absorption and heat conduction, determine the modality and the parameters to be used to control the tumor heating and are dependent on the characteristics of the tissue to be treated.
\nThe penetration depth, which is defined as the distance at which the light is attenuated to 1/
Penetration depth depends on the tissue type since the optical properties are dependent on tissue composition and structure. For a generic tissue composition, the effective attenuation coefficient and the penetration depth can be calculated as follows:
\nValues for
The absorption,
Absorption spectra of tissue components in the window 500–1100 nm. Dotted line at 1064 nm.
The scattering,
Scattering coefficient for a generic soft tissue in the window 500–1100 nm, data from literature. Dotted line at 1064 nm.
The equation takes into consideration different scattering contributions mainly due to the different sizes of the scattering centers.
\nAll the parameters are tissue dependent. The values for a generic soft tissue in Table 1 were used in Figure 2.
\ng | \n0.95 | \n
a′ [cm−1] | \n19.1 | \n
fRay | \n0.153 | \n
bMie | \n1.091 | \n
Scattering parameters for a generic tissue [9].
The energy deposited in tissue causes an increase in temperature in the portion of tissue where laser light is absorbed. Naturally, the difference in heat evens out over time. The heat is removed from the volume where absorption of light occurs by active or passive cooling. Active cooling is achieved through blood perfusion, which varies during time according to response of the tissue to heat and is dependent on the perfusion rate and therefore on the tissue type. Passive cooling is due to heat conduction and is described by the second law of thermodynamics which asserts that heat flows spontaneously from hot to cold bodies, in this case from the heated portion of tissue to the portion of tissue at body temperature.
\nIf the delivered energy is high enough, the heat conduction concurs to the progression of the damage since heat conduction can cause tissue temperatures to rise well above the threshold for permanent damage. The threshold for permanent tissue damage is discussed in the following paragraphs.
\nPennes’ equation models heat distribution in the tissue:
\nThe equation describes the heat flow in the tissue as the combination of (passive) heat conduction, (active) heat transport due to blood perfusion and dependent on the temperature difference, metabolic heat source which is the heat produced by the tissue itself, and the external heat source, in this case the laser energy [10, 11, 12].
\nEffects on biological tissues induced by lasers can vary in nature and can be classified in several groups among which are photochemical damage, when light triggers a chemical reaction in the tissue, and thermal effects, when heat is the cause of the outcome. Photochemical damage includes radical formation and tissue inflammation, while examples of thermal damage are protein denaturation and burning. The type of damage triggered depends mainly on the characteristics of the light beam (wavelength, power, pulse properties, exposure time, spot size) and if the beam is collimated, i.e., laser source.
\nThermal effects are caused when the temperature in the tissue is locally increased over the physiological temperature; the threshold is generally set to 40°C. Conditional to the specific tissue properties, beam characteristics and exposure times, the tissue can undergo hyperthermia (<60°C), coagulation, vaporization, carbonization, or pyrolysis. Hyperthermia can be reversible or irreversible depending on the combination of temperature reached and exposure time. Local ablation techniques, such as microwave, radiofrequency, or laser ablation, aim at achieving a temperature of at least 60°C in the whole treated volume, therefore inducing cell death by coagulation; vaporization and carbonization may occur.
\nClassic laser ablation is used to treat solid tumor masses in a variety of organs and aims at heating the whole tumor volume at a temperature of at least 60°C in order to coagulate the tissue in the area to be treated. In this way, near to instant cell death is achieved. An optical fiber is placed in the center of the region of interest, and light is delivered for a period of time of 1–10 minutes depending on the volume to ablate and the device used. The treatment can be repeated directly after to achieve larger coagulation volume either inserting the fiber in a new position or utilizing the so-called pull-back technique, meaning performing a new ablation along the insertion track by pulling the fiber back.
\nImmune stimulating interstitial laser thermotherapy (imILT) is a local ablation method that works at non-coagulating temperatures at the tumor border. The technique consists in creating a temperature gradient in the tumor that results in a heating to 46°C at the tumor border or some millimeters outside it. The temperature is then kept for a prolonged period of approximately 30 minutes to achieve an immunogenic cell death (ICD) at the tumor border, visible only 48–72 hours after treatment, which activates an immune response [13, 14]. An example of ablation achieved performing an imILT treatment is shown in Figure 3. The biological process is not fully understood to date, but the hypothesis is that imILT creates inflammation in the tumor. Damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) signal is created, and antigens, which are not coagulated due to the low temperatures, are released [7, 15, 16, 17]. The antigens are picked up by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that in turn trigger an immune response [18, 19, 20, 21].
\nEffect of imILT treatment on porcine healthy skeletal muscle tissue. Coagulation is achieved within the yellow circle, and immunogenic cell death (ICD) is achieved along the ablation border, between the yellow and the blue line.
The method can in principle be used to treat all types of solid tumors, but some types will be more responsive than others depending on the tumor biology, which is true for immunotherapies in general. Some results from proof-of-concept preclinical and clinical studies are presented in this chapter.
\nThe CE-marked and FDA-approved TRANBERG® Thermal Therapy System for imILT consists of three main parts: a laser generator, a laser applicator, and a thermometry system. The laser generator is a diode-based system that emits light at a wavelength of 1064 nm and with a maximum accessible power of 25 W continuous wave. The unit has a built-in temperature feedback system that is able to measure the temperature in the tissue by means of a minimally invasive temperature probe and to drive the laser emission in order to maintain a stable temperature, set by the user between 43 and 50°C, for a treatment time of up to 30 minutes. The laser applicator consists of a non-cooled optical fiber and an introducer to enable insertion of the fiber in the tissue. The non-cooled optical fiber is available in different tip designs tailored to the ablation volume and shape to be achieved and the tissue to be treated.
\nAll the procedures are performed under image guidance, using MRI, ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), or a combination of the previous depending on the availability of these techniques at the clinic. While it is only possible to perform imILT treatments using ultrasound or CT guidance due to limitations in the temperature probe design, the design of the laser applicator allows laser ablation procedure to be performed with MRI guidance, for example, when performing a focused laser ablation (FLA) for the treatment of early prostate cancer or benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
\nExtensive preclinical studies were performed to prove the immune stimulating effects of imILT. One specific study aimed at comparing the immunologic memory evoked by imILT if compared to resection [22].
\nResearch was conducted on 280 rats divided in four groups: (1) rats with tumor implanted in the liver that were treated with imILT, (2) rats with tumors implanted in the liver that were treated with surgical resection, (3) rats without tumor that were treated with imILT ablating normal liver tissue (sham imILT), and (4) rats without tumors that were treated with resection of a part of a healthy liver (sham resection).
\nRats in groups 1 and 2 were implanted with adenocarcinoma and treated after 6–8 days. A second challenging tumor of the same kind was implanted in another lobe 2, 5, or 10 weeks later, and the animals were followed for up to 48 days after rechallenge unless they showed signs of inactivity or distress earlier. Vital tumor at sacrifice was evaluated together with other immune system markers. Group 1, tumor treated with imILT, showed a distinct behavior if compared with the other three groups. In groups 2, 3, and 4, the challenging tumor, second implanted, displayed a growth so substantial that none of the rats survived for 48 days. On the contrary, rats in group 1 showed eradication of the challenging tumor at day 48. The extent of the tumor burden for the four groups is represented in Figure 4. These findings, combined with results from immunology markers from blood tests, indicate that imILT invokes a strong immune response and an immunologic memory against the treated cancer.
\nTumor burden after implantation of challenging tumor. Only rats having been treated with imILT of primary tumor survived for 48 days after implantation of challenging tumor. All other rats in the 48-day study group had to be euthanized within 10–30 days after the tumor challenge due to extensive tumor. Image: Mats Ekelund.
A number of pre-marketing clinical studies on imILT were performed at Lund University Hospital, Lund, Sweden, where the method was developed for the first time. These studies demonstrated the recruitment of immunocompetent cells in breast cancer patients which indicate a favorable antitumor activity [23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\nMore recently, initial findings from the clinical study program designed to evaluate the safety and the usability of the method performed using the TRANBERG®|Thermal Therapy System (Clinical Laserthermia Systems, AB, Sweden) were published [28]. A variety of solid tumors are included in the study program; the data was reported after 12 patients were treated, out of which 4 were female and 8 were male. Indications treated were breast cancer (n = 1), breast cancer metastasis (n = 1), colon cancer metastasis (n = 2), malignant melanoma metastasis (n = 2), pancreatic carcinoma (n = 1), and primary pancreatic carcinoma (n = 5); the latter two were treated in open surgery, while the other percutaneously. All the treatments were performed using CT or ultrasound guidance. All patients included in the study underwent numerous previous treatments due to comorbidity. Immunotherapy was delivered on two malignant melanoma patients before imILT treatment but not during the study period.
\nOne serious adverse event was reported out of nine patients within the sponsor initiated clinical study; the frequency of serious adverse events is in line with previous data on other local ablative techniques, including laser ablation [29, 30], indicating that the procedure can be safely performed.
\nUsability results vary among the different study clinics. Preliminary indications suggest that insertion and placement of the instrumentation within the volume to be treated are the main challenge, while sterile access, removal from the tissue, and handling of disposable are perceived as less complicated. Handling of the laser unit needs further investigation as the data is spread [28].
\nThe safety studies were not designed to collect statistically significant efficacy results. Each study included different indications to gather safety data and input to future efficacy studies as extensive as possible leading to a low number of patients per indication, and therefore no indication-based data was published. Future ongoing publications will include indicative efficacy and quality-of-life results from these studies.
\nThis case is a 53-year-old patient with pancreatic cancer diagnosed about 2 years before and treated with first-line chemotherapy, FOLFIRINOX 16 cycles, for tumor reduction. Disease progression was registered after 12 cycles. Due to intolerable toxicity, the treatment regimen was changed to second- and third-line chemotherapies, gemcitabine and protein-bound paclitaxel 16 cycles, after which partial response was achieved. At the time of the first imILT treatment 2 years after the diagnosis, the patient presented with pancreatic carcinoma and three liver metastases (stage IV). PET-CT showed a hypermetabolic focus around the biliary stent, but no clearly visible tumor in the pancreas, and three metastases in the liver (segments VI, V/VI, and V/peri-gallbladder area).
\nThe first treatment was performed on a 19 mm liver metastasis in segment VI that was metabolically active; see Figure 5. The intervention was performed percutaneously under CT guidance, and a first treatment was performed by placing the tip of the radial laser applicator in the metastasis—see Figure 6—and a temperature needle at a distance of approximately 10 mm. The temperature needle was used to regulate the laser emission based on the measured temperature and achieve ICD in a region of the lesion that presented as metabolically active from the PET scan. A temperature of 44–45°C was kept during a period of 30 minutes according to the imILT protocol. A second overlapping ablation was performed after repositioning the laser applicator to necrotize the whole volume of the metastasis. Track ablation was performed to minimize risk for track seeding of tumor cells along the insertion track. A post-procedure CT scan was performed to ensure the ablation of the entire tumor, which was achieved as shown in Figure 7 (black arrow). The patient suffered slight pain and rise in temperature (38°C) posttreatment, but no other discomfort was registered; the patient was discharged after 3 days. No complications were reported during the first 3 months following therapy [31].
\nPET-CT (left) and CT (right) scans showing the position of the treated metastasis during the first treatment session [
Laser applicator positioning visualized using CT scan while placing the instrumentation for the first treatment [
Posttreatment CT that shows the ablation cavity (black arrow) and the biliary stent (white arrow). First treatment session [
Partial response in liver metastasis and total response in pancreas primary tumor were registered 21 months later. However, 3 months later disease progression was noticed, and the patient was treated with imILT for a second time 24 months after the initial treatment. The targeted metastasis was a 35 × 50 mm liver metastasis evaluated at ultrasound at the time of the treatment. The metastasis was treated performing one imILT treatment combined with an overlapping LITT treatment of about 5 minutes to necrotize the whole metastatic mass; the imILT treatment was achieved positioning the radial laser applicator off center within the tumor and the temperature probe at a distance of approximately 11 mm from the applicator. The temperature measured by the probe was kept at 43–45°C for 20 minutes.
\nLastly, a third imILT treatment was performed after 40 months from the first treatment because of new disease progression. A new 20 mm liver metastasis was treated using a diffuser laser applicator combined with an introducer with built-in temperature sensors, which resulted in only one puncture. The laser applicator was inserted in the center of the metastasis, and the sensors were positioned 25 mm from the applicator tip to achieve a lesion of 25–30 mm in diameter. To date, 4 months after the last treatment, no complications connected to the laser treatment have been reported [32].
\nLocal ablation of tumors is receiving increasing attention for the treatment of metastatic disease because of observed effects on distant tumorous masses suggesting the involvement of the immune system following local therapy.
\nOne technique for local tumor eradication is laser ablation which kills the tumor mass by heating the tissue through direct light absorption and heat transfer resulting in tissue coagulation. imILT is an interstitial laser ablation method tailored to evoke an immune response against the treated tumor. The technique utilizes a laser applicator to deliver energy in the form of laser light to the tissue; the energy delivered to the tissue is precisely controlled based on the temperature measured by a sensor inserted in the tissue at the periphery of the tumor to obtain a lower temperature ablation that aims at maximizing the immune cell death (ICD) volume of the ablation.
\nPreclinical results indicate that imILT invokes an immune response against the treated tumor, if compared with resection in a rat tumor model. Clinical studies suggest that the procedure can be safely performed since the frequency of the adverse events is in line with previous data on other local ablation techniques. The case of a pancreatic cancer patient treated with imILT was presented.
\nThis publication was founded and made possible by Clinical Laserthermia Systems AB, Lund, Sweden.
\nCristina Pantaleone is the Technical Manager of Product Development at Clinical Laserthermia Systems, AB.
\nI would like to thank Belarmino Gonçalves for the pictures relative to the case report and Karin Peterson, Gunilla Savring, Emily Emilsson Rossander, Maria Luisa Verteramo, and Dennis Laks for review and support.
\n\n absorption coefficient scattering coefficient anisotropy factor scaling factor that equals the reduced scattering coefficient at 500 nm fraction of Rayleigh scattering scattering power (Mie scattering) tissue density blood density tissue thermal conductivity tissue heat capacity blood heat capacity blood perfusion rate difference between the heated tissue and the blood or the surrounding tissue metabolic heat external heat sources benign prostate hyperplasia damage associated molecular pattern computed tomography immunogenic cell death interstitial laser thermotherapy immune stimulating interstitial laser thermotherapy laser-induced thermotherapy photodynamic therapy
In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel throughout the world to present our publications, support our Authors and Academic Editors at international symposia, conferences, and workshops, as well as to attend business meetings with science, academic and publishing professionals. We are always happy to meet our contributors in our offices to discuss further collaborations. Take a look at where we’ve been, who we’ve met and where we’re going.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen events",metaDescription:"In our mission to support the dissemination of knowledge, we travel worldwide to present our publications, authors and editors at international symposia, conferences, and workshops, as well as attend business meetings with science, academia and publishing professionals. We are always happy to host our scientists in our office to discuss further collaborations. Take a look at where we’ve been, who we’ve met and where we’re going.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/events",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"16-18 June 2020 Smart University Forum #SUF20, Ankara, Turkey
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