Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\n
This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\n
We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\n
Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1819",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing",title:"Biochemical Testing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Biochemical testing necessitates the determination of different parameters, and the identification of the main biological chemical compounds, by using molecular and biochemical tools. The purpose of this book is to introduce a variety of methods and tools to isolate and identify unknown bacteria through biochemical and molecular differences, based on characteristic gene sequences. Furthermore, molecular tools involving DNA sequencing, and biochemical tools based in enzymatic reactions and proteins reactivity, will serve to identify genetically modified organisms in agriculture, as well as for food preservation and healthcare, and improvement through natural products utilization, vaccination and prophylactic treatments, and drugs testing in medical trials.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0249-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5231-6",doi:"10.5772/2250",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"biochemical-testing",numberOfPages:228,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"bab205c706b0f34b0dfcfa1196437fcf",bookSignature:"Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez",publishedDate:"March 7th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1819.jpg",numberOfDownloads:36305,numberOfWosCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:30,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:64,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 14th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 12th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 16th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 16th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 15th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33993/images/system/33993.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez, BS. Biochemistry (1998), BS. Biological Sciences (2001), MS. Agricultural Sciences (2004), University of Granada, Spain; and Ph.D. Plant Cell Biology (2008) at CSIC. He was a Postdoctoral Research Associate at Purdue University, USA (2008-2011), and Marie Curie Research Fellow (EU - FP7) (2012-2015) at the University of Western Australia and CSIC. Currently, he is a Senior Research Fellow (Ramon y Cajal research program, 2016 - present), working in the functionality, health benefits, and molecular allergy aspects of seed proteins from crop species of agro-industrial interest (mainly legumes). He is the author of more than 65 journal articles, 29 book chapters, 2 patents, and more than 130 international congresses. He is an active member of different Scientific Societies and editor of multiple books.",institutionString:"Spanish National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Spanish National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"384",title:"Chemical Biology",slug:"chemical-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"30396",title:"Rapid and Efficient Methods to Isolate, Type Strains and Determine Species of Agrobacterium spp. in Pure Culture and Complex Environments",doi:"10.5772/36068",slug:"rapid-and-efficient-methods-to-isolate-type-strains-and-determine-species-of-agrobacterium-spp-in-pu",totalDownloads:3077,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Malek Shams, Tony Campillo, Céline Lavire, Daniel Muller, Xavier Nesme and Ludovic Vial",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/30396",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/30396",authors:[{id:"106977",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",surname:"Nesme",slug:"xavier-nesme",fullName:"Xavier Nesme"},{id:"139973",title:"Dr.",name:"Malek",surname:"Shams",slug:"malek-shams",fullName:"Malek Shams"},{id:"139974",title:"Dr.",name:"Tony",surname:"Campillo",slug:"tony-campillo",fullName:"Tony Campillo"},{id:"139975",title:"Dr.",name:"Céline",surname:"Lavire",slug:"celine-lavire",fullName:"Céline Lavire"},{id:"139976",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Muller",slug:"daniel-muller",fullName:"Daniel Muller"},{id:"139977",title:"Dr.",name:"Ludovic",surname:"Vial",slug:"ludovic-vial",fullName:"Ludovic Vial"}],corrections:null},{id:"30397",title:"Biochemical Isolation and Identification of Mycobacteria",doi:"10.5772/34309",slug:"biochemical-isolation-and-identification-of-mycobacteria",totalDownloads:11244,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Wellman Ribón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/30397",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/30397",authors:[{id:"88491",title:"Dr.",name:"Wellman",surname:"Ribón",slug:"wellman-ribon",fullName:"Wellman Ribón"}],corrections:null},{id:"30398",title:"Testing Methods for Agriculture and Food Safety",doi:"10.5772/38873",slug:"testing-methods-for-agriculture-and-food-safety",totalDownloads:2568,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez and María C. Hernandez-Soriano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/30398",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/30398",authors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"},{id:"120303",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria C.",surname:"Hernandez-Soriano",slug:"maria-c.-hernandez-soriano",fullName:"Maria C. Hernandez-Soriano"}],corrections:null},{id:"30399",title:"Control of Salmonella in Poultry Through Vaccination and Prophylactic Antibody Treatment",doi:"10.5772/29630",slug:"control-of-poultry-salmonella-through-vaccination-and-prophalytic-antibody-treatment-",totalDownloads:4169,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Anthony Pavic, Peter J. Groves and Julian M. Cox",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/30399",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/30399",authors:[{id:"78656",title:"Dr",name:"Anthony",surname:"Pavic",slug:"anthony-pavic",fullName:"Anthony Pavic"},{id:"82779",title:"Prof.",name:"Julian",surname:"Cox",slug:"julian-cox",fullName:"Julian Cox"},{id:"82782",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Groves",slug:"peter-groves",fullName:"Peter Groves"}],corrections:null},{id:"30400",title:"Biochemical and Histopathological Toxicity by Multiple Drug Administration",doi:"10.5772/35624",slug:"biochemical-and-histopathological-toxicity-by-multiple-drug-administration",totalDownloads:2611,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zeeshan Feroz and Rafeeq Alam Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/30400",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/30400",authors:[{id:"95068",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafeeq",surname:"Khan",slug:"rafeeq-khan",fullName:"Rafeeq Khan"},{id:"97297",title:"Dr.",name:"Zeeshan",surname:"Feroz",slug:"zeeshan-feroz",fullName:"Zeeshan Feroz"}],corrections:null},{id:"30401",title:"Lipoxygenase-Quercetin Interaction: A Kinetic Study Through Biochemical and Spectroscopy Approaches",doi:"10.5772/35782",slug:"lipoxygenase-quercetin-interaction-a-kinetic-study-through-biochemical-and-spectroscopy-approaches",totalDownloads:2988,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Veronica Sanda Chedea, Simona Ioana Vicaş, Carmen Socaciu, Tsutomu Nagaya, Henry Joseph Oduor Ogola, Kazushige Yokota, Kohji Nishimura and Mitsuo Jisaka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/30401",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/30401",authors:[{id:"29997",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica Sanda",surname:"Chedea",slug:"veronica-sanda-chedea",fullName:"Veronica Sanda Chedea"},{id:"46826",title:"Prof.",name:"Mitsuo",surname:"Jisaka",slug:"mitsuo-jisaka",fullName:"Mitsuo Jisaka"},{id:"68017",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",surname:"Vicas",slug:"simona-vicas",fullName:"Simona Vicas"},{id:"129559",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsutomu",surname:"Nagaya",slug:"tsutomu-nagaya",fullName:"Tsutomu Nagaya"},{id:"130360",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazushige",surname:"Yokota",slug:"kazushige-yokota",fullName:"Kazushige Yokota"},{id:"130755",title:"Dr.",name:"Henry Joseph Oduor",surname:"Ogola",slug:"henry-joseph-oduor-ogola",fullName:"Henry Joseph Oduor Ogola"},{id:"133368",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Socaciu",slug:"carmen-socaciu",fullName:"Carmen Socaciu"},{id:"133372",title:"Prof.",name:"Kohji",surname:"Nishimura",slug:"kohji-nishimura",fullName:"Kohji Nishimura"}],corrections:null},{id:"30402",title:"Extending the Shelf Life of Fresh Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) Juice by Altering Its Physico-Chemical Parameters",doi:"10.5772/33349",slug:"title-extending-the-shelf-life-of-fresh-marula-sclerocarya-birrea-juice-by-altering-its-physico-chem",totalDownloads:4482,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"S. Dube, N.R. Dlamini, I. Shereni and T. Sibanda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/30402",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/30402",authors:[{id:"95021",title:"Prof.",name:"Shadreck",surname:"Dube",slug:"shadreck-dube",fullName:"Shadreck Dube"}],corrections:null},{id:"30403",title:"Molecular Characterization and Serotyping of Listeria monocytogenes with a Focus on Food Safety and Disease Prevention",doi:"10.5772/33009",slug:"molecular-characterization-and-serotyping-of-listeria-monocytogenes-isolates-from-various-foods-in-g",totalDownloads:5167,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"I.C. Morobe, C.L. Obi, M.A. Nyila, M.I. Matsheka and B.A. Gashe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/30403",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/30403",authors:[{id:"93587",title:"Prof.",name:"Larry",surname:"Obi",slug:"larry-obi",fullName:"Larry Obi"},{id:"101524",title:"Mr.",name:"Isaac",surname:"Morobe",slug:"isaac-morobe",fullName:"Isaac Morobe"},{id:"101525",title:"Dr.",name:"Monde Alfred",surname:"Nyila",slug:"monde-alfred-nyila",fullName:"Monde Alfred Nyila"},{id:"101526",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignasius",surname:"Matsheka",slug:"ignasius-matsheka",fullName:"Ignasius Matsheka"},{id:"101527",title:"Prof.",name:"Benau",surname:"Gashe",slug:"benau-gashe",fullName:"Benau Gashe"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6096",title:"Seed Biology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0929ebc410ef5c25efdf938e3d34b6b2",slug:"advances-in-seed-biology",bookSignature:"Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6096.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5382",title:"Cytoskeleton",subtitle:"Structure, Dynamics, Function and Disease",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1c57584a4107ef50eefd39ceb1c8e64",slug:"cytoskeleton-structure-dynamics-function-and-disease",bookSignature:"Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5382.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8033",title:"Seed Dormancy and Germination",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8dc6f520dc664e8fd07db7658931dc2d",slug:"seed-dormancy-and-germination",bookSignature:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8033.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2983",title:"Current Insights in Pollen Allergens",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c96b836dac36192bcd83fbe72693b972",slug:"current-insights-in-pollen-allergens",bookSignature:"Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2983.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7337",title:"Legume Seed Nutraceutical Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a01ad0ca780f39f3aefd09f00cd0b7a3",slug:"legume-seed-nutraceutical-research",bookSignature:"Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez and Alfonso Clemente",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7337.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9699",title:"Grain and Seed Proteins Functionality",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9268519d1e294c5edf8e964a122e4c91",slug:"grain-and-seed-proteins-functionality",bookSignature:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9699.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2553",title:"Lipid Peroxidation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b39734aa940b2d63ae5e8773d3dd5280",slug:"lipid-peroxidation",bookSignature:"Angel Catala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2553.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2323",title:"Carbohydrates",subtitle:"Comprehensive Studies on Glycobiology and Glycotechnology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f7c2e6a3566eee14c9884ad0820a6416",slug:"carbohydrates-comprehensive-studies-on-glycobiology-and-glycotechnology",bookSignature:"Chuan-Fa Chang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2323.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145728",title:"Prof.",name:"Chuan-Fa",surname:"Chang",slug:"chuan-fa-chang",fullName:"Chuan-Fa Chang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"372",title:"Aflatoxins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Molecular Biology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7f7359995dc5ee04e12df282495f77e",slug:"aflatoxins-biochemistry-and-molecular-biology",bookSignature:"Ramón Gerardo Guevara-González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/372.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62559",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramon G.",surname:"Guevara-Gonzalez",slug:"ramon-g.-guevara-gonzalez",fullName:"Ramon G. Guevara-Gonzalez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2524",title:"Dehydrogenases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33ceb84d728f6a5033ba0389f83db79b",slug:"dehydrogenases",bookSignature:"Rosa Angela Canuto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"149584",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Angela",surname:"Canuto",slug:"rosa-angela-canuto",fullName:"Rosa Angela Canuto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"65200",slug:"corrigendum-to-evaluation-of-psoriasis-patients",title:"Corrigendum to: Evaluation of Psoriasis Patients",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65200.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65200",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65200",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65200",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65200",chapter:{id:"63332",slug:"evaluation-of-psoriasis-patients",signatures:"Meda Sandra Orasan, Iulia Ioana Roman and Andrei Coneac",dateSubmitted:"April 17th 2018",dateReviewed:"June 26th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 17th 2019",book:{id:"7045",title:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",slug:"tailored-treatments-in-psoriatic-patients",publishedDate:"July 17th 2019",bookSignature:"Shahin Aghaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7045.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64024",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shahin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"shahin-aghaei",fullName:"Shahin Aghaei"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"202125",title:"Dr.",name:"Meda",middleName:"Sandra",surname:"Orasan",fullName:"Meda Orasan",slug:"meda-orasan",email:"meda2002m@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"205669",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Coneac",fullName:"Andrei Coneac",slug:"andrei-coneac",email:"andrei.coneac@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"255002",title:"Dr.",name:"Iulia Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Roman",fullName:"Iulia Ioana Roman",slug:"iulia-ioana-roman",email:"iuliaroman09@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63332",slug:"evaluation-of-psoriasis-patients",signatures:"Meda Sandra Orasan, Iulia Ioana Roman and Andrei Coneac",dateSubmitted:"April 17th 2018",dateReviewed:"June 26th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 17th 2019",book:{id:"7045",title:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",slug:"tailored-treatments-in-psoriatic-patients",publishedDate:"July 17th 2019",bookSignature:"Shahin Aghaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7045.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64024",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shahin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"shahin-aghaei",fullName:"Shahin Aghaei"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"202125",title:"Dr.",name:"Meda",middleName:"Sandra",surname:"Orasan",fullName:"Meda Orasan",slug:"meda-orasan",email:"meda2002m@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"205669",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Coneac",fullName:"Andrei Coneac",slug:"andrei-coneac",email:"andrei.coneac@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"255002",title:"Dr.",name:"Iulia Ioana",middleName:null,surname:"Roman",fullName:"Iulia Ioana Roman",slug:"iulia-ioana-roman",email:"iuliaroman09@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7045",title:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Tailored Treatments in Psoriatic Patients",slug:"tailored-treatments-in-psoriatic-patients",publishedDate:"July 17th 2019",bookSignature:"Shahin Aghaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7045.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64024",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Shahin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghaei",slug:"shahin-aghaei",fullName:"Shahin Aghaei"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10731",leadTitle:null,title:"Cannabinoids",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"1d2e090ecf2415b8d3c9fba15856b7b1",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10731.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 26th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 16th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 15th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 5th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 4th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"70122",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89360",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
In this chapter, we will discuss some important topics about Parkinson’s disease (PD), a progressive and neurodegenerative disease, that is characterized by many motor and nonmotor symptoms and with wide-reaching implications for patients and their families [1, 2]. It is neuropathologically characterized by nigrostriatal cell loss and the presence of intracellular a-synuclein-positive inclusions called Lewy bodies [3].
\n
It is the most common movement disorder with approximately 1–2% of the population over 65 years of age suffering from PD. This percentage increases in people of 85 years of age and older, about 3–5% [3]. According to the World Health Organization, 6.1 million individuals have Parkinson’s disease globally [4]. Some authors have shown that the burden of Parkinson’s disease has more than doubled over 26 years worldwide, from 2.5 million patients in 1990 to 6.1 million patients in 2016. So, we can expect that the trend will continue in the next 30 years having approximately more than 12 million individuals suffering from PD [5]. In 2016, there were 211,296 estimated deaths caused by Parkinson’s disease [4].
\n
PD is characterized mainly by four motor symptoms: resting tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability [1] with balance decrements and gait disruption [2]. It may present problems in performing personal activities of daily living, such as eating, drinking, cutting food, walking in the neighborhood, and writing [6].
\n
The diagnosis of PD is based on medical history and a neurological examination since there are no blood tests, laboratory tests, or imaging examinations that have been proven to help in diagnosing PD [7], and its treatment is based on a pharmacological approach. The main therapy is based on levodopa and dopamine agonists and is very successful in the early stages of the disease, when dopaminergic symptoms and signs are predominant and long-term motor complications still have not developed [8].
\n
The traditional classification and disease progression of Parkinson’s disease (PD) orient toward disease milestones that can be most obviously followed along motor domains. However, diverse nonmotor domains, quality of life, psychosocial burden, and stigma have been used as important domains for the course of PD and the outcome parameters of clinical trials [9].
\n
At present, there is no cure for PD, but a variety of medications provide relief from the symptoms. Individuals who are affected usually are given levodopa combined with carbidopa. Levodopa helps in at least three-quarters of Parkinsonian cases; however, not all symptoms respond equally to the drug. Bradykinesia and rigidity respond best, while tremor may be only marginally reduced. Problems with balance and other symptoms may not be alleviated at all [7].
\n
In this scenario, physiotherapy has a significant importance in a multidisciplinary team focused on the rehabilitation of individuals with PD, with the purpose of maximizing functional ability and minimizing secondary complications through movement rehabilitation within a context of education and to support the person as a whole [10].
\n
The main focuses of physiotherapy for individuals with PD are transfers, posture, upper limb function, balance (and falls), gait, and physical capacity and activity. Physiotherapy also uses cueing strategies, cognitive movement strategies, and exercises to maintain or to increase independence, safety, and quality of life. The traditional and new strategies will be addressed in this chapter [10].
\n
\n
\n
2. Pathophysiology of PD
\n
Physiologically, the symptoms associated with Parkinson’s disease are the result of the loss of a number of neurotransmitters, most notably dopamine. It is characterized neuropathological by nigrostriatal cell loss and the presence of intracellular a-synuclein-positive inclusions called Lewy bodies [3, 11]. All these alterations change the function of the basal ganglia system, resulting in Parkinson’s main movement disorders.
\n
Cell loss in the substantia nigra occurs in a region-specific manner, with the lateral ventral tier of the pars compacta being most affected. It is estimated that at least 50% of the nigral neurons must degenerate to produce symptoms, and, at autopsy, most cases show more than 80% reduction [8].
\n
The basic basal ganglia circuitry and the balance between the direct and indirect striatal pathways provide a simple heuristic model for PD’s main signs. According to this model, the pathophysiological hallmark of PD, hypokinetic signs are the prevalence of the indirect pathway over the direct one, consequently, resulting in increased neuronal firing activity in the output nuclei of the basal ganglia and leading to excessive inhibition of thalamocortical and brainstem motor systems, interfering with normal speed of onset movement and execution. On the other hand, overactivity in the direct pathway and imbalance with the indirect one may cause reduced inhibitory basal ganglia output and result in reduced basal ganglia filtering and parallel facilitation of multiple movement fragments. (See \nFigure 1\n) [8].
\n
Figure 1.
A schematic view of the functional anatomy of the basal ganglia. There are the normal direct and indirect pathways (panel a) and the alteration of direct and indirect pathways in Parkinson’s disease (panel b). Modified from Magrinelli et al. [8] and Nitrini and Bacheschi [12].
\n
Another important region that has been linked to physiopathology of PD is the cerebellum. Its reciprocal connections with basal ganglia, especially with striatum and external segment of the globus pallidus, strengthens the hypothesis that it plays a role in the pathogenesis of some PD symptoms and signs [8].
\n
Histopathology alterations can be described in this pathophysiological situation. There usually can be seen some histological characteristics not just in nerve tissue. The most important marker is called Lewy bodies. They are made of a protein called alpha-synuclein, which, in a healthy brain, plays a number of important roles in neurons, especially at synapses [13].
\n
Lewy bodies can be found in many regions of the brain and some reports have suggested that the substantia nigra is not the first place where they form in Parkinson’s disease [14].
\n
Neither cell loss nor the formation of Lewy bodies is absolutely specific for PD, but both are required for a diagnosis of PD under current definitions. Additionally, it’s necessary to consider that not all affected neurons in PD are dopaminergic. An example to be cited is the cholinergic neurons from the dorsal vagal nucleus. This variety of regions has been suggested to be responsible for the complex clinical picture in PD [13].
\n
This pathophysiological situation seems to be multifactorial. It can be considered by genetic factors, inflammation, immune response, and environmental elements [14].
\n
While having a family member with PD may increase a person’s risk, PD is not normally considered a genetic disease. Variants in three genes (SNCA, UCHL 1, and LRRK 2) have been reported in familial PD. Mutations in three other genes (PARK 2, PARK 7, and PINK 1) have been found in sporadic PD [14, 15].
\n
On the other hand, large population studies have suggested that individuals taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have less risk of developing idiopathic PD, which suggests that anti-inflammatory drugs may be a promising disease-modifying treatment for Parkinsonian patients [16].
\n
Some reports have provided direct evidence of interactions between α-synuclein and environmental agents. Some options described in the literature are heavy metals (iron, copper, manganese, lead, and mercury), pesticides (including insecticides and herbicides), and illicit substances (amphetamine, methamphetamine, and cocaine) [17].
\n
In a review, Di Monti et al. [18] describe some possibilities of multiple events and interactive mechanisms possibly responsible for alpha-synuclein alterations. These may include (i) the synergistic action of endogenous and exogenous toxins, (ii) the interactions of toxic agents with endogenous elements (e.g., the protein α-synuclein), (iii) the tissue response to an initial toxic insult, and (iv) the effects of environmental factors on the background of genetic predisposition and aging.
\n
It’s important to explain that the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease sometimes can be seen outside the disease itself. In these cases, we call this clinical condition of parkinsonism, also known as “atypical Parkinson’s,” “secondary Parkinson’s,” or “Parkinson’s syndrome.” Parkinsonism often has an identifiable cause, such as exposure to toxins, methamphetamine, trauma, multiple strokes, other nervous system disorders, or illness. Generally, Lewy bodies are not seen in parkinsonism [14].
\n
\n
\n
3. Parkinson’s clinical signs, diagnosis, and rating scales
\n
The three clinical motor cardinal signs of PD, a-/hypo-/bradykinesia, rest tremor, and rigidity, are directly related to the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. However, other motor symptoms and signs, secondary to degeneration of nondopaminergic pathways, can be described such as loss of postural control, postural stability/balance, and gait disturbance. In addition, the most well-known nonmotor characteristic motor symptoms have also been described. There can be additional psychiatric and autonomic features found, as well as cognitive impairment, sleep disorders, olfactory dysfunction, and pain.
\n
\n
3.1. Clinical motor cardinal signs
\n
\n
A-/hypo-/bradykinesia: These terms are defined, collectively, as slowed voluntary movement. Separately, akinesia indicates the absence of voluntary movement, while hypokinesia means smaller movements, and bradykinesia refers to slowness of movement. They usually determine any impairment in fine motor movements, facial expression (hypomimia), monotonic and hypophonic speech with a reduction of speed, and general motion amplitude. This can have an important impact in functional skills like arm swinging when walking, raising from a chair, handwriting, and general gesturing [14, 19].
\n\n
This cardinal sign is one of the best that emerges from its origin of dysfunction, which is cited in this chapter (see \nFigure 1\n). It has been determined especially by a characteristic involving the movement programming of the cerebral cortex, in particular the supplementary motor area [8, 19].
\n
It is possible to find two modulations of this cardinal sign of Parkinson’s disease: freezing phenomenon and kinesia paradoxa. In the first one, the individual presents a sudden and transient motor block, mainly in the lower limbs during walking. This may include start hesitation, hesitation, or inability to move through the presence of contradictory visual cues (floors with different colors and small steps), when there is a need to change direction of gait or be still in open spaces. The second one, kinesia paradoxa, occurs under certain emotional circumstances where the patient is able to exhibit a sudden brief period of mobility (walking or even running and catching a ball). This phenomenon shows that, even though individuals with Parkinson’s disease have their motor programs intact, the disease prevents them from accessing them in the correct way, requiring external stimuli for this to happen even if done poorly [19, 20].
2. Rest tremor: this sign is usually asymmetric, consisting of alternate contractions of agonist and antagonist muscles, including flexors, extensors, pronators, and supinators of the wrists and arms, resulting in the “pill rolling” movement of the hand. It has a medium frequency (3 to 6 Hz) and tends to disappear with action. The legs, lower jaw, or head may also be involved, resulting in an adduction-abduction movement of the lower limbs and yes-yes or no-no motion in the head [8, 21].
\n\n
The pathophysiology of rest tremor is largely unknown. Clinical-pathological studies have demonstrated that patients with PD and prominent tremor have dysfunction of a subgroup of midbrain (A8) neurons and its magnitude seems to not be related to dopamine deficiency [8, 19].
3. Rigidity: it is a type of increase in muscle tone (also called plastic hypertonia), generally defined as an increased resistance to passive movement of a joint. Rigidity is more evident in the flexor muscles of the trunk and limbs and may be enhanced by voluntary movement. However, its presence usually determines a characteristic of stooped posture. Two types of rigidity can be described: cogwheel rigidity refers to resistance that stops and starts at the limb, the limb is moved through its range of motion, and it is the result of coexisting rigidity and tremor; lead-pipe rigidity is defined as a constant resistance to motion throughout the entire range of movement [8, 14].
\n\n
It is unclear how rigidity is associated with dopamine deficiency and basal ganglia dysfunction. Nevertheless, evidence suggests that this cardinal sign has its pathogenesis in the passive mechanical properties of joints, tendons, and muscles, and spinal and supraspinal reflexes, which together determine an increased response to peripheral stimulation and an increased muscle elongation response [8].
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Additional motor signs
\n
\n
\nPosture disturbances: individuals with Parkinson’s disease usually develop abnormal axial postures as a result of bradykinesia, rigidity, and resting tremor. This abnormality leads to a flexed general posture, with hip and knee flexion, accompanied by shoulder and even elbow flexion. In the long term, this posture disturbance can determine severe postural deformities such as antecollis, scoliosis, camptocormia, and Pisa syndrome. Little is known about the cause of these deformities, which makes it unresponsive to most treatments [8, 19].
\nPostural instability balance and gait disturbances: postural instability and gait disturbances usually occur during the course of PD, generally being manifestations of the late stages of the disease. They represent a therapeutic challenge, since they show little change through traditional pharmacological treatment using dopaminergic drugs. These two impairments, especially if associated with the freezing phenomenon, are the most common cause of falls and fractures in Parkinsonians [19, 22].
\n\n
One of the most important causes for these signs is the poor ability to integrate visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive inputs associated with a failure to activate central motor programs and their interaction with the mechanisms of sensitive feedback. Postural instability and gait disturbances have been associated with an akinetic-rigid syndrome, as well as an increased incidence of nonmotor features [8, 22].
3. Other signs and symptoms: in addition to the most important signs of Parkinson’s disease, some other motor signs can be found, such as dysarthria, hypophonia, dysphagia, and sialorrhea. These signs occur as a result of bulbar dysfunction and as a result of orofacial-laryngeal bradykinesia and rigidity. We can still find some neuro-ophthalmological signs such as a decreased blink rate and blepharospasm, among others. Other important disturbances are linked with the respiratory system and usually contribute strongly to morbidity and mortality in PD. The obstructive or restrictive respiratory complications are probably due to the presence of the rigidity present in the trunk area [19].
\n\n
\n
\n
3.3. Nonmotor signs and symptoms
\n
The current literature suggests there is a prodromal or premotor stage of Parkinson’s disease before the onset of motor symptoms. Nonmotor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease include cognitive, neuropsychiatric, sleep, autonomic, and sensory dysfunctions, which are typically not treated by the dopaminergic therapy. Patients who go on to develop Parkinson’s disease commonly have experienced depression, constipation, anosmia, and rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder in the years preceding their diagnosis. So, the presence of nonmotor features has contributed during the diagnosis process of Parkinson’s disease. However, if these nonmotor signs were not evaluated well enough during the diagnostic process, they may delay the diagnosis [23, 24].
\n
More specifically, there can be subtle cognitive deficits found affecting attentional, executive, visuospatial, and memory functions. Neuropsychiatric symptoms are also common and include depression, anxiety, apathy, and psychosis. Autonomic dysfunction can manifest as urinary frequency or urgency, constipation, orthostatic hypotension, drooling, erectile dysfunction, or abnormal sweating. These clinical manifestations can have a substantial impact on the patient’s quality of life [25]. We can see a long list of nonmotor signs and symptoms in \nTable 1\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Neuropsychiatric symptoms
\n
Depression
\n
\n
\n
Dementia
\n
\n
\n
Anxiety
\n
\n
\n
Anhedonia
\n
\n
\n
Apathy
\n
\n
\n
Psychosis (hallucination and delusion)
\n
\n
\n
Cognitive dysfunction
\n
\n
\n
Attention deficit
\n
\n
\n
Off-period–related panic attacks
\n
\n
\n
Confusion
\n
\n
\n
Sleep disorders
\n
Insomnia
\n
\n
\n
Excessive daytime sleepiness
\n
\n
\n
Nonrapid eye movement sleep-related movement disorders
\n
\n
\n
Sleep-disordered breathing
\n
\n
\n
Periodic limb movement disorder
\n
\n
\n
Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder
\n
\n
\n
Vivid dreaming
\n
\n
\n
Restless legs syndrome
\n
\n
\n
Autonomic symptoms
\n
Urgency
\n
\n
\n
Frequency
\n
\n
\n
Orthostatic hypotension
\n
\n
\n
Nocturia
\n
\n
\n
Erectile dysfunction
\n
\n
\n
Sweating
\n
\n
\n
Gastrointestinal symptoms
\n
Dribbling of saliva
\n
\n
\n
Ageusia
\n
\n
\n
Nausea
\n
\n
\n
Dysphagia
\n
\n
\n
Reflux and vomiting
\n
\n
\n
Constipation
\n
\n
\n
Diarrhea
\n
\n
\n
Fecal incontinence
\n
\n
\n
Unsatisfactory voiding of bowel
\n
\n
\n
Sensory symptoms
\n
Primary pain
\n
\n
\n
Secondary pain
\n
\n
\n
Fluctuation-related pain
\n
\n
\n
Paresthesia
\n
\n
\n
Olfactory disturbance
\n
\n
\n
Visual dysfunction
\n
\n
\n
Other symptoms
\n
Fatigue
\n
\n
\n
Ankle swelling
\n
\n
\n
Nonmotor fluctuations
\n
\n
\n
Blurred vision
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Nonmotor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease [23, 24, 25].
\n
Some of the most important nonmotor signs and symptoms for physiotherapists, which require special attention, are fatigue, pain, urinary bladder control, and anal sphincter control. We will discuss how physical therapy functions with these aspects of the disease later in this chapter.
\n
\n
\n
3.4. Diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease
\n
During the diagnostic process of Parkinson’s disease, one of the first components to be established is the presence of “parkinsonism.” This clinical condition is established by the presence of the cardinal signs of the disease, of which bradykinesia is an indispensable criterion jointly with one of the other two signs [25], associated and exclusionary symptoms, atypical features in the history and on examination, and response to levodopa.
\n
The presence of nonmotor features is important, as these may be prominent even early in the disease’s course. Some diagnostic criteria have been developed by some organizations like the UK Parkinson’s Disease Society Brain Bank, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and the Stroke (NINDS), and Movement Disorder Society. All of them ask for the presence of the cardinal signs, the application of exclusion criteria and some supportive criteria [25, 26]. They can be consulted in \nTable 2\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
United Kingdom Parkinson’s Disease Society Brain Bank’s
\n
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)
\n
Movement Disorder Society
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Step 1
\n
\n
Group A features (characteristic of Parkinson’s disease)
\n
1. Diagnosis of parkinsonism
\n
\n
\n
\n
Bradykinesia
\n
Resting tremor
\n
\n
Bradykinesia, plus one of
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
At least one of the following criteria:
\n
Rigidity
\n
\n
Tremor
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Rigidity
\n
Asymmetric onset
\n
\n
Rigidity
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4–6 Hz rest tremor
\n
Group B features (suggestive of alternative diagnoses)
\n
2. Exclusion criteria
\n
\n
\n
\n
Postural instability not caused by primary visual, vestibular, cerebellar, or proprioceptive dysfunction
\n
Features unusual early in the clinical course
\n
\n
Cerebellar abnormalities
\n
\n
\n
\n
Step 2
\n
\n
Prominent postural instability in the first 3 years after symptom onset
\n
\n
Supranuclear gaze palsy
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Exclude other causes of parkinsonism
\n
Freezing phenomenon in the first 3 years
\n
\n
Diagnosis of behavioral variant of frontotemporal dementia or primary progressive aphasia within 5 years of disease onset
\n
\n
\n
\n
Step 3
\n
\n
Hallucinations unrelated to medications in the first 3 years
\n
\n
Parkinsonian features restricted to the lower limbs for more than 3 years
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
At least one of the following supportive (prospective) criteria:
\n
Dementia preceding motor symptoms or in the first year
\n
\n
Treatment with a dopamine receptor blocker or dopamine-depleting agent consistent with drug-induced parkinsonism
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Unilateral onset
\n
Supranuclear gaze palsy (other than restriction of upward gaze) or slowing of vertical saccades
\n
\n
Absence of a response to high-dose levodopa despite at least moderate disease severity
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Rest tremor
\n
Severe, symptomatic dysautonomia unrelated to medications
\n
\n
Cortical sensory loss, clear limb ideomotor apraxia, or progressive aphasia
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Progressive disorder
\n
Documentation of condition known to produce parkinsonism and plausibly connected to the patient’s symptoms (such as suitably located focal brain lesions or neuroleptic use within the past 6 months)
\n
\n
Normal function imaging of the dopaminergic system ("DAT scan")
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Persistent asymmetry primarily affecting side of onset
\n
Criteria for definite Parkinson’s disease
\n
\n
Diagnosis of alternative condition causing parkinsonism that could be causing the symptoms
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Excellent response (70–100%) to levodopa
\n
All criteria for probable Parkinson’s are met and
\n
3. Supportive criteria
\n
\n
\n
\n
Severe levodopa-induced chorea (dyskinesia)
\n
Histopathological confirmation of the diagnosis is obtained at autopsy
\n
\n
Clear beneficial response to dopaminergic therapy
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Levodopa response for 5 years or more
\n
Criteria for probable PD
\n
\n
Presence of levodopa-induced dyskinesia
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Clinical course of 10 years or more
\n
At least three of the four features in group A are present and
\n
\n
Rest tremor of a limb
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
None of the features in group B is present (note: symptom duration ≥ 3 years is necessary to meet this requirement) and
\n
\n
The presence of either olfactory loss or cardiac sympathetic denervation on MIBG scintigraphy (although the latter is rarely done in current practice)
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Substantial and sustained response to levodopa or a dopamine agonist has been documented
\n
4. Red flags
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Criteria for possible Parkinson’s disease
\n
\n
Rapid progression of gait impairment leading to wheelchair use within 5 years
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
At least two of the four features in group A are present; at least one of these is tremor or bradykinesia and
\n
\n
Absence of progression of motor symptoms over 5 years, unless related to treatment
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Either none of the features in group B is present or symptoms have been present ≤ 3 years and none of the features in group B is present and
\n
\n
Early bulbar dysfunction
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Either substantial and sustained response to levodopa or a dopamine agonist has been documented or the patient has not had an adequate trial of levodopa or a dopamine agonist
\n
\n
Inspiratory respiratory dysfunction
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Severe autonomic failure within the first 5 years of disease
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Recurrent falls because of impaired balance within 3 years of onset
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Disproportionate anterocollis or contractures within 10 years of disease onset
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Absence of any of the common nonmotor features despite 5 years of disease
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Unexplained pyramidal signs
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Bilateral symmetrical parkinsonism
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
For the diagnosis of clinically established Parkinson’s disease
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Parkinsonism
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Absence of exclusion criteria
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
At least 2 supportive criteria
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
For the diagnosis of clinically probable Parkinson’s disease
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Parkinsonism
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Absence of exclusion criteria
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Balanced numbers of supportive criteria and red flags
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Options of diagnostic criteria for Parkinson’s disease.
\n
However, the reliability and validity of them have not been clearly established. In this way, it is common to have a misdiagnosis of Parkinson’s disease. The most common causes of misdiagnosis that are described in literature are Alzheimer’s disease, essential tremor, and vascular parkinsonism. It should be remembered that rigidity, bradykinesia, and gait disturbance can be found during normal aging period or can be determined by other medical conditions of aging [25, 27, 28].
\n
\n
\n
3.5. Rating scales for Parkinson’s disease
\n
A rating scale is a means of providing information on a particular feature by assigning a value to it. Parkinson’s rating scales are a means of assessing the symptoms of the condition. They provide information on the course of the condition and/or assess quality of life. They may also help to evaluate treatment and management strategies, which can be useful to researchers, medical doctors, physiotherapists, and other healthcare professionals, as well as to people with Parkinson’s and their caregivers [29].
\n
In Parkinson’s disease, there are a number of rating scales used. Often, more than one scale is used to give a broader picture of symptoms. The most important and used rating scale for this disease is the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS). The scale has three sections that evaluate key areas of disability, together with a fourth section that evaluates any complications of treatment, as shown below:
\n
Part 1: Nonmotor experiences of daily living
\n
Part 2: Motor experiences of daily living
\n
Part 3: Motor examination
\n
Part 4: Motor complications
\n
The UPDRS features sections that require independent completion by people affected by Parkinson’s and their caregivers, and sections to be completed by the clinician. The UPDRS is often used with two other Parkinson’s rating scales: The Hoehn and Yahr, and the Schwab and England Activities of Daily Living (ADL) scales [20, 30].
\n
In \nTable 3\n, there is a list of rating scales available and recommended by the European Parkinson’s Disease Association and by the International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society [29, 30].
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
MDS-owned rating scales
\n
The European Parkinson’s Disease Association (EPDA)
Schwab and England activities of daily living (ADL) scale
\n
\n
\n
Modified bradykinesia rating scale
\n
PDQ-39
\n
\n
\n
Nonmotor symptoms scale (NMSS)
\n
PD NMS questionnaire
\n
\n
\n
Nonmotor symptoms questionnaire (NMSQ)
\n
NMS survey
\n
\n
\n
PKAN disease rating scale (PKAN-DRS)
\n
Parkinson’s disease composite scale
\n
\n
\n
Quality of life essential tremor questionnaire
\n
King\'s PD pain scale
\n
\n
\n
Rating scale for psychogenic movement disorders
\n
Parkinson\'s disease sleep scale‑PDSS-2
\n
\n
\n
Rush dyskinesia rating scale
\n
Lindop Parkinson\'s assessment scale
\n
\n
\n
Rush video-based tic rating scale
\n
Short-form 36 (SF-36)
\n
\n
\n
UFMG Sydenham\'s Chorea Rating Scale (USCRS)
\n
Sickness impact profile (SIP)
\n
\n
\n
Unified dyskinesia rating scale (UDysRS)
\n
Mini-mental state examination (MMSE)
\n
\n
\n
Unified dystonia rating scale (UDRS)
\n
Montreal cognitive assessment scale (MoCa)
\n
\n
\n
Unified multiple system atrophy rating scale (UMSARS)
\n
Caregiver strain index (CSI)
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Recommended rating scales for Parkinson’s disease.
Note: Based on the European Parkinson’s Disease Association [29] and International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society [30] websites.
\n
It is important to note that many of these scales and questionnaires are owned and licensed by some organization. Hence, it is necessary to require a rating scales permission request form before working with them.
\n
In a nonclinical way, Braak and coworkers [31] proposed staging procedures of the pathology of Parkinson’s disease, based on central nervous system involvement. Their proposal has six stages:
\n
Stage 1: Premotor period in which typical pathological changes, Lewy neurites, and Lewy bodies spread from the olfactory bulb and vagus nerve to lower brainstem regions (medulla oblongata and pontine tegmentum).
\n
Stage 2: Additional lesions in the raphe nuclei and gigantocellular reticular nucleus of the medulla oblongata, locus coeruleus in the pontine tegmentum.
\n
Stage 3: The symptomatic period when pathological changes involve the midbrain including substantia nigra pars compacta, basal nuclei of Meynert. Structures affected in stages 1 and 2 develop more Lewy bodies.
\n
Stage 4: Severe dopaminergic cell destruction in the pars compacta with additional mesocortex and allocortex involvement, especially seen in amygdala and subnuclei of the thalamus.
\n
Stage 5: There are initial changes in neocortex (cortical lobes). Cellular death can be seen in the substantia nigra, the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve, the gigantocellular reticular nucleus, and the locus coeruleus.
\n
Stage 6: Neocortex entirely affected (motor and sensory areas).
\n
This kind of rate is totally based on histological development of the disease. It is important to remember that, historically, the definitive diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease is closed in a postmortem autopsy [32].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Parkinson’s disease treatment
\n
\nDrug treatment: traditionally, the drugs that have shown good effects on the motor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease are the dopaminergic drugs.
\n
Among them, the most used in clinical practice is levodopa or levodopa plus dopa-decarboxylase inhibitors (DDC-I), designed to replace the dopamine in the depleted striatum, undoubtedly, the most efficient medication for Parkinson’s disease [33]. They improve motor functions in a cyclic way during the day period. When they reduce the motor impairment, the period is called “on time.” When the motor signs and symptoms start to return, the period is called “off time” or “wearing-off period.” However, during the “wearing-off period,” symptoms may not be related only to movement. It is also usual for patients to report increased anxiety, fatigue, mood changes, difficulty thinking, restlessness, and sweating [29].
\n
Initially, levodopa offers a stable alleviation of PD symptoms so it is usual for it to be offered in low doses, being well-tolerated by patients. This period of treatment is called the “honeymoon.” However, as the disease becomes more advanced, the effect of the drug usually wears off quickly, and an increased frequency of dosing is often required. This marks the end of the “honeymoon” period. After some years (4–6 years), patients begin to experience, most strikingly, its intense side effects [33, 34].
\n
These long-term complications included many kinds of motor fluctuations. In addition to the on-off phenomenon, already described above, the patients may also experience delay on, when medication takes a longer period to take its effect; freezing phenomenon, which was already discussed during the motor signs presentation; and dyskinesia, which is determined by the presence of hyperkinetic involuntary movements, including twitches, jerking, twisting, or simple restlessness but no tremor, occurring when the drug is at its peak dose, during the wearing-off period or even during off-periods of the medication [29, 34]. Several new formulations of levodopa have been developed to provide a more stable levodopa plasma concentration, reducing some of the side effects, including dyskinesia. Among them, as aforementioned is a levodopa/carbidopa combination [33].
\n
Other drugs on treatment of motor signs are dopaminergic agonists, amantadine, dopamine receptor agonists, catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), and monoaminoxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Recently, new pharmacological treatment has been studied such as the use of cannabis (to reduce mainly the three cardinal signs) and the angiotensin IV ligand-based compound, which influences motor and nonmotor signs (memory) [33].
\n
Since Parkinson’s disease is not considered a pure movement disorder anymore, the treatment of nonmotor signs and symptoms is justified. However, the treatment of nonmotor symptoms is still an unsatisfactory field for patients and their families [35]. A cholinesterase inhibitor has been used for dementia treatment, while noradrenergic medications (like tricyclic antidepressants) have shown some effect in depression and serotoninergic agonists (like clozapine) in psychosis. Amantadine is used with some success in the management of levodopa-induced dyskinesia. For autonomic dysfunction, there are many options such as mineralocorticoid, fludrocortisone and adrenergic agents, the noradrenaline precursor for orthostatic hypotension, antimuscarinics for urinary urgency or incontinence, and prokinetic drugs to treat constipation [35].
\n
\nSurgical treatment: lesioning procedures, such as pallidotomy and thalamotomy, were used to reduce the motor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. For a period, these procedures were abandoned because of good results with pharmacological treatment using dopaminergic drugs. However, nowadays, the surgical procedures are reviving as a result of the complications of pharmacological therapies.
\n
The technological advances in the area of medicine have led to the development of a new kind and nonablative surgical procedure: deep brain stimulation (DBS). It involves sending electrical impulses to certain parts of the brain by a neurostimulator device that is a brain implant known as a ‘brain pacemaker.’ The general procedure of this surgery is an intracranial electrode precisely implanted in the target area (see \nTable 4\n), followed by implantation of lead extension wires that connect the intracranial leads to a power-generating and programming source and, then finally, the implantation of an internal pulse generator (\nFigure 2\n). The main target areas can be seen in \nTable 4\n such as the signs/symptoms that are most prominently modulated by DBS [36, 38]. When PD symptoms are very severe and medications cannot moderate them, surgery and deep brain stimulation can be considered as the final options of treatment.
\n
Figure 2.
Typical deep brain stimulation setup. The electrode is placed in the brain and connected to a brain pacemaker permanently placed under the skin of the chest. Source: Shamir et al. [37] the use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted.
\n
\nOther treatments: other alternatives to Parkinson’s disease management include a group of therapies other than a pharmacological approach. There is a vast variety of techniques available for this purpose, such as tai chi, yoga, massage, acupuncture, dance, traditional herbs, and molecular targeted therapies, among others.
\n
Physical therapy shows a number of different strategies that has been frequently used in rehabilitation of Parkinson’s disease patients, having the most important goal to enhance the quality of life of these individuals.
\n
\n
4.1. Physical therapy in Parkinson’s disease treatment
\n
Physiotherapists are members within a multiprofessional team, which has the purpose of maximizing functions and abilities and minimizing secondary complications of several diseases. They use movement rehabilitation within a context of education and support for the person as a whole. In patients with Parkinson’s disease, physical therapy focuses on many functions such as transfer, posture, balance improvement and fall prevention, gait, upper limb functions, and physical capacity (including cardiorespiratory capacity) essential to carry out activities of daily life. All of these goals, worked together with cueing strategies, cognitive movement and exercises, increased independence, and safety, as a consequence, improve quality of life [10].
\n
Some evidence presented in the literature supported that therapeutic exercises applied in individuals with Parkinson’s disease were effective in improving both the motor and nonmotor impairments [39, 40]. This improvement may be linked to a number of plasticity-related physiological events including synaptogenesis, angiogenesis, and neurogenesis. This process can be mediated by use-dependent expression of endogenous neurotrophic factors. In an unedited systematic review and meta-analysis, Hirsch and his coworkers show aggregated evidence that physical exercise training increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) blood levels in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. This BDNF increase results in concomitant reduction in motor signs and symptoms, measured by UPDRS, confirming possible effects on dopaminergic pathways [41].
\n
Together with neuroplasticity, there is some evidence pointing to the participation of motor modules (coordinated patterns of muscle activity that combine to produce functional motor behaviors) like a physiological theory for good results of physical therapy in Parkinson’s disease. For this purpose, it is proposed to consider five neuromechanical principles: motor abundance, which means that for any given task, many equivalent motor solutions are possible; motor structure, which means that motor modules reflect biomechanical task relevance; motor variability, which means that variations on motor modules are higher as much as the motor output is lower; individuality, which means that different motor repertory must be considered among different individuals; and multifunctionality, which means that muscle activity can generate a large number of different actions. It is important to emphasize that in Parkinson’s disease the basal ganglia dysfunction supposedly leads to inappropriate selection of motor modules [8].
\n
It is still important to remember that motor rehabilitation is a motor relearning practice and training where it is essential to reacquire motor skills. Although individuals with Parkinson’s disease show preserved motor learning abilities, the basal ganglia dysfunction may impair the consolidation of them. Therefore, the basic rules of neural plasticity practice must be used to be successful in the rehabilitation process. It includes intensity, repetition, specificity, difficulty, and complexity of practice [8, 42].
\n
Several rehabilitative approaches have been proposed in Parkinson’s disease.
\n
\n
4.1.1. Resistance training and muscle strength
\n
In the last two decades, exercise, such as resistance training, has shown to be beneficial for the improvement of both motor and nonmotor signs and symptoms. It increases low strength determined by hypokinesia and disuse, besides playing a neuroprotective effect in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. Its effect is probably determined by an increase of mitochondrial respiration and of neuroplasticity mechanisms, improving the recruitment of motor unit and generating selective activation of the muscles [14, 43, 44].
\n
However, there is no consensus about the parameters for resistance training prescription for individuals who have Parkinson’s disease [43]. In a systematic review and meta-analysis, Saltychev and his coworkers [45] concluded that there is no evidence on the superiority of progressive resistance training compared with other treatments to support the use of this approach in rehabilitation procedures.
\n
On the contrary, it is possible to find successful directions to use this therapeutic strategy in rehabilitation of individuals with Parkinson’s disease from other systematic reviews, meta-analysis, and clinical research. Studies shows that low (2 times per week over 12 weeks) to moderate (2–3 times per week over 8–10 weeks) intensity resistance training appears to be effective in people with early, mild-to-moderate Parkinson’s disease. They still show that this specific approach resulted in gaining muscle strength, balance, Parkinson’s motor symptoms, and quality of life, with low or no improvement in gait performance, freezing phenomenon, and the number of falls [43, 44, 46, 47]. The load of the exercises can be chosen using the test of maximal strength (1-RM). The number of sets may vary between 2 and 3 during initial periods. The retest of 1-RM can provide additional information to adjust the load and sets along the rehabilitation period. The resting time between the sets can be controlled by cardiovascular parameters and can vary from 30 seconds up to 3 or 4 minutes [43, 44].
\n
There are numerous ways to work with resistance training, and it is up to the physiotherapists to choose the most appropriate one for the individual under their care. In resistance training, the following examples of exercises can be used: bench press, lat pulldown, military press, seated row, leg 45o, barbell squat, leg curl, leg extension, calf raises, lower abdominal exercises, and manual or external (theraband, barbell, ankle-weight, and pulley system) resistance in active movement. Treadmill and bicycle intervention can be used when performing against resistance [43, 44, 45, 47]. Da Silva and her coworkers [48] suggest a long-term effect in nonmotor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, especially in cognitive aspects, in individuals performing treadmill training, just as Ferreira and her coworkers [49] showed that resistance training was an effective intervention in the reduction of anxiety symptoms and improved the quality of life in this population.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.2. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation to control resting tremor
\n
Even if the treatment of Parkinson’s disease tremor focuses on medication, and there is indication to deep brain stimulation for those patients with tremor recalcitrant using oral medication, electrotherapy has been shown to be beneficial to control this special cardinal sign.
\n
Few studies have been performed to provide further evidence on the effects of electrotherapy on Parkinson’s tremor reduction. The theory supporting the use of this strategy is based on evidence revealing that propriospinal neurons in the C3–4 spinal cord mediate voluntary commands from the motor cortex (in Parkinson’s disease, these commands are oscillating and give rise to resting tremor) and project directly to forelimb motor neurons. This proposal assumes the importance of propriospinal neurons to interfere in tremor signal transmission, especially because there are a rich variety of afferents, including cutaneous afferents [6].
\n
Based on this concept, Xu and coworkers [50] hypothesize that cutaneous afferents evoked by surface stimulation could produce an inhibitory effect on propriospinal neurons, which in turn could suppress tremor signals passing through the propriospinal neurons.
\n
Additionally, evidence shows benefits of electrical stimulation, especially when applied to the superficial cutaneous radial nerve area, in reduction refractory resting tremor. This effect is possibly mediated by cutaneous reflex via premotor neuron interneurons, through a disynaptic inhibitory postsynaptic potential. Some initial research was performed to confirm this theory using transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), with good results [6, 52]. The position of the electrodes can be verified in \nFigure 3\n.
\n
Figure 3.
Use of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation to reduce resting tremor in Parkinson’s disease. The figure brings cutaneous superficial radial nerve area and electrodes position for transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS). Source: Modified from Gray [56]. Picture is public domain.
\n
The parameters used for TENS stimulation were 200 μs pulse width at 250 Hz pulse frequency. The pulse amplitude of stimuli must be adjusted during the stimulation period. First, it is necessary to discover the radiating threshold of the patient. It occurs when the patient refers to a radiating sensation, such as a paresthesia, running from the dorsal skin to the fingers. This radiating threshold has been used as a sensory marker because it indicates that the superficial radial nerve is actually activated by electrical stimulation. After detecting the radiating threshold, the intensity of electrical stimulation must be adjusted to 1.5–1.75 times radiating threshold to produce better effects on tremor control [6].
\n
Nowadays, researchers have been studying a way to detect the tremors and control them simultaneously and automatically by electrostimulation. They already developed and tested a closed-loop system for tremor suppression by transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) using EMGs of the forearm muscles. Through this record, when a tremor is detected, a command signal triggers a stimulator to output TENS pulses to a pair of surface electrodes positioned just as described in \nFigure 3\n. The preliminary results showed that a closed-loop system can detect tremor properly and suppress significantly the tremor, by electrical stimulation of cutaneous afferents, in Parkinson’s disease patients. Within this new concept, a tremor’s glove was developed reaching also good results [50, 51, 52].
\n
\n
\n
4.1.3. Aerobic training: treadmill, cycling, free walking, dance, and tai chi
\n
It’s known that aerobic exercises can reduce inflammation, suppress oxidative stress, and stabilize calcium homeostasis in the brain. So, it has been prescribed as an important activity for the elderly. The form of aerobic exercise used may be adapted to the capability of the individual. In individuals with Parkinson’s disease, these exercises show important functions, once they can trigger plasticity-related changes, including synaptogenesis, enhanced glucose utilization, and neurogenesis [2, 53].
\n
In general, aerobic training has been reported to improve both motor and nonmotor signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. The motor effects are extensively known and have been studied the most so far, showing the most unequivocal benefits on health across the life span. Furthermore, the neural mechanisms involving dopaminergic pathways are studied and suggest a significant preservation of nigrostriatal neuronal connections as well as striatal dopamine levels in experimental models. As a result, exercise-dependent plasticity following aerobic exercises acts on the brain in a similar manner as dopaminergic-derived treatments, using the same pathways to produce symptomatic relief [54].
\n
In nonmotor signs and symptoms, aerobic training promotes positive and significant effects on global cognitive function, processing speed, sustained attention and mental flexibility, memory, and mood disorder aspects (anxiety and depression) in patients who are considered in a moderate stage of Parkinson’s disease [49]. In sleep disorder, present in Parkinson’s disease, aerobic exercise has been shown to have small-to-moderate effects. The mechanism involved in these effects evolved increased dopaminergic signaling and a wide variety of effects on nondopaminergic neurotransmitter systems, including serotonergic, noradrenergic, and GABAergic systems, which is relevant for depression, anxiety, and sleep [53, 54].
\n
The most common and studied form of aerobic training is using a treadmill. In some systematic reviews, the majority of articles considered in analyses use treadmills for aerobic training. This approach can be used with or without a body-weight-support system, depending on the motor difficulties of the individual with Parkinson’s disease. It may be related with improvement in motor signs like motor action, balance, and gait, although the evidence is not so strong [2, 48].
\n
In the same way, free walking and Nordic walking (a total body version of walking performed with specially designed walking poles similar to ski poles) also have good effects on motor and nonmotor domains of Parkinson’s disease and must be stimulated and used in physical therapy practice in rehabilitation of individuals with Parkinson’s disease [55].
\n
Similar to the aerobic training used on the treadmill, moderate intensity of interval training for cycling has shown several beneficial effects on the DA-dependent motor and nonmotor signs that compromise Parkinson’s disease patients. Researchers have reported improvement on bimanual motor control, automatic interlimb coordination, executive functions, and neurological (UPDRS) symptoms [56].
\n
An interval protocol template that can be used can be the following: from 8 to 12 weeks of training, 3 times per week, 1-hour session training with 10 minutes of warm-up, 40 minutes of aerobic training, and 10 minutes of cooldown). During the 40 minutes of aerobic training, the patient can perform 8 sets of 3 minutes of cycling or treadmill at 60–80 rpms and 2 minutes of less than 60 rpms. The heart rate also can be used as a parameter to improve effort during the training period. Hence, the physiotherapist may adjust the resistance to ensure the patient is cycling at 60–75% of his/her maximal heart rate. This effort can increase gradually during the training period [56]. A guideline with some exercise modes to be used in Parkinson’s disease was provided by Meng and coworkers in a systematic review and meta-analysis [57].
\n
Other forms of aerobic exercises have been stimulated in the rehabilitation process in Parkinson’s disease. Several data have shown that dance can provide increased activation of the reward system, determining better mood aspects in people. In patients with Parkinson’s disease, practicing dance has induced better responses and a substantial relevant improvement in motor symptoms (such as static and dynamic balance, freezing phenomenon, and gait) and functional mobility. This improvement determines also a better quality of life in performers. It probably occurs because rhythmic stimulation leads to time-perception compensation due to the synchronization of movement with rhythm [58, 59].
\n
To get these effects, a dance program must include visual and auditory cues, rhythm tasks, and recreational activities that motivate socialization. Another important aspect is to reach the ideal heart rate during practice, just as discussed previously in the aerobic training protocol [58].
\n
Oriental martial arts, such as tai chi, have been successfully used in treatment of individuals with Parkinson’s disease. Tai chi combines deep breathing and slow movements and studies have provided moderate evidence that tai chi improves balance and functional mobility, reducing the number of falls, but with no significant effect in gait velocity, step length, and gait endurance improvement [33, 60, 61]. A systematic review and meta-analysis showed that tai chi, plus medication, showed greater gains than medication alone or another therapy plus medication in motor function and balance. Presumably, these gains were due to the development of new motor programs, which allow faster reactions responding to postural challenge promoting better behavioral recovery through new synaptic connections [62]. It is necessary to know and practice this technique before using it on patients.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.4. Multimodal exercise program
\n
The aim of the multimodal exercise program is to develop the patients’ functional capacity, cognitive functions, posture, and locomotion. It’s comprised of a variety of activities that simultaneously focus on the components of functional capacity, such as muscular resistance, motor coordination, and balance [14]. It’s a 6-month program, performed 3 times per week, 1 hour per session. Each session consists of five parts (warm-up, pre-exercise stretching, the exercise session, the cooldown, and postexercise stretching). The program is divided into six phases with different uses of coordination, muscular resistance, and balance strategies [63, 64]. A description of each phase can be seen in \nTable 5\n.
\n\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Subthalamic nucleus
\n
Disabling motor symptoms
\n
\n
\n
Dyskinesia
\n
\n
\n
Motor fluctuations
\n
\n
\n
Globus pallidus internus
\n
Improvement of motor symptoms in general
\n
\n
\n
Ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus
\n
Tremor
\n
\n
\n
Pedunculopontine nucleus
\n
Gait instability
\n
\n
\n
Gait freezing phenomenon
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Main target areas for deep brain stimulation (DBS) in Parkinson’s disease.
Recreational activities that stimulated the vestibular system.
\n
\n
\n
Phase 2
\n
Trunk movements were added to upper and lower limb movements.
\n
Light-weight equipment (hoops, ropes, and batons).
\n
Recreational activities that stimulated the visual and vestibular systems.
\n
\n
\n
Phase 3
\n
Trunk movements were substituted by head movements.
\n
Heavier equipment (barbells, ankle weights, and medicine balls).
\n
Recreational activities that stimulated the visual and somatosensorial systems.
\n
\n
\n
Phase 4
\n
Head, trunk, and upper and lower limb movements.
\n
Load was again increased with heavier equipment for resistance training (increase of intensity) or increased repetitions (increased volume).
\n
Recreational activities integrated the vestibular, visual, and somatosensorial systems.
\n
\n
\n
Phase 5
\n
Four different movement sequences, two of which were the same for upper and lower limbs and two other sequences that alternated movements for upper and lower limbs in place and in movement.
\n
Exercises were done with weights: leg press, pulley, seated cable rows, peck deck, and bench press. Load was adjusted according to patients\' convenience (in two series of 15 repetitions).
\n
Recreational activities included static balance, dynamic balance, half-turn, and complete turn (all with visual cues).
\n
\n
\n
Phase 6
\n
Four sequences of different movements, two sequences of alternating movement for upper and lower limbs, and two sequences of different movement for upper and lower limbs, with or without trunk movement and equipment (balloons, balls, hoops, and rope).
\n
The same exercises with load increase. Series of 15 repetitions were added.
\n
Recreational activities were composed of activities with tactile cues.
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Multimodal exercise program in Parkinson´s disease.
The little data that are available in the literature point to improvement in some kinematic gait parameters of mild-to-moderate idiopathic PD patients using multimodal exercise programs [63, 64].
\n
\n
\n
4.1.5. Acupuncture
\n
Several data show acupuncture and electroacupuncture (still performed on animal models) as beneficial strategies in Parkinson’s disease treatment, used either isolated or combined with other treatments. It has been described as showing improvement in the UPDRS total score and in its subsections after an acupuncture session. So, even motor and nonmotor signs and symptoms, including pain, can be improved with the use of acupuncture [65, 66, 67]. However, the most important source of data that proves the beneficial effects of acupuncture in treatment of signs and symptoms in Parkinson’s disease is provided from functional neuroimaging studies. These studies have shown huge modifications in neural functions after acupuncture sessions [68, 69].
\n
As tai chi use was previously discussed, acupuncture requires previous academic training so that it can be used in an accurate way in the treatment of Parkinsonian individuals.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.6. Hydrotherapy
\n
Hydrotherapy has been widely used to treat individuals with Parkinson’s disease. It has been proven to be effective for different gait rehabilitation programs, as well as to improve balance and quality of life, and reduce pain and falls. The warm property of water used for hydrotherapy potentially also reduces rigidity [70, 71].
\n
In water, innumerable forms of exercises can be performed including warm-up exercises (like jumping and walking), stretching exercises, gait training, cooldown exercises, trunk mobility, balance, coordination and proprioceptive exercises, the Halliwick method, posture exercises, the Ai Chi method, aerobic exercise, the Bad Ragaz method, motor dexterity exercises, and swimming exercises, among others [71].
\n
\n
\n
4.1.7. Virtual reality and exergames: integrative techniques
\n
Virtual reality potentially optimizes motor learning in a safe environment, and by replicating real-life scenarios, it could help to improve functional activities of daily living in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. However, the use of commercially available devices makes this tool contiguous to many other physical therapy instruments, leading to low evidence in the results [72]. Despite this, several studies have reported greater improvement in many signs and symptoms such as balance, gait, functional capacity, and self-confidence, improving quality of life and reducing the risk of falling [73, 74, 75].
\n
As an example of specific virtual reality developed for Parkinson’s disease rehabilitation, Gomez-Jordana and coworkers [76] developed visual cues that could be presented in an immersive, interactive virtual reality environment. With this, they created different forms of spatial and temporal information where black footprints presented at a prespecified distance apart could recreate different step lengths (spatial cues), and by controlling when the black footprints changed color to red, they could convey information about the timing of the foot placement (temporal cues). With this device, they could get significantly improved gait performance in participants.
\n
Additionally, exercise-based video gaming (exergaming), a form of physical training that is delivered through virtual reality technology, facilitates motor learning and is efficacious in improving balance in aged populations. This approach can use commercial devices such as Nintendo Wii Fit System®, X-box 360o with Kinect®, or rehabilitation-specific software program like Jintronix® [70, 74, 77].
\n
These devices usually combine automated game instructions as well as visual and auditory and tactile inputs to correct performance and sustain motivation levels during and following game play. Therefore, exergames employ visual and auditory feedback techniques to create a quasi-immersive environment that can facilitate motor and cognitive learning. Since individuals with Parkinson’s disease are dependent on sensory cues to maintain postural stability and show difficulties with long-term consolidation of new motor skills, this sensorial integration provided by using exergames may help to upregulate neuroplasticity and facilitate motor skill acquisition and retention [77].
\n
These resources can be used isolated or associated in a clinical approach or in a telerehabilitation program like a home-based virtual reality or home-based exergame [74].
\n
\n
\n
4.1.8. Group approach
\n
Groups are used in physical therapy to improve global health status and bring relief from typical disability symptoms of several diseases, competing with individual rehabilitation at least in short-term follow-up. Therapeutic groups have been beneficial to the health care system by decreasing the cost and time spent on rehabilitation.
\n
Similar to other techniques, group therapy can use several kinds of exercise goals such as general mobility, using muscular strength, free movement, and relaxation exercises; trunk control, using trunk displacement and rotation during dynamic exercises performed in a sitting posture; static balance, using the same strategies for trunk control but in a standing position; dynamic balance and gait, using free gait; and gait with obstacles, stairs, ramp, uneven ground, performed in and outside the room. The use of hearing and visual cues during the procedure provides several stimulus associations for the patients. This approach was reported to improve gait, balance, and activity of daily life performance in patients with PD [78].
\n
\n
\n
4.1.9. Mental imagery
\n
Mental imagery is the cognitive process of creating visual, auditory, or kinesthetic experiences in the mind with or without overt physical execution. In many people, this procedure can help or improve motor performance. This strategy has the potential to increase the function of both the motor cortex and the spinal neurons, resulting in improved muscle function [79, 80]. Thus, it is an important technique in motor learning and control, and although it has its origin in sports science, it has been introduced into the field of neurorehabilitation.
\n
In a few sources about mental imagery in Parkinson’s disease rehabilitation, some data show a better muscle recruitment measured by electromyography or other form or neurophysiologic register. But available data are, sometimes, contradictory [80, 81].
\n
Specifically in individuals with Parkinson’s disease, this approach has shown to be beneficial to motor (measured by UPRDS-III‑motor signs) and cognitive functions [79].
\n
\n
\n
4.1.10. Applications (apps in cell phones or tablets): a new generation of physical therapy approach
\n
Since smartphones became popular, numerous health-related apps have been developed for professionals, patients, and the general population. However, many of these apps are not validated, so their efficacy may be not satisfactory. Nowadays, this resource still has been used as a complementary treatment [82].
\n
It is a well-known fact that it is important to emphasize that apps are a democratic source of information and rehabilitation, since they maintain the main principles of usability, accessibility, and equal opportunities for healthcare professionals, patients, relatives, and caregivers [82].
\n
For Parkinson’s disease, there are a few apps available, and just one with some data partially published. On the Parkinson’s UK webpage, we can find a list of apps reviewed and recommended for individuals with Parkinson’s disease. There are apps for sleep, volume of voice, mood, swallowing, memory (recording stories of patients), mobility, speech, and dexterity [83].
\n
Another source from the International Parkinson’s Community recommended eight extra apps. They focus on measurement and tracking the patient’s symptoms, give information about Parkinson’s disease, record and measure the magnitude of tremor and speech, and manage and track the individual’s health condition. The only one that has some physical approach is the Parkinson’s home exercise [84].
\n
The Parkinson’s Home Exercise®, promoted by the European Foundation for Health and Exercise, was easy-to-use and designed to be used by patients and physiotherapists. It provides advice and instructions for daily exercises and movements through over 50 videos and text instructions. It has a cost involved [85]. There are no references in literature about its efficacy.
\n
Another app, developed by TEVA Pharmaceutical Industries, named Parkinsounds®, is a free app that helps patients with Parkinson’s disease to find their gait rhythm using music and rhythmic beats (like a metronome). They use a predetermined music list or one that can be linked to Spotify®. Once the rhythm is chosen, Parkinsounds is able to find music that combines with the preselected rhythm adding beats in the music. The physiologic base for this strategy is centered on the synchronic activation of neurons provided by the music and the rhythmic stimulus, added to an increase of dopamine liberation [86].
\n
Our group has been developing research using this specific app in rehabilitation of gait in Parkinson’s disease. The partial data were already presented at the World Confederation of Physical Therapy Conference (research data are not still available). However, a huge acute effect could be seen in the gait of Parkinsonians using Parkinsounds, even in a long-term period of rehabilitation. We could see an improvement in width and length of gait, with a reduction of base and number of steps, which were measured in a 10 meters’ route, after 10 weeks of treatment. It is important to emphasize that the walking test was performed with and without Parkinsounds® use for patients at the moment of evaluation (initial and final), and in both cases, the improvement was significant. So, it can be considered an important feature for gait rehabilitation in Parkinson’s disease.
\n
\n
\n
4.1.11. Whole body vibration
\n
According to the literature data, there is no apparent consistency in the effect of whole body vibration shown on mobility, balance, and gait in individuals with Parkinson’s disease [87]. However, the majority of the studies point to a favorable effect of this therapeutic strategy [87, 88].
\n
Disregarding the differences between the various types of equipment, a lot of research has proposed some parameters that are useful in improving mobility and balance in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. The majority recommend orthostatic position and 7 to 14 mm amplitude with a frequency ranging between 3 and 25 Hz, in cycles of 5 bouts of 1 minute each. Until now, there is no consensus about which frequency in better [87]. So, it is recommended that the physical therapist evaluate these functions constantly after using this resource.
\n
The effect of whole body vibration on tremor is less prominent [87]. Moreover, it also does not appear to lead to better cardiovascular conditions reducing the feeling of fatigue when compared to treadmill training [89].
\n
The physiological mechanism involved in the effects of whole body vibration on reducing some of the motor signs of Parkinson’s disease remains elusive. Some theories suggest that whole body vibration provides tactile and proprioceptive stimulus to the whole body originated from the vertical oscillating mechanical movement or the movement along the horizontal axis, which through neuromuscular activation and metabolic mechanism may bypass dysfunctional basal ganglia, resulting in better adjustments for postural stability and gait [88, 90].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
In this chapter, we can notice how profound the discussions about Parkinson’s disease are, especially about treatment. Physical therapy has increased its participation in Parkinson’s disease treatment. However, research is still lacking to substantiate its real effectiveness. It is imperative that further research be done to strengthen performance and the excellent results obtained with physical therapy in treating individuals with Parkinson’s disease.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
I would like to thank Pontifical University of Minas Gerais for funding the research cited in this chapter: PROBIC PUC Minas 95/35 {80}; Parkinsounds Project PROBIC PUC/FAPEMIG 2018/1510.
\n
\n',keywords:"Parkinson’s disease, rehabilitation, physical therapy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70122.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70122.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70122",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70122",totalDownloads:2031,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:71,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 6th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 26th 2019",datePrePublished:"November 20th 2019",datePublished:"April 1st 2020",dateFinished:"November 20th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Parkinson’s disease has been considered one of the most important and common neurodegenerative diseases in the world. Its motor and nonmotor signs determine a huge functional loss, leading the individuals to lose their independence. Although the treatment requires a pharmacological approach, physical therapy has confirmed its importance in this process. Today, neurorehabilitation is indispensable to increase many of the cardinal signs of the disease. Using traditional or technological approaches, physical therapy has reached good results in improving motor and nonmotor functions, as well as the quality of life of Parkinsonians. However, it is important to develop and to fortify the physical therapy approach so that we can provide stronger evidence about our practice.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70122",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70122",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness"},signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos",email:"lucivasc@pucpcaldas.br",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Pathophysiology of PD",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Parkinson’s clinical signs, diagnosis, and rating scales",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Clinical motor cardinal signs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Additional motor signs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Nonmotor signs and symptoms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4. Diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5. Rating scales for Parkinson’s disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Parkinson’s disease treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1. Physical therapy in Parkinson’s disease treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"4.1.1. Resistance training and muscle strength",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.1.2. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation to control resting tremor",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.3. Aerobic training: treadmill, cycling, free walking, dance, and tai chi",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.1.5. Acupuncture",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.1.6. Hydrotherapy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.1.7. Virtual reality and exergames: integrative techniques",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"4.1.8. Group approach",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"4.1.9. Mental imagery",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"4.1.10. Applications (apps in cell phones or tablets): a new generation of physical therapy approach",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"4.1.11. Whole body vibration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nZanzoni A, Montecchi-Palazzi L, Quondam MX. A molecular interaction database. FEBS Letters. 2002;513:135-140. DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(01)03293-8\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nShu HF, Yang T, Yu SX, et al. Aerobic exercise for Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS One. 2014;9(7):e100503. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100503\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nAlves G, Forsaa EB, Pedersen KF, Dreetz Gjerstad M, Larsen JP. Epidemiology of Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology. 2008;255(Suppl 5):18-32. DOI: 10.1007/s00415-008-5004-3\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nMackenzie IRA. The pathology of Parkinson’s disease. British Columbia Medical Journal. 2001;43(3):142-147\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nRocca WA. The burden of Parkinson\'s disease: A worldwide perspective. Lancet Neurology. 2018;17(11):928-929. DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30355-7\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nHao MZ, Xu SQ, Hu ZX, et al. Inhibition of Parkinsonian tremor with cutaneous afferent evoked by transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation. 2017;14(1):75. DOI: 10.1186/s12984-017-0286-2\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nNational Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Parkinson’s Disease Information Page. 2019. Available from: https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Parkinsons-Disease-Information-Page [Accessed: June 28, 2019]\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nMagrinelli F, Picelli A, Tocco P, et al. Pathophysiology of motor dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease as the rationale for drug treatment and rehabilitation. Parkinsons Disease. 2016;2016:9832839. DOI: 10.1155/2016/9832839\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nKrüger R, Klucken J, Weiss D, et al. Classification of advanced stages of Parkinson’s disease: Translation into stratified treatments. Journal of Neural Transmission (Vienna). 2017;124(8):1015-1027. DOI: 10.1007/s00702-017-1707-x\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nTomlinson CL, Patel S, Meek C, et al. Physiotherapy intervention in Parkinson’s disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2012;345:e5004, 1-14. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.e5004\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nStoker TB, Torsney KM, Barker RA. Emerging treatment approaches for Parkinson’s disease. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2018;12:693. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00693\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nNitrini R, Bacheschi LA. A Neurologia Que Todo Médico Deve Saber. 3rd ed. São Paulo: Atheneu; 570p. ISBN: 9788538806240\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nDi Monte DA, Lavasani M, Manning-Bog AB. Environmental factors in Parkinson’s disease. Neurotoxicology. 2002;23(4-5):487-502. DOI: 10.1016/S0161-813X(02)00099-2\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nA Train Education: Continuing Education for Health Professionals. 2019. Available from: https://www.atrainceu.com/course-module/2441043-143_parkinsons-module-02 [Accessed: June 28, 2019]\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nNational Institute of Aging. What is Lewy Body Dementia?. 2019. Available from: https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/what-lewy-body-dementia [Accessed: June 28, 2019]\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nBarcia C. Glial-mediated inflammation underlying parkinsonism. Scientifica (Cairo). 2013;2013:357805. DOI: 10.1155/2013/357805\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nBall N, Teo WP, Chandra S, Chapman J. Parkinson’s disease and the environment. Frontiers in Neurology. 2019;10:218. DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00218\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nDick FD, De Palma G, Ahmadi A, et al. Environmental risk factors for Parkinson’s disease and parkinsonism: The Geoparkinson study. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 2007;64(10):666-672. DOI: 10.1136/oem.2006.027003\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nThorp JE, Adamczyk PG, Ploeg HL, et al. Monitoring motor symptoms during activities of daily living in individuals with Parkinson’s disease. Frontiers in Neurology. 2018;9:1036. DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.01036\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nBanou E. Kinesia paradoxa: A challenging Parkinson’s phenomenon for simulation. In: Vlamos P, Alexiou A, editors. GeNeDis 2014. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 822. Springer, Cham. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-08927-0_18\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nEshius SA, Leenders KL. Parkinson’s disease: Symptoms and age dependency. In: Hof PR, Mobbs CV, editors. Functional Neurobiology of Aging. San Diego: Academic Press; 2001. pp. 675-688\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nKouli A, Torsney KM, Kuan W-L. Parkinson’s disease: Etimology, neuropathology, and pathogenesis. In: Stoker TB, Greenland JC, editors. Parkinson’s Disease: Pathology and Clinical Aspects. Brisbane (AU): Codon Publications; 2018. Available from: https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK 536722/ DOI: 10.15586/codonpublications.parkinsonsdisease.2018.chl\n\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nLee HM, Koh SB. Many faces of Parkinson’s disease: Non-motor symptoms of Parkinson\'s disease. Journal of Movement Disorders. 2015;8(2):92-97. DOI: 10.14802/jmd.15003\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nSveinbjornsdottir S. The clinical symptoms of Parkinson\'s disease. Journal of Neurochemistry. 2016;139(Suppl 1):318-324. DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13691\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nKouli Greenland JC, Barker RA. The differential diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease. In: Stoker TB, Greenland JC, editors. The Differential Diagnosis of Parkinson’s Desease. Brisbane (AU): Codon Publications; 2018. Available from: https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK 536722/ DOI: 10.15586/codonpublications.parkinsonsdisease.2018.chl\n\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nJankovic J. Parkison’s disease: Clinical features and diagnosis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 2008;79:368-376. DOI: 10.1136/jnnp.2007.131045\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nPostuma RB, Berg D, Stern M, et al. MDS clinical diagnostic criteria for Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders. 2015;30(12):1591-1601. DOI: 10.1002/mds.26424\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nDel Rey NL, Quiroga-Varela A, Garbayo E, et al. Advances in Parkinson’s disease: 200 years later. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 2018;12:113. DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2018.00113\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nEuropean Parkinson’s disease Association. Rating Scales. 2019. Available from: https://www.epda.eu.com/about-parkinsons/symptoms/rating-scales/ [Accessed: June 30, 2019]\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nInternational Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society. 2019. Available from: https://www.parkinsons.org.uk/professionals/resources/unified-parkinsons-disease-rating-scale-updrs [Accessed: June 30, 2019]\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nBraak H, Del Tredici K, Rüb U, et al. Staging of brain pathology related to sporadic Parkinson’s disease. Neurobiology of Aging. 2003;24(2):197-211. DOI: 10.1016/s0197-4580(02)00065-9\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nCuenca L, Gil-Martinez AL, Cano-Fernandez L, et al. Parkinson’s disease: A short story of 200 years. Histology and Histopathology. 2019;34(6):573-591. DOI: 10.14670/HH-18-073\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nDong J, Cui Y, Li S, Le W. Current pharmaceutical treatments and alternative therapies of Parkinson’s disease. Current Neuropharmacology. 2016;14(4):339-355. DOI: 10.2174/1570159X14666151120123025\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nZahoor I, Shafi A, Haq E. Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson’s disease. In: Stoker TB, Greenland JC, editors. Parkinson’s Disease: Pathogenesis and Clinical Aspects. Brisbane (AU): Codon Publications; 2018. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536726/ DOI:\n10.15586/codonpublications.parkinsonsdisease.2018.ch7\n\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nRadhakrishnan DM, Goyal V. Parkinson’s disease: A review. Neurology India. 2018;66:26-35. DOI: 10.4103/0028-3886.226451\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nDallapiazza RF, De Vloo P, Fomenko A, et al. Considerations for patient and target selection in deep brain stimulation surgery for Parkinson’s disease. In: Stoker TB, Greenland JC, editors. Parkinson’s Disease: Pathogenesis and Clinical Aspects. Brisbane (AU): Codon Publications; 2018. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536714/ DOI:\n10.15586/codonpublications.parkinsonsdisease.2018.ch8\n\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nShamir R, Noecker A, McIntyre C. Deep brain stimulation. Front Young Minds. 2014;2:12. DOI: 10.3389/frym.2014.00012. Available from: http://kids.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/frym.2014.00012 [Accessed: July 02, 2019]\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nEmamzadeh FN, Surguchov A. Parkinson’s disease: Biomarkers, treatment, and risk factors. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2018;12:612. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00612\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nde Dreu MJ, van der Wilk AS, Poppe E, et al. Rehabilitation, exercise therapy and music in patients with Parkinson’s disease: A meta-analysis of the effects of music-based movement therapy on walking ability, balance and quality of life. Parkinsonism and Related Disorders. 2012;18(Suppl 1):S114-S119. DOI: 10.1016/S1353-8020(11)70036-0\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nGoodwin VA, Richards SH, Taylor RS, et al. The effectiveness of exercise interventions for people with Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Movement Disorders. 2008;23(5):631-640. DOI: 10.1002/mds.21922\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nHirsch MA, van Wegen EEH, Newman MA, et al. Exercise-induced increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor in human Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Translational Neurodegeneration. 2018;7(7). DOI: 10.1186/s40035-018-0112-1\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nUmphred DA. Reabilitação Neurológica. 5th ed. Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier; 2009. ISBN: 9788535231250\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nBarbalho M, Monteiro EP, Costa RR, et al. Effects of low-volume resistance training on muscle strength and functionality of people with Parkinson’s disease. International Journal of Exercise Science. 2019;12(3):567-580\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nChung CLH, Thilarajah S, Tan D. Effectiveness of resistence training on muscle strength and physical function in people with Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2016;30(1):11-23. DOI: 10.1177/0269215515570381\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nSaltychev M, Bärlund E, Paltamaa J, et al. Progressive resistence training in Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2016;6:e008756. 1-9. DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008756\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nRamazzina I, Bernazzoli B, Costantino C. Systematic review on strength training in Parkinson’s disease: An unsolved question. Clinical Interventions in Aging. 2017;12:619-628. DOI: 10.2147/CIA.S131903\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nUygur M, Bellumori M, Knight CA. Effects of a low-resistance, interval bicycling intervention in Parkinson’s disease. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice. 2017;33(12):897-904. DOI: 10.1080/09593985.2017.1359868\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nda Silva FC, Iop RDR, de Oliveira LC, et al. Effects of physical exercise programs on cognitive function in Parkinson’s disease patients: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials of the last 10 years. PLoS One. 2018;13(2):e0193113. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193113\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nFerreira RM, Alves WMGC, Lima TA, et al. The effect of resistance training on the anxiety symptoms and quality of life in elderly people with Parkinson’s disease: A randomized controlled trial. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria. 2018;76(8):499-506. DOI: 10.1590/0004-282x20180071\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nXu FL, Hao MZ, Xu SQ, et al. Development of a closed-loop system for tremor suppression in patients with Parkinson’s disease. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society; Aug 2016. pp. 1782-1785. DOI: 10.1109/EMBC.2016.7591063\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nGray H. Gray’s Anatomy. 20th ed. Collectible Classics; 2010. ISBN: 9781435114937. Figure available from: https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervo_cut%C3%A2neo_medial_do_bra%C3%A7o [Accessed: June 30, 2019]\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nJitkritsadakul O, Thanawattano C, Anan C, et al. Tremor’s glove-an innovate electrical muscle stimulation therapy for intractable in Parkinson’s disease: A randomized sham-controlled trial. Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 2017;381:331-340. DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2017.08.3246\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nReynolds GO, Otto MW, Ellis TD, Cronin-Golomb A. The therapeutic potential of exercise to improve mood, cognition, and sleep in Parkinson’s disease. Movement Disorders. 2016;31(1):23-38. DOI: 10.1002/mds.26484\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nDuchesne C, Gheysen F, Bore A, et al. Influence of aerobic exercise training on the neural correlates of motor learning in Parkinson\'s disease individuals. Neuroimage: Clinical. 2016;12:559-569. DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2016.09.011\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nFranzoni LT, Monteiro EP, Oliveira HB, et al. A 9-week Nordic and free walking improve postural balance in Parkinson’s disease. Sports Medicine International Open. 2018;2(2):E28-E34. DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-124757\n'},{id:"B56",body:'\nMarusiak J, Fisher BE, Jaskólska A, et al. Eight weeks of aerobic interval training improves psychomotor function in patients with Parkinson’s disease-randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019;16(5):880. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16050880\n'},{id:"B57",body:'\nNi M, Hazzard JB, Signorile JF, et al. Exercise guidelines for gait function in Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2018;32(10):872-886. DOI: 10.1177/1545968318801558\n'},{id:"B58",body:'\nDos Santos DM, Komeroski IG, Monteiro EEP, et al. Effects of dance practice on funtional mobility, motor symptoms and quality of life in people with Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. 2018;30(7):727-735. DOI: 10.1007/s40520-017-0836-2\n'},{id:"B59",body:'\nPereira APS, Marinho V, Gupta D, et al. Music therapy and dance as gait rehabilitation in patients with Parkinson’s disease: A review of evidence. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology. 2019;32(1):49-56. DOI: 10.1177/0891988718819858\n'},{id:"B60",body:'\nLiu H-H, Yeh N-C, Wu Y-F, et al. Effects of Tai Chi exercise on reducing falls and improving balance performance in Parkinson’s disease: A meta-analysis. Parkinson’s Disease. 2019;2019:9626934, 8 p. DOI: doi.org/10.1155/2019/9626934\n'},{id:"B61",body:'\nWinser SJ, Tsang WW, Krishnamurthy K, et al. Does Tai Chi improve balance and reduce falls incidence in neurological disorders? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2018;32(9):1157-1168. DOI: 10.1177/0269215518773442\n'},{id:"B62",body:'\nYang Y, Qiu WQ, Hao YL, Lv ZY, Jiao SJ, Teng JF. The efficacy of traditional Chinese medical exercise for Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(4):e0122469. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122469\n'},{id:"B63",body:'\nVitório R, Teixeira-Arroyo C, Lirani-Silva E, et al. Effects of 6-month, multimodal exercise program on clinical and gait parameters of patients with idiopathic Parkinson’s disease: A pilot study. ISRN Neurology. 2011;2011:714947. DOI: 10.5402/2011/714947\n'},{id:"B64",body:'\nOrcioli-Silva D, Barbieri FA, Simieli L, et al. Effects of a multimodal exercise program on the functional capacity of Parkinson’s disease patients considering disease severity and gender. Motriz. 2014;20(1):100-106. DOI: doi.org/10.1590/S1980-65742014000100015\n'},{id:"B65",body:'\nJiang F, Yang T, Yin H, et al. Evidence for the use of acupuncture in treating Parkinson’s disease: Update of information from the past 5 years, a mini review of the literature. Frontiers in Neurology. 2018;9:596. DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00596\n'},{id:"B66",body:'\nLee SH, Lim S. Clinical effectiveness of acupuncture on Parkinson disease: A PRISMA-compliant systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(3):e5836. DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000005836\n'},{id:"B67",body:'\nLin JG, Chen CJ, Yang HB, Chen YH, Hung SY. Electroacupuncture promotes recovery of motor function and reduces dopaminergic neuron degeneration in rodent models of Parkinson’s disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2017;18(9):1846. DOI: 10.3390/ijms18091846\n'},{id:"B68",body:'\nYeo S, van den Noort M, Bosch P, Lim S. A study of the effects of 8-week acupuncture treatment on patients with Parkinson’s disease. Medicine (Baltimore). 2018;97(50):e13434. DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000013434\n'},{id:"B69",body:'\nLi Z, Chen J, Cheng J, et al. Acupuncture modulates the Cerebello-Thalamo-cortical circuit and cognitive brain regions in patients of Parkinson’s disease with tremor. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience. 2018;10:206. DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00206\n'},{id:"B70",body:'\nAlves Da Rocha P, Mcclelland J, Morris ME. Complementary physical therapies for movement disorders in Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review. European Journal of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine. 2015;51(6):693-704\n'},{id:"B71",body:'\nPinto C, Salazar AP, Marchese RR, et al. The effects of hydrotherapy on balance, functional mobility, motor status, and quality of life in patients with Parkinson disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PM&R: The Journal of Injury, Function, and Rehabilitation. 2019;11(3):278-291. DOI: 10.1016/j.pmrj.2018.09.031\n'},{id:"B72",body:'\nDockx K, Bekkers EM, Van den Bergh V, et al. Virtual reality for rehabilitation in Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016;12(12):CD010760. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010760.pub2\n'},{id:"B73",body:'\nFeng H, Li C, Liu J, et al. Virtual reality rehabilitation versus conventional physical therapy for improving balance and gait in Parkinson’s disease patients: A randomized controlled trial. Medical Science Monitor. 2019;25:4186-4192. DOI: 10.12659/MSM.916455\n'},{id:"B74",body:'\nGandolfi M, Geroin C, Dimitrova E, et al. Virtual reality telerehabilitation for postural instability in Parkinson’s disease: A multicenter, single-blind, randomized, controlled trial. BioMed Research International. 2017;2017:7962826. DOI: 10.1155/2017/7962826\n'},{id:"B75",body:'\nSeveriano MIR, Zeigelboim BS, Teive HAG, et al. Effect of virtual reality in Parkinson\'s disease: A prospective observational study. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria. 2018;76(2):78-84\n'},{id:"B76",body:'\nGómez-Jordana LI, Stafford J, Peper CLE, Craig CM. Virtual footprints can improve walking performance in people with Parkinson’s disease. Frontiers in Neurology. 2018;9:681. DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00681\n'},{id:"B77",body:'\nHarris DM, Rantalainen T, Muthalib M, et al. Concurrent exergaming and transcranial direct current stimulation to improve balance in people with Parkinson’s disease: Study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials. 2018;19(1):387. DOI: 10.1186/s13063-018-2773-6\n'},{id:"B78",body:'\nPereira DDC, Siqueira SA, Alvisi TA, Vasconcelos LAP. Group physical therapy program for patients with Parkinson’s disease: Alternative rehabilitation. Fisioterapia em Movimento. 2009;22(2):229-237\n'},{id:"B79",body:'\nAbraham A, Hart A, Andrade I, et al. Dynamic neuro-cognitive imagery improves mental imagery ability, disease severity, and motor and cognitive functions in people with Parkinson’s disease. Neural Plasticity. 2018;2018:6168507. DOI: 10.1155/2018/6168507\n'},{id:"B80",body:'\nSuzuki T, Bunno Y, Onigata C, et al. Excitability of spinal neural function during motor imagery in Parkinson’s disease. Functional Neurology. 2014;29(4):263-267\n'},{id:"B81",body:'\nKobelt M, Wirth B, Schuster-Amft C. Muscle activation during grasping with and without motor imagery in healthy volunteers and patients after stroke or with Parkinson’s disease. Frontiers in Psychology. 2018;9:597. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00597\n'},{id:"B82",body:'\nRodríguez S, Vázquez C, Casas M, et al. Neurorehabilitation and apps: A systematic review of mobile applications. Neurología. 2018;33(5):313-326. DOI: 10.1016/j.nrl.2015.10.005\n'},{id:"B83",body:'\nParkinson’s UK. Apps and Devices for Parkinson’s. Available from: https://www.parkinsons.org.uk/information-and-support/apps-and-devices-parkinsons [Accessed: July 12, 2019]\n'},{id:"B84",body:'\nParkinson’s Life. 8 Smart Parkinson’s Apps You Need to Try. Available from: https://parkinsonslife.eu/top-apps-for-the-parkinsons-community/ [Accessed: July 12, 2019]\n'},{id:"B85",body:'\nParkinson Home Exercise. Available from: https://apps.apple.com/us/app/parkinson-home-exercises/id473641730 [Accessed: July 12, 2019]\n'},{id:"B86",body:'\nParkinsounds. Available from: http://www.parkinsounds.com.br/ [Accessed: July 12, 2019]\n'},{id:"B87",body:'\nDincher A, Schwarz M, Wydra G. Analysis of the effects of whole-body vibration in Parkinson disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis. PM&R. 2019;11(6):640-653. DOI: 10.1002/pmrj.12094\n'},{id:"B88",body:'\nSharififar S, Coronado RA, Romero S, et al. The effect of whole body vibration on mobility and balance in Parkinson disease: A systematic review. Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences. 2014;39(4):318-326\n'},{id:"B89",body:'\nCorbianco S, Cavallini G, Baldereschi G, et al. Whole body vibration and treadmill training in Parkinson’s disease rehabilitation effects on energy cost and recovery phases. Neurological Sciences. 2018;39(12):2159-2168. DOI: 10.1007/s10072-018-3566-0\n'},{id:"B90",body:'\nMadou KH, Cronin JB. The effects of whole body vibration on physical and physiological capability in special populations. Hong Kong Physiotherapy Journal. 2008;26:24-38\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",address:"lucivasc@pucpcaldas.br",affiliation:'
Physical Therapy Department - PUC Minas Campus, Poços de Caldas, Brazil
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7543",type:"book",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",publishedDate:"April 1st 2020",bookSignature:"Mario Bernardo-Filho, Danúbiada Cunha de Sá-Caputo and Redha Taiar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7543.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-076-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-075-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-145-8",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"157376",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardo-Filho",slug:"mario-bernardo-filho",fullName:"Mario Bernardo-Filho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"279667",title:null,name:"Danúbia Da Cunha",middleName:null,surname:"De Sá-Caputo",slug:"danubia-da-cunha-de-sa-caputo",fullName:"Danúbia Da Cunha De Sá-Caputo"},coeditorTwo:{id:"81693",title:"Prof.",name:"Redha",middleName:null,surname:"Taiar",slug:"redha-taiar",fullName:"Redha Taiar"},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"198"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"68646",type:"chapter",title:"Pelvic Floor Physical Therapy and Women’s Health",slug:"pelvic-floor-physical-therapy-and-women-s-health",totalDownloads:849,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Dani Zoorob and Sara Anderson",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"302542",title:"M.D.",name:"Dani",middleName:null,surname:"Zoorob",fullName:"Dani Zoorob",slug:"dani-zoorob"},{id:"302543",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",fullName:"Sara Anderson",slug:"sara-anderson"}]},{id:"70019",type:"chapter",title:"Efficacy of Physical Therapy in the Management of Reproductive Disorders",slug:"efficacy-of-physical-therapy-in-the-management-of-reproductive-disorders",totalDownloads:725,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Joseph A. Balogun",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"302991",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Balogun",fullName:"Joseph Balogun",slug:"joseph-balogun"}]},{id:"69480",type:"chapter",title:"Whole-Body Vibration Exercise as an Intervention to Improve Musculoskeletal Performance",slug:"whole-body-vibration-exercise-as-an-intervention-to-improve-musculoskeletal-performance",totalDownloads:1036,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Danúbia da Cunha de Sá-Caputo, Redha Taiar and Mario Bernardo-Filho",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"157376",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardo-Filho",fullName:"Mario Bernardo-Filho",slug:"mario-bernardo-filho"},{id:"279667",title:null,name:"Danúbia Da Cunha",middleName:null,surname:"De Sá-Caputo",fullName:"Danúbia Da Cunha De Sá-Caputo",slug:"danubia-da-cunha-de-sa-caputo"},{id:"81693",title:"Prof.",name:"Redha",middleName:null,surname:"Taiar",fullName:"Redha Taiar",slug:"redha-taiar"}]},{id:"69611",type:"chapter",title:"What to Expect: Medical Quality Outcomes and Achievements of a Multidisciplinary Inpatient Musculoskeletal System Rehabilitation",slug:"what-to-expect-medical-quality-outcomes-and-achievements-of-a-multidisciplinary-inpatient-musculoske",totalDownloads:754,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Vincent Grote, Alexandra Unger, Henry Puff and Elke Böttcher",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"308501",title:"M.D.",name:"Henry",middleName:null,surname:"Puff",fullName:"Henry Puff",slug:"henry-puff"},{id:"308502",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Grote",fullName:"Vincent Grote",slug:"vincent-grote"},{id:"309934",title:"Dr.",name:"Elke",middleName:null,surname:"Böttcher",fullName:"Elke Böttcher",slug:"elke-bottcher"},{id:"310535",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Unger",fullName:"Alexandra Unger",slug:"alexandra-unger"}]},{id:"70260",type:"chapter",title:"Effectiveness of Motor Imagery on Physical Therapy: Neurophysiological Aspects of Motor Imagery",slug:"effectiveness-of-motor-imagery-on-physical-therapy-neurophysiological-aspects-of-motor-imagery",totalDownloads:713,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Yoshibumi Bunno",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"196577",title:"Mr.",name:"Yoshibumi",middleName:null,surname:"Bunno",fullName:"Yoshibumi Bunno",slug:"yoshibumi-bunno"}]},{id:"70122",type:"chapter",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:2031,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos"}]},{id:"70906",type:"chapter",title:"Application of a Single-Case Research Design to Present the Effectiveness of Rehabilitation in the Clinic",slug:"application-of-a-single-case-research-design-to-present-the-effectiveness-of-rehabilitation-in-the-c",totalDownloads:753,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub, Yothin Pothasak, Jynwara Kaju and Rungtiwa Kanthain",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub"},{id:"312564",title:"Mr.",name:"Yothin",middleName:null,surname:"Pothasak",fullName:"Yothin Pothasak",slug:"yothin-pothasak"},{id:"312565",title:"Ms.",name:"Jynwara",middleName:null,surname:"Kaju",fullName:"Jynwara Kaju",slug:"jynwara-kaju"},{id:"312566",title:"Ms.",name:"Rungtiwa",middleName:null,surname:"Kanthain",fullName:"Rungtiwa Kanthain",slug:"rungtiwa-kanthain"}]},{id:"70740",type:"chapter",title:"Targeting Limb Muscle Dysfunction in COPD",slug:"targeting-limb-muscle-dysfunction-in-copd",totalDownloads:729,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Andre Nyberg and Erik Frykholm",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"311547",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Nyberg",fullName:"Andre Nyberg",slug:"andre-nyberg"},{id:"316447",title:"MSc.",name:"Erik",middleName:null,surname:"Frykholm",fullName:"Erik Frykholm",slug:"erik-frykholm"}]},{id:"69967",type:"chapter",title:"Early Mobilization on Patients with Mechanical Ventilation in the ICU",slug:"early-mobilization-on-patients-with-mechanical-ventilation-in-the-icu",totalDownloads:1262,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Tsung-Hsien Wang",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"299551",title:"Dr.",name:"Tsung-Hsien",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Tsung-Hsien Wang",slug:"tsung-hsien-wang"}]},{id:"69387",type:"chapter",title:"Increased Physical Activity in a Public Health Perspective",slug:"increased-physical-activity-in-a-public-health-perspective",totalDownloads:761,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hilde D.G. Nielsen",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde Dorthea Grindvik",middleName:"Dorthea Grindvik",surname:"Nielsen",fullName:"Hilde Dorthea Grindvik Nielsen",slug:"hilde-dorthea-grindvik-nielsen"}]},{id:"69534",type:"chapter",title:"Extracorporeal Shock Wave Therapy in Chronic Wound Care",slug:"extracorporeal-shock-wave-therapy-in-chronic-wound-care",totalDownloads:1009,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Simona Maria Carmignano",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"206445",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Carmignano",fullName:"Simona Maria Carmignano",slug:"simona-maria-carmignano"}]},{id:"70507",type:"chapter",title:"Affect and Exercise",slug:"affect-and-exercise",totalDownloads:860,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Sandro dos Santos Ferreira",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"304886",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandro",middleName:"Dos Santos",surname:"Ferreira",fullName:"Sandro Ferreira",slug:"sandro-ferreira"}]},{id:"71148",type:"chapter",title:"A Conceptual Framework for the Inclusion of Recreational Therapy within South African Healthcare Paradigms",slug:"a-conceptual-framework-for-the-inclusion-of-recreational-therapy-within-south-african-healthcare-par",totalDownloads:621,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Terry Jeremy Ellapen, Mariette Swanepoel, Marco Barnard and Yvonne Paul",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"226652",title:"Dr.",name:"Terry J.",middleName:null,surname:"Ellapen",fullName:"Terry J. Ellapen",slug:"terry-j.-ellapen"},{id:"233593",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariette",middleName:null,surname:"Swanepoel",fullName:"Mariette Swanepoel",slug:"mariette-swanepoel"},{id:"233596",title:"Prof.",name:"Yvonne",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",fullName:"Yvonne Paul",slug:"yvonne-paul"},{id:"316231",title:"Mr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Barnard",fullName:"Marco Barnard",slug:"marco-barnard"}]},{id:"70681",type:"chapter",title:"Manual Therapy: Art or Science?",slug:"manual-therapy-art-or-science-",totalDownloads:1289,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Paolo Bizzarri and Andrea Foglia",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"165313",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Foglia",fullName:"Andrea Foglia",slug:"andrea-foglia"},{id:"312311",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Bizzarri",fullName:"Paolo Bizzarri",slug:"paolo-bizzarri"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10347",title:"Therapy Approaches in Neurological Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e96ef6db6b4fdec8fd0ae4ce640c3d8",slug:"therapy-approaches-in-neurological-disorders",bookSignature:"Mario Bernardo-Filho, Redha Taiar, Danúbia da Cunha de Sá-Caputo and Adérito Seixas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"157376",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",surname:"Bernardo-Filho",slug:"mario-bernardo-filho",fullName:"Mario Bernardo-Filho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"76045",title:"Introductory Chapter: Neurological Disorders - Therapy Approaches",slug:"introductory-chapter-neurological-disorders-therapy-approaches",signatures:"Danúbia da Cunha de Sá-Caputo, Mario Bernardo-Filho, Adérito Seixas and Redha Taiar",authors:[{id:"157376",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardo-Filho",fullName:"Mario Bernardo-Filho",slug:"mario-bernardo-filho"},{id:"81693",title:"Prof.",name:"Redha",middleName:null,surname:"Taiar",fullName:"Redha Taiar",slug:"redha-taiar"},{id:"279667",title:null,name:"Danúbia Da Cunha",middleName:null,surname:"De Sá-Caputo",fullName:"Danúbia Da Cunha De Sá-Caputo",slug:"danubia-da-cunha-de-sa-caputo"},{id:"319701",title:"Dr.",name:"Adérito",middleName:null,surname:"Seixas",fullName:"Adérito Seixas",slug:"aderito-seixas"}]},{id:"76520",title:"Whole-Body Vibration Approaches in Neurological Disorders",slug:"whole-body-vibration-approaches-in-neurological-disorders",signatures:"Mario Bernardo-Filho, Danúbia da Cunha de Sá-Caputo, Adérito Seixas and Redha Taiar",authors:[{id:"157376",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Bernardo-Filho",fullName:"Mario Bernardo-Filho",slug:"mario-bernardo-filho"},{id:"81693",title:"Prof.",name:"Redha",middleName:null,surname:"Taiar",fullName:"Redha Taiar",slug:"redha-taiar"},{id:"279667",title:null,name:"Danúbia Da Cunha",middleName:null,surname:"De Sá-Caputo",fullName:"Danúbia Da Cunha De Sá-Caputo",slug:"danubia-da-cunha-de-sa-caputo"},{id:"319701",title:"Dr.",name:"Adérito",middleName:null,surname:"Seixas",fullName:"Adérito Seixas",slug:"aderito-seixas"}]},{id:"74610",title:"Impact of Biofeedback Interventions on Driving Performance in Individuals with Persistent Post-Concussive Symptoms",slug:"impact-of-biofeedback-interventions-on-driving-performance-in-individuals-with-persistent-post-concu",signatures:"Marquise M. Bonn, Liliana Alvarez, James W.G. Thompson and James P. Dickey",authors:[{id:"336500",title:"Prof.",name:"James P.",middleName:"Patrick",surname:"Dickey",fullName:"James P. Dickey",slug:"james-p.-dickey"},{id:"339331",title:"Prof.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez",fullName:"Liliana Alvarez",slug:"liliana-alvarez"},{id:"339333",title:"Dr.",name:"James W.G.",middleName:null,surname:"Thompson",fullName:"James W.G. Thompson",slug:"james-w.g.-thompson"},{id:"339334",title:"MSc.",name:"Marquise M.",middleName:null,surname:"Bonn",fullName:"Marquise M. Bonn",slug:"marquise-m.-bonn"}]},{id:"74970",title:"The Influence of Sagittal Plane Spine Alignment on Neurophysiology and Sensorimotor Control Measures: Optimization of Function through Structural Correction",slug:"the-influence-of-sagittal-plane-spine-alignment-on-neurophysiology-and-sensorimotor-control-measures",signatures:"Paul A. Oakley, Ibrahim M. Moustafa and Deed E. Harrison",authors:[{id:"308067",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul A.",middleName:null,surname:"Oakley",fullName:"Paul A. Oakley",slug:"paul-a.-oakley"},{id:"308068",title:"Dr.",name:"Deed E.",middleName:null,surname:"Harrison",fullName:"Deed E. Harrison",slug:"deed-e.-harrison"},{id:"311314",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim M.",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",fullName:"Ibrahim M. Moustafa",slug:"ibrahim-m.-moustafa"}]},{id:"77056",title:"Design of a Standing Device for Children with Spinal Dysraphysm",slug:"design-of-a-standing-device-for-children-with-spinal-dysraphysm",signatures:"Aydeé Robayo-Torres and Katherine Quiñones-Argote",authors:[{id:"252702",title:"Dr.",name:"Aydee",middleName:null,surname:"Robayo",fullName:"Aydee Robayo",slug:"aydee-robayo"},{id:"333615",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine",middleName:null,surname:"Quiñones",fullName:"Katherine Quiñones",slug:"katherine-quinones"}]},{id:"75142",title:"Dysphagia Associated with Neurological Disorders",slug:"dysphagia-associated-with-neurological-disorders",signatures:"Vadim I. Ershov",authors:[{id:"330420",title:"Prof.",name:"Vadim I.",middleName:null,surname:"Ershov",fullName:"Vadim I. Ershov",slug:"vadim-i.-ershov"}]},{id:"74116",title:"The Interprofessional Clinical and Therapeutic Team Strategy to Manage Spinal Cord Injuries",slug:"the-interprofessional-clinical-and-therapeutic-team-strategy-to-manage-spinal-cord-injuries",signatures:"Adele Jordaan, Mariette Swanepoel, Yvonne Paul and Terry Jeremy Ellapen",authors:[{id:"226652",title:"Dr.",name:"Terry J.",middleName:null,surname:"Ellapen",fullName:"Terry J. Ellapen",slug:"terry-j.-ellapen"},{id:"233596",title:"Prof.",name:"Yvonne",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",fullName:"Yvonne Paul",slug:"yvonne-paul"},{id:"331279",title:"Ms.",name:"Adele",middleName:null,surname:"Jordaan",fullName:"Adele Jordaan",slug:"adele-jordaan"},{id:"331280",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariëtte",middleName:null,surname:"Swanepoel",fullName:"Mariëtte Swanepoel",slug:"mariette-swanepoel"}]},{id:"76064",title:"Neurological Phytotherapy by Indigenous People of Rif, Morocco",slug:"neurological-phytotherapy-by-indigenous-people-of-rif-morocco",signatures:"Noureddine Chaachouay and Lahcen Zidane",authors:[{id:"323589",title:"Prof.",name:"Noureddine",middleName:null,surname:"Chaachouay",fullName:"Noureddine Chaachouay",slug:"noureddine-chaachouay"},{id:"351508",title:"Dr.",name:"Lahcen",middleName:null,surname:"Zidane",fullName:"Lahcen Zidane",slug:"lahcen-zidane"}]},{id:"76872",title:"Pharmacological Modulation of Toll-Like Receptors in Brain Disorders",slug:"pharmacological-modulation-of-toll-like-receptors-in-brain-disorders",signatures:"Tahani K. Alshammari, Nouf M. Alrasheed, Lina Alhushan, Reema Alhoutah, Anfal F. Bin Dayel, Asma S. Alonazi and Musaad A. Alshammari",authors:[{id:"344024",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahani K.",middleName:"K.",surname:"Alshammari",fullName:"Tahani K. Alshammari",slug:"tahani-k.-alshammari"},{id:"353856",title:"Prof.",name:"Nouf M.",middleName:null,surname:"Alrasheed",fullName:"Nouf M. Alrasheed",slug:"nouf-m.-alrasheed"},{id:"353857",title:"Ms.",name:"Lina",middleName:null,surname:"Alhushan",fullName:"Lina Alhushan",slug:"lina-alhushan"},{id:"353858",title:"Ms.",name:"Reema",middleName:null,surname:"Alhoutah",fullName:"Reema Alhoutah",slug:"reema-alhoutah"},{id:"353859",title:"Dr.",name:"Anfal F.",middleName:null,surname:"Bin Dayel",fullName:"Anfal F. Bin Dayel",slug:"anfal-f.-bin-dayel"},{id:"353860",title:"Dr.",name:"Asma S.",middleName:null,surname:"Alonazi",fullName:"Asma S. Alonazi",slug:"asma-s.-alonazi"},{id:"353869",title:"Dr.",name:"Musaad A.",middleName:null,surname:"Alshammari",fullName:"Musaad A. Alshammari",slug:"musaad-a.-alshammari"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7543",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"96855ef0bdc30d253f8fd74aa6cfd363",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",bookSignature:"Mario Bernardo-Filho, Danúbiada Cunha de Sá-Caputo and Redha Taiar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7543.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"157376",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",surname:"Bernardo-Filho",slug:"mario-bernardo-filho",fullName:"Mario Bernardo-Filho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"7543",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"96855ef0bdc30d253f8fd74aa6cfd363",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",bookSignature:"Mario Bernardo-Filho, Danúbiada Cunha de Sá-Caputo and Redha Taiar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7543.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"157376",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",surname:"Bernardo-Filho",slug:"mario-bernardo-filho",fullName:"Mario Bernardo-Filho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72772",title:"Green Transportation in Green Supply Chain Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93113",slug:"green-transportation-in-green-supply-chain-management",body:'
1. Introduction
Green supply chain management (GSCM) has acquired integrating importance for managing the organizational practices with environmental concerns. Some organization’s supply chain managers still need to understand that reducing the environmentally harmful attributes will not only be beneficial for the society but will also improve their logistic operations [1]. The most important reason behind adopting the greening strategy in supply chain management is to reduce the burden of polluted environment caused by the wastage of industries. Undoubtedly, logistic operations have greatly contributed in raising the level of air pollution which affects both the environment and also the economy.
GSCM has been defined differently by various researchers, for instance, Sarkis [2] defined GSCM as the process where all the organizational operations and innovations related to supply chain management are deliberated in accordance with the environment, whereas, for Dwivedi [1], GSCM includes the fundamental industrial activities such as material recycling, reusing, and substituting. Similarly, Shan and Wang [3] defined GSCM as a set of processes involving the activities of customer’s and manufacturer’s course of orders, product designs, procurement activities, distributions, and logistics while corresponding to the principles of eco-friendly environmental management [3]. Sharma et al. [4] explain the concept of GSCM as an integration of safe environment in designing products, sourcing and selection of material, production process, and final product delivery to the customers as well as disposal of wasted products.
According to Weeratunge and Herath [5], GSCM is the component which reflects the relationship of natural environment and supply chain operations. It further involves all the external or internal factors which influences the management operations of logistics and measures the performance of the supply chain process according to environmental aspects. Due to the extensive customer demands, organizations are shrinking to the core of Red Ocean and seek to establish new businesses or techniques to attract customers. In recent years, companies have shown an immense interest toward adapting the strategies of environmentally friendly methods by producing goods and services that meet the criteria of safe environment [5]. By shifting toward ecological systems, organizations can enhance the efficiency of production, achieving the competitive advantage and reducing the impact of harmful factors of the environment [4, 6].
2. The evolution of GSCM
According to Intravaia and Viana [7], environmental pollution issue has emanated exponentially since the 1960s. The reason behind this alarming situation was the absence of law specifically designed to manage environmental risks and damages, such as ISO 14000 which aims to manage and monitor the impact of environments. The concept of GSCM was contemplated in 1996 by the US Department of Manufacturing Research Consortium in the University of Michigan States. The main approach behind this concept was to regulate the environmental effects and resource allocation in the supply chain process [8]. The revolution of GSCM measures enhances the quality of services and makes the supply chain process cost efficient by implementing precautionary steps with respect to environmental safety [9].
In 2007, Turk institutions of economics and World Bank proposed the index containing the performance of logistic operations which evaluated the level of performance and development of different countries. This performance index was complied with various components such as customer’s efficiency and management control, quality of transportation and infrastructure, logistic services, time frequency for shipment and delivery, tracing and tracking facility of the consignment, and ability to manage cost-efficient shipments [10].
The early concept to adopt the GSCM is to provide humans with the standard lifestyle by reducing the health risking hazards resulting in increased consumer trust [5]. According to Gandhi and Vasudevan [11], green management is considered as one of the significant practices to save the energy consumed during the supply chain processes. The revolution of GSCM resulted in spreading awareness about the environmental security, following which several industries are now implementing the waste-free and emission-free concept of energy. This implementation will help them to ensure the management of green environment for their customers who pay high concern toward global warming and climatic changes. Onurlubas [12] asserted that the evolution of green management has optimized organizations to pay more attention toward adopting the green practices to enhance the efficiency of environment. The reason behind this excessive concern is that consumers have begun to question their practices with respect to their impact on climatic and environmental changes, thus, socially responsible and conscious organizations are revolutionizing their manufacturing processes by introducing and implementing green production strategies [3].
3. Principles of GSCM and green transportation
GSCM practices help in the reduction of elements which negatively impact the supply chain process. These practices bring along various financial or social benefits as well as environmental advantages [13]. Consumers have shown high interest toward the products of companies who work on ecologically friendly production and marketing activities.
Along with the integration of GSCM, organizations are highly focused on synthesizing the green transportation in their logistic operations. Transportation is currently the most prominent cause of increased global warming, health haphazard, and emission of gases. These problems have pressurized government to devise their policies for environmental safety in order to reduce the damage caused by the emission of greenhouse gases [14]. The broader concept behind the implementation of the green practices in supply chain management is to eliminate excessive use of material and production of carbon dioxide (CO2) gas and abolish the use of recycled goods [6]. GSCM practices have also included many diverse dimensions such as the corporate engagements with the customers and suppliers which are helpful in integrating the green practices, green transportation, and reverse logistics [15].
Successful GSM practices are based on some important principles that revolve around useful practices resulting in high quality assurance and cost-effectiveness. These practices include as follows.
3.1 Green transportation
Globally, the demand for green transportation has been increasing rapidly. The purpose for initiating green transportation is the high emission of CO2 gas since the 1990s, which is consequently risking the environment through freight transportation. It has increased with the percentage of 71% in 2016 and is anticipated to increase 50% more till the year 2050 [16].
Green logistics and green transportation have been the striking topics in today’s manufacturing market. However, the acquisition of preventive measures among various countries included different strategies [10]. For example, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and Ireland have been working on the reduction of fuel and oil consumption to reduce environmental pollution [10]. The practices of green transportation and logistical reverse activities are the opportunities for organizations to boost their growth and reduce overall production costs. The efficiency of logistics can be further achieved by promoting the efficiency of transportation system, i.e., through green transportation [17].
3.2 Green procurement and logistics
Green procurement refers to the purchasing of products and services that are less harmful for the environment. The selection of the procurement is based on the quest of quality products and services that supports positive environmental and health concerns in competitive prices. In the early years of 2000, regulatory authorities amended their procurement standards by taking in environmental concerns into account while purchasing goods and services. Most of the bureaux or departments were advised to refrain from using disposable items that are not eco-friendly and were motivated to purchase products that are developed through highly recycled content and maximum durability. Green procurement further includes products that are comparatively low in emitting toxic and poisonous substances [18]. It is a crucial step for any organizations to ensure that the purchasing of all their raw materials should be in accordance with the environmental objectives. The management of procurement and green purchasing are assigned to audit and inspect whether their supply chain department is implementing green practices in purchasing the raw materials and other purchase-related activities [15]. Generally, activities of green purchasing are complied with approaches including purchasing the goods or services that are environmentally friendly, evaluating products with internal and external auditors prior to their purchasing, or assisting the suppliers to enhance their functions in compliance with ecological goods and services [19].
Logistics on the other hand is considered as the most crucial factor in supply chain processes since it has acquired the most significant dimension for environmental impact. In logistics, the concept of green is applied to various elements such as raw material acquisition and transportation facility of outbound and inbound logistics [13]. The objective of green logistic is to eliminate the environmental effects in the logistical operations in order to achieve sustainable environmental, cultural, economic, and social advantages [10]. According to Franchetti et al. [19], there has been much debate on operations of green logistics, but industries of transportation have narrowed its definition. Its definition is compiled as the activities which involve the reduction of transportation cost and efficient utilization of assets, vehicles, distribution, and terminal centers.
3.3 Green warehouse
A number of green warehousing facilities are increasing promptly and shifting their operations to green practices which has also increased the cost and time allocation of the firms. The practices of managing the warehouses and inventories are the most crucial element of the logistic operations. This is simply defined as keeping the adequate amount of stock on the shelves and in the inventory, to prevent the wastage of material resulting in reduced transportation expenses and negative environmental impacts. The good inventory planning is referred to as reducing the wastage and efficiencies and decreasing the costs of tangible and intangible goods [13].
Many companies have realized the benefits of green warehousing and are keen to implement them in their supply chain process. Certain manufacturing industries have allocated these practices to minimize carbon consumption, environmental pollutions, and production cost, as well as to achieve the target of socially responsible organization [20].
3.4 Green design
Ecological or green designs are the set of activities which include the use of goods that are according to environmental discipline. An ecological design aims to establish a secure and clean factory with respect to reduced cost of disposal, health safety and minimum environmental risk factors [13], leading toward enhanced quality of services and products, cost-efficient production and while promoting a strong public image of brand and company. According to Ren et al. [21] by implementing eco-friendly practices, green design supply chain management can control about 80% of environmental impact, as Rostamzadeh et al. [20] asserted that it is associated with the overall flow of supply chain process.
3.5 Green manufacturing
Ecological production or green manufacturing is defined as the efficient production system which causes little to no pollution or wastage. The efficiency of any production facility could be measured by its ability to manufacture goods with minimal defection, scrap, or reworking on the material and its ability to manage the production of goods [13]. The ecological production in the supply chain process helps to diminish the negative effects of production and brings in the environmental sustainability throughout the production life cycle. It can also improve the manufacturing operations and financial performances of the organization [17]. Integrating the green manufacturing practices will also be beneficial in reducing the cost of raw material and transportation, by the expansion of environmental safety leading toward profitable growth and large market share.
3.6 Green marketing
Other names of ecological marketing are green marketing, social marketing, environmental marketing, or sustainable marketing. The term green marketing in the context of GSCM is defined as the activities that are designed to satisfy the needs of consumers in accordance with causing minimum risk to the environment [12]. This also encourages organizations to survive in competing international or national markets [20].
There are various green marketing practices that help to ensure that natural resources and raw materials are utilized to achieve the sustainability of environment. These practices include green designing of products, green product promotional campaigns, pricing according to green practices, targeting the green markets, and green positioning of the products [22].
3.7 Total quality environmental management
The concept of total quality management is based on achieving, maintaining, and ensuring the quality of the output. It is highly focused on continuous improvement of the business-related operations and prevents the chances of failure at each step of the production in order to successfully meet the needs and demands of consumers [23].
For the quality improvement processes, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was established in 1987 to ensure the contribution of organizations in environmental safety according to defined standards by the ISO. These standards included useful guidelines for the organizations to ensure the quality of their products and services according to its standards [24]. There are various in-house supply chain practices that are considered as an important discipline in GSCM. Among many internal practices, total quality management is notorious for managing the environmental security. These practices require upper management guidance as it is associated with the overall life cycle management [8]. The management of organizational total quality environment has broadened the GSCM concept to various operations including green designing of products as well as infrastructure, green procurements, ecological transportations (vehicles), eco-friendly logistics, and reverse logistics as well as recycling [15]. Diagrammatic Representations of the Working of Green Transportation in the Structure of Green Supply Chain Management (Figure 1). Figure 2 provides a brief overview of the cycle of green supply chain process and its relation with green transportation.
Figure 1.
The Cycle of Green Supply Chain and Its Relation with Green Transportation.
Figure 2.
The Functional Process of Green Transportation in GSCM.
4. Transportation types in supply chain management
The transportation in supply chain management was first developed through a railway transport in the nineteenth century. However, 1903 airway transports were introduced leading to the development of ocean/maritime transport in 1956, where cargo was delivered through containers via sea which gave a dramatic boom to water transportation.
Presently the concepts of supply chain management and transportation are broadly discussed and are referred to as operations that ensure the availability of goods and services when and where needed in adequate quantity [25]. In the international business world, transportation is the most dominating element in supply chain management as it influences the growth of business. Due to the intense demand of goods and services, delivering products to the end users or consumers has become the most crucial achievement for businesses.
It has been significantly noticed that, within the supply chain process, transportation plays the vital role in proving the efficiency and smooth flow of the operations. There are various services of transportation management delivering the goods to the places where it is needed in demanded quantity. These services include air freight, road freight, railway freight, sea freight, pipeline freight, and services to and from warehouses [26, 27]. The real challenges that businesses face in transportation are feasibility and availability of viable roads to deliver goods. The most important operation in this challenge for the manufacturing industries is to optimize and modify their inventory and supply of the material in accordance to deliver the final product with the just-in-time system. This system helps to reduce the overall cost of facilities in maintaining materials required for production. Thus, today’s supply chain process has become defying in meeting the long-distance consignments and ensuring the availability of supplies on time [28].
4.1 Modes of transportation
To reduce the cost of transportation and environmental risks, the quality of supply chain processes is enhanced through transportation modes such as intermodal and multimodal transportation. The intermodal transportation involves multiple modes to transport goods such as trucks, water, etc. Many organizations have shown a keen interest toward adopting the intermodal transportation in which products are transported through different medium of transportation. This mode of transportation in supply chain management has combined as one to provide the benefits such as efficiency in rail transport and flexibility in road freighting. The objectives of intermodal transportation are to reduce the emission of carbon and overall transport cost and to modify road congestion [29]. The intermodal transportation has minimized 57% of carbon emission as compared to other modes of transportation [30].
Multimodal transportation is quite similar to intermodal transport as it connects various transportation modes in a single process which ensures the cost efficiency in door-to-door goods movement under a single service provider [31]. The only difference in both modes is the number of units loaded for shipping [32]. There are further types of intermodal and multimodal transportations, which include as follows.
4.1.1 Air freight
Air transport is certainly the most expensive but the speediest freighting service among all other transportation types. It reduces the time of goods delivered to the doorsteps and is often preferred to transport the most valuable goods to the market. Bag mails, packages weighing 30 kg, and any document that could be carried through individual person are categorized as the smallest way of transportation. Globally air cargo is gaining an increasing role in international supply chain and logistics [31]. Due to the high cost of air cargo, most organizations use this mode as supplementary transportation service for the shipment of critical and urgently needed goods.
4.1.2 Road freight
Road transportation is relatively the most used type of transportation to deliver the goods via trucks, lorries, and trawlers. This is the most flexible mode, but it cannot be operated outside the roads. Road freighting is used by organizations where rapid distribution of light-weighted goods needs shipment in concise batches. The road transportation has become challenging as it has high maintenance costs of both carrier infrastructure and other repairing costs [31] and further affects environmental stability.
4.1.3 Railway freight
Railway transportation is relatively the cheapest and the least environmentally harmful mode of shipping the goods at distancing places. Globally, China is recognized as among the best railway service providers. The railway system of China contributes 100% of transportation efficiency to the online marketing and product delivery [27]. Railway transportation offers skilled alternatives to road freight since its operations are partially lower cost and electrified which is economically and ecologically beneficial [29]. According to Romanow [28], railway freight, despite of its cost-efficient service, still lacks timely consignment deliveries. Thus, it is observed that without the adequate and necessary improvement in railway systems, pursuing consumers would be challenging.
4.1.4 Ocean freight
Since 1990, international trade occurs via ocean freight; this mode of shipment has risen to 65% which has driven the logistic managers with significant challenges in the selection of carrier to transport goods [33]. According to Dettmer et al. [29], the rates of transportations with the category of containerized products have been decreased exponentially since the last decade, making ocean freight as the cheapest mode of transporting products. Researchers such as Waller, Meixell, and Norbis [33] asserted that about 0% of the freights are transported via ocean as 25% of heavy products are delivered to international destinations. The most common ocean cargos include container ships, cargo vessels, oil tanks, bulk carriers, and general cargo ships. In a global logistics ocean, cargo vessels move ports to ports and are specialized for swift loading and unloading of the goods.
4.1.5 Pipeline
One of the important modes of transportation which has not been provided enough attention is the use of pipeline, which accounts for approximately $53 billion costs in the year 2018, specifically in the United States. The increased production of oil and gas has increased the usage of pipeline in the transmission of natural gas and oil. This has further increased the need of investments in the given area. The analysis indicated that the use of pipeline as the mode of transportation is limited and is still recognized as the small market in comparison to the overall size of the given mode of transportation [34].
4.1.6 Micromobility
Transportation modes such as e-bikes and e-scooters that are widely being used in the cities like New York and California are regarded as the eco-friendly transportation methods and are generally termed as micromobility. It is further recognized as the cheapest mode of transportation, when traveling approximately 5 miles or less, and is known to be the fastest and easy mode of transportation which does not require any license. One of the most significant characteristics of this mode of transportation is its eco-friendliness, as it does not operate through the burning of fuel [35].
4.1.7 Cable and drone
Another similar mode of transportation is the use of cable cars that are used in most of the mountainous regions. They serve as the effective mode of transportation which has met the limitations of time and cost. Hilly areas that are connected to the urban regions promote the use of cable cars as they provide them the socioeconomic benefit by reducing the barriers such as road traffic. Since they are environmentally friendly, the use of cable cars is highly promoted in various regions [36].
Another similar mode of transportation is the use of drone. The recent research conducted by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) [37] provided that the drone-based delivery is effective in reducing the emission of greenhouse gas and energy use in the transportation sector. The study further indicated that certain factors are considered in the successful use of drone. These factors include the size of the drone, the weight of the package, and the types of power plant deployed on the regional electricity grid. The use of drones is highly favorable in areas with relatively clean electricity like California [38].
5. Green transportation and its distribution
The widespread usage of green transportation has an additional scope in the distribution of goods, as it affects the quality of air, leading to additional noise generation. It further increases the chances of severe car accidents followed by its significant contribution to the global warming. According to Stern [38], in 2000, the transportation’s share in the emission of global greenhouse gas was 14% which continued to grow in the succeeding years. However, following the advancement in e-commerce and the customer demands, a significant growth in the goods transportation has been observed. This has given rise to the strategic distribution of activities which offers smart solutions for the reduced carbon footprint of companies that have apparently developed a negative impact on the total costs as well as on individual life [39].
According to Ho et al. [40], the characteristics associated with the transportation are generally influenced by different factors such as shape, size, and materials. These factors are further important as they create a significant impact on the distribution process. However, better and strategically developed location patterns along with better packaging may serve as a prompt solution to overcome this impact, resulting in the decrease in amount and increase in space. The concept of green distribution can be classified under two categories, i.e., green packaging and green logistics [40].
5.1 Green packaging
The concept of sustainability is negatively affected by the increase in solid waste. Green packaging serves as the optimal solution to cater this challenge, as it is associated with the overall process of packaging life cycle [41]. Ninlawan et al. [42] provided additional information according to which green packaging can be further practiced by increasing the use of green packaging materials, promoting the reuse and recycling programs, or developing standardize methods of packaging. However, the control and management of the packaging system are held through the system evaluator indicators [43].
5.2 Green logistics
According to Jiange [41], green logistics is defined as the production and distribution of goods that are held in a sustainable manner by the inclusion of activities such as evaluation of the environmental influence of distribution methods used and reduction of the waste and its effective management along with the strategic planning of logistic activities. For Zhang and Liu [43], the development of the green logistics serves as an interconnected system and requires the cooperation of different parties including the common public, government officials, and corporate leaders. They added that the concept of green logistics is not a separate system; perhaps it is associated with the exchange of energy and information with the external world. The system is integrated through transportation and traffic, supervision and management, and storage and delivery, along with the flow of information [41]. Green logistics majorly focuses on the direct delivery of goods to the user site, along with the bulk distribution of products rather than in small sets [42].
6. Examples of green transportation in GSCM
6.1 DHL model of green transportation
DHL is an international logistic organization operating worldwide business within 220 countries. DHL focuses on sustainability and CSR activities since 2009 and many campaigns for environmentally green initiative. PPGoGreen campaign program was launched to protect the environment to achieve sustainability and long-term improvement competence [44]. The vision of DHL is to develop green and sustainability in their transportation services by designing future goals to reduce the emission of greenhouse and carbon gases. Following these goals, DHL intended to enhance the efficiency in transportation by reducing carbon emission to 50%, resulting in reduction in pollution emission to 70%. DHL also initiated clean delivery and pickup services including electrified vehicles or bicycles and training suppliers and employees to follow the green transportation strategy of Go Green (Deutsche Post DHL Group).
6.2 IKEA model of green transportation
IKEA is one of the leading furniture manufacturers that have been working on maintaining sustainability in their overall logistic operations and committed to carry their operations with environment-friendly practices. IKEA has set vision for providing better lifestyle at home by promising high quality standards, low price, and environmental safety by not wasting natural resources. The founder of IKEA used to claim that furniture designers can design any desk within the cost of $1000 but designing a sustainable, functional, and beautiful for just $50 is marveling [32].
IKEA practices on green transportation by designing travel plans for their workers and logistic operations. The employees of IKEA are encouraged to travel through bicycles, walking, public busses, or sharing cars with their co-workers in order to support the company to achieve their vision [45]. From the transportation perspective, IKEA believes that utilizing loading shelves for transporting, the units will eliminate the space required for wooden pallets, which will reduce the overall cost of transportation. According to the sustainability report of 2019, gas emission through transportation is recorded to be 19.4% [46]. To reduce this, IKEA has set future goals to reduce 30% of greenhouse gases from their transportation services in 2020 [47] and further aims to eliminate the emission of carbon gases to 70% by 2030 [46].
7. Importance and benefits of green transportation
The practices of green transport have been on an exponential importance in green logistics. It has been identified that promoting green management and transportation has significant benefits toward economy, environmental well-being, as well as improving the organization’s growth [10]. Green logistics and green transportation are important in reducing the consumption of fuel and energy as their target is to regenerate and renew the fuel instead of consuming fossil fuel.
The implementation of green practices in transportation gives cost reduction benefits for the movement of shipments, efficient vehicle allocation and planning opportunities, and natural and human resource advantages. Moreover, it further reinforces the image of the products. Green transportation further gives customer retention advantage as customer’s interest has been shifted toward green products; therefore, companies have an opportunity to implement environment-friendly transportation to grab mass market [48].
8. Drivers and barriers of green transportation
Among many barriers there are two features that are considered as the main problem, which include the renewing system for electrical energy and generating fuel for vehicle that produces less emission. The historical activity of road transportation and consumption of energy has been growing rapidly which has apparently increased the challenges for the adoption of green transportation [16].
Previous studies outlined several challenges in implementing green GSCM and green transportation. Some of these barriers include unwillingness to shift logistic operations to green management, fear of investing capital for adoption of GSCM, and threats of not getting the desired return after implementation [11]. Many logistic managers only provide the training of green practices but fail to carry out their practical implementations which consequently, reduces the environment-friendly performance. To overcome these challenges, Table 1 shows the following measures.
Connectivity access
Change or shift
Enhancement
Supportive tools
Measures
Sound green practices can reduce trade barriers
Public transportation, supply chain process, rail freight, fuel and energy consumption
Efficiency in fuel consumption, alternative strategies for fuel generation, cleaner fuel
Awareness, timely monitoring, develop institutions, training
Useful instruments
Changes in policies for green transportation
Action plans to encourage more organizations, awards, recognition, and expert guide
Road maps for growth, green fuel consumption, schemes of green freight labeling
Development in curricula for undergraduate future employees, awareness campaigns, knowledge centers
Benefits
Social and economic growth, customer retention
Sustainable environment, safe living standards
R&D policies, trade and economic growth, security of energy consumption, single market
ISO, certifications for CSR activities
Operators
Governmental organizations dealing with laws for safety and sustainability of environment
Urban development, corporation of technical authorities, local governmental bodies
Transport ministries, economic centers, civil societies, environmental security centers, ports, and trading sectors
Societies: academic, civil, local Transportation ministries
Table 1.
Drivers for green transportation.
9. The role of green energy in green supply chain management
In Europe it is observed that for the suitability of cargo transportation, communication channels play a pivotal role [10]. In logistic industries, governmental bodies and shipment service providers regulate the environmental management and shipment of units to the end users. Both of these parties work to ensure the safety for the friendly environment. The concept of green transportation is derived from generating the green fuel which is less harmful for the society. The term less harmful refers to the reduction and control over the emission of carbon gases and fuel consumption to enhance the credibility of goods transportation.
Green fuel generation is a basic element to attain the benchmark of green transportation. It is observed that biomass is the best alternative against fossil fuel. It allows combining all biomass chemicals to generate an eco-friendly fuel for vehicles, which will further help in promoting green transportation. According to Douvartzides et al. [49], green diesel has proved to be an excellent alternative for the combustion of energy with rousting properties of low emission.
10. Sustainability in green transportation in green supply chain management
To differentiate the performance of supply chain operations, it is necessary to consider factors that depend on the sustainability of overall cycle of logistics, i.e., green transportation [10]. The term sustainability of transportation refers to “a set of continuous, dynamic, and integrated guidelines and policies embraces economic, social and environmental goals that are fairly distributed and used effectively to meet the needs of transport community and generations have to be summarized only in the sustainability of the nature of transportation systems” [50].
The study conducted by Heiko and Darkow [51] claimed that transportation consumes about 20% of global energy. Since it has become a challenge for logistic industries to attain sustainability in green transportation, therefore they are more focused on getting insights into the requirements and needs of their customers and instruments to support their green practices [48]. To achieve sustainability in green logistics and transportation, it has become crucial to eliminate elements such as methods that affect the autonomy of vehicles.
Sustainability in transportation can be achieved by enhancing the quality of air by reducing the emission of gases from the road transport and implementing a limit to the emission of harmful gases for all the vehicles. The following are the measures that manufacturing industries can take in their logistic and green transportation to achieve sustainability:
Modify the transportation system to affordable, easy, and reliable mode, which could be easy to assess by all users.
Implement diverse medium such as bicycles, walking, and electric vehicles (EV) and recharging stations which is implemented by IKEA stores in many countries.
By using hybrid and alternative fuels, vehicles could be limit in emission of carbon, which is a key element of sustainability in green transport [52].
11. Current practices in green transportation implementations in green supply chain management
The demand for green transportation has been increasing rapidly in the global world. The purpose for initiating green transportation is the emission of CO2 gas which has been growing intensely since 1990 and consequently risking the environment through freight transportation. It has increased with the percentage of 71% in 2016 and anticipated to increase 50% more till the year 2050 [16].
Recently international markets are focused on environmental safety and sustainability by eliminating gas emission rather than promoting the implementation and practices of clean green technologies and energies in transportation [10]. The United Nations has established an agency to protect the marine cargo and shipment known as the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The responsibilities and roles of IMO are to prevent the pollution of marine that is generated during the shipment of consignments, enhance the performance of shipment, and ensure the safety and security of international transportation. For the initiative of environmental safety, the IMO has designed four ways to limit and control the emission of polluted gases. These methods include energy efficiency design (EED), energy efficiency operational indicator (EEOI), ship energy efficiency management plan (SEEMP), and market-based measures (MBM). The role of EED is to measure the reduction of emission through technical tools, whereas EEOI and SEEMP both measure the operations that should be carried forward for the purpose of mitigating the greenhouse carbon. MBM has the responsibilities to operationally and technically measure the carbon markets such as the trading system emission [53].
12. Recent trends of green transportation in green supply chain management
The demands of public for the import goods are changing dramatically. This change in demands has also shifted many manufacturing and transport industries by adopting the green technologies and seeking new ways to make their operations flexible for environmental concerns. It has been observed that reduction in fuel consumption from the large ships can significantly limit the emission of carbon. Figure 3 provides a brief overview regarding the drivers and outcomes of green innovations. Furthermore, there are various ways to reduce the emission of carbon, which will be discussed below.
Figure 3.
Drivers and Outcomes of Green Innovations. Source: Qudrat-Ullah [54].
12.1 Slow steaming
It is defined as a practice where the sails are moved slower than their designed speed. According to a study of the IMO, the emission reduction of carbon was decreased by 796 million tons in 2012 from 885 million in year 2007 worldwide. The main factor behind this reduction was the slow steaming of the cargo ships and vessels that consumes relatively low fuel which emits less carbon [55]. Different factors encouraged the adoption of slow steaming. These factors did not only focus on providing considerations toward the sustainability requirements to maintain the global supply chains but were further centered toward other important factors which include:
Management of the global financial crisis which ultimately caused the downturn in the global economy.
Another considering factor includes the high fuel costs.
Increasing operating cost rates.
Falling freight rates.
These factors resulted in the reduction of speed and minimal consumption of fuel which, in broader perspective, results in the reduced emission of greenhouse gases.
12.2 Voyage optimization
The massive use of voyage optimizer generated the need for the development of freight model. This process enhances the management and efficiencies of the ships by modifying the routes and speed of the shipping which consequently bring the ecological and economic advantages.
12.3 Efficiency in port operations
It is asserted that for mitigating the risking impacts of port management, manufacturing and transportation industries need to switch their decision to environmental sustainability from financial sustainability. It is also observed that by transportation layout, change is necessary to reduce the carbon emission such as shifting to rail tracks from road transport.
13. Future directions of green transportation in green supply chain management
Suppliers, customers, and their need of the transportation possess an important role to broaden the concept of logistics. Many companies have integrated advancement in vehicle technologies to enhance the performance of the environment and transportation of freight as well as transportation services for public. Data envelopment analysis (DEA) is observed to be an efficient method to evaluate the performance and efficiency of green practices in logistics and transportation. The DEA model helps to measure the efficiency of the green supply chain process in terms of cost, human resource, energy, output, and carbon emission. The logistic managers need to enhance their transport system and let it lose free that will boost company growth, and vice versa it will positively influence economic growth which will result in building a healthy and strong nation [30].
Green transportation in supply chain management is further connected to the development of sustainability and green economy which can be achieved by the implementation of sustainability principles in countries. The importance of sustainability in green economy can be understood under two folds. The first includes the role of carrier in providing huge environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions, while the later includes the reduction of air and noise pollutants along with the fuel management for sustainable development. It is important to emphasize that the use of resources is more important than the resources in developing a strong infrastructure.
Another important consideration must be provided to the transport infrastructure of the city which is defined through the scale of access to public transportation and the quality of roads, followed by the access point within them. These access points lead to a metropolitan area while providing important considerations toward travel time, distance, and the overall travel cost. It is noteworthy that a smooth infrastructure in transportation networks results in providing a direct effect on the scale of various local markets [50].
Other important concerns regarding the development of green transportation must be provided to the issues associated with the remaining available resources of fossils that are highly usable and can be infused in the internal combustion engines (ICE). In addition to that, the preservation and sustainable use of available reserves of lithium and other metals is highly favorable for the rapid development of green transportation since these metals are used in batteries and motors of electrical vehicles.
This transition of polluted cars to EV is characterized through the convergence of energy and mobility which may ultimately bring significant benefits to green transportation. Presently, the implementation of the propelled electric vehicles can be held through two different technologies that include fuel cells and batteries. These technologies are effective in developing the future by working on the strengths initiated through specific segments.
Battery electric vehicle (BEV) serves as the optimal solution for the short city routes, whereas fuel cell vehicle (FCV) is favorable for longer routes of huge tracks and other passenger busses. Both FCV and BEV technologies are favorable and are considered as “green” for environment since they lack the ability to produce greenhouse-related gases and other air pollutants. This is due to the fact that these technologies shift the challenge of green transportation centered for millions of individual vehicles to a central energy production place. Currently, BEV is one of the leading technologies; however, the new government policies are providing a significant interest toward the increased investments in research and development (R&D) that are expected to deliver better performance and maximum efficiency of FCV followed by their efficient recharging and better infrastructure. In the light of this, to develop green transportation for green supply chain management, it is important to develop future synergy of the abovementioned technologies which may ultimately result in best features.
Another important driver for green innovation is to provide important care to supplier’s role. For the achievement of the green supply chain and green environmental targets, the right selection of supplier plays a critical role for the successful adoption and implementation of the green innovation in business firms. For the right selection of supply manager, it is important to provide firm consideration toward factors such as green purchasing abilities, green competencies, environmental management initiatives, environmental investments, and environmental regulatory compliance followed by the end economic benefits. This is due to the fact that in supply chain management, supply-related factors play a critical role in managing the environmental processes effectively. It further supports the intervention of innovation and creativity in business process. The study of Burki [56] emphasized the selection of effective suppliers, as they play a key role in increasing firm’s ability to adopt and accomplish the environmentally friendly work processes that are useful for environmental management and green innovation system.
It is further essential to prioritize the activities in the process related to green logistics and green transportation by elevating the transportation sectors. This modification will reduce the waiting time in supply chain cycle of product and simultaneously improve the efficiency of energy consumption. There are some important future implications in green supply chain management which is subsequently associated with green transportation:
Practices of reusing and recycling the material throughout the production cycle which will reduce the consumption of energy to minimum.
Seeking for the ways to minimize the wastage by utilizing minimum materials for the packaging.
Designing the product design that is easy to deliver. This could include the example of IKEA, who designed their packaging that require less space in shipment.
Purchasing the raw material that has absolute minimum or no negative impact on the environment.
\n',keywords:"green transportation, green supply chain management, environment, organizational operations, drivers and barriers, green energy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72772.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72772.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72772",totalDownloads:1170,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"February 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"June 3rd 2020",datePrePublished:"July 10th 2020",datePublished:"September 22nd 2021",dateFinished:"July 10th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Organizations of the present day have directed their work patterns by acquiring the approach of green supply chain management (GSCM), in order to combat harmful environmental concerns. The most prominent reason behind the adoption of green strategy is to reduce the burden of the polluted environment. It is a concept which identifies the relationship between the supply chain operations and the natural environment. The present chapter provides a detailed discussion regarding the application of green transportation in green supply chain management, while shedding light to the evolution of green supply chain management, and its principle along with the factors that support total quality environmental management. The overall discussion is focused by elaborating the examples of green transportation in GSCM. The discussion revealed that most of the international markets prioritize the emission of gas, rather than focusing on implementing the green technologies in transportation. Slow steaming, voyage optimization, and efficiency in port operations are some of the major recent trends of green transportation identified in green supply chain management. However, some of the common examples of green transportation in GSCM Dalsey Hillblom Lynn (DHL) model of green transportation and Ingvar Kamprad, Elmtaryd Agunnaryd (IKEA) model of green transportation which serves as the major initiatives in the management of green transportation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72772",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72772",signatures:"Raeda Saada",book:{id:"9555",type:"book",title:"Green Supply Chain",subtitle:"Competitiveness and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Green Supply Chain - Competitiveness and Sustainability",slug:"green-supply-chain-competitiveness-and-sustainability",publishedDate:"September 22nd 2021",bookSignature:"Tamás Bányai and Ireneusz Kaczmar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9555.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-301-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-300-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-302-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"201248",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamás",middleName:null,surname:"Bányai",slug:"tamas-banyai",fullName:"Tamás Bányai"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"318992",title:"Dr.",name:"Raeda",middleName:"Jamal",surname:"Saada",fullName:"Raeda Saada",slug:"raeda-saada",email:"raeda-sa@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The evolution of GSCM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Principles of GSCM and green transportation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Green transportation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Green procurement and logistics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Green warehouse",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Green design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Green manufacturing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Green marketing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.7 Total quality environmental management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Transportation types in supply chain management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1 Modes of transportation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.1 Air freight",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.1.2 Road freight",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.1.3 Railway freight",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.1.4 Ocean freight",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.1.5 Pipeline",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"4.1.6 Micromobility",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"4.1.7 Cable and drone",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20",title:"5. Green transportation and its distribution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.1 Green packaging",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.2 Green logistics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23",title:"6. Examples of green transportation in GSCM",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"6.1 DHL model of green transportation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"6.2 IKEA model of green transportation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"7. Importance and benefits of green transportation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"8. Drivers and barriers of green transportation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_28",title:"9. The role of green energy in green supply chain management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29",title:"10. Sustainability in green transportation in green supply chain management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30",title:"11. Current practices in green transportation implementations in green supply chain management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31",title:"12. Recent trends of green transportation in green supply chain management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"12.1 Slow steaming",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"12.2 Voyage optimization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"12.3 Efficiency in port operations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_35",title:"13. Future directions of green transportation in green supply chain management",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Dwivedi A, editor. Innovative Solutions for Implementing Global Supply Chains in Emerging Markets. United States: IGI Global; 2016. pp. 243-255. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-9795-9'},{id:"B2",body:'Sarkis J, Dou Y. Green Supply Chain Management: A Concise Introduction. Routledge. New York: Taylor and Francis; 2017. DOI: 10.4324/9781315233000'},{id:"B3",body:'Shan W, Wang J. Mapping the landscape and evolutions of green supply chain management. Sustainability. 2018;10(3):1-23. DOI: 10.3390/su10030597'},{id:"B4",body:'Sharma VK, Chandna P, Bhardwaj A. Green supply chain management related performance indicators in agro industry: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2017;141:1194-1208'},{id:"B5",body:'Weeratunge RD, Herath R. The dimensions of green supply chain management practices. In: Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on Supply Chain Management. Vol. 2. 2017. pp. 123-132. DOI: 10.17501/wcosm.2017.2111'},{id:"B6",body:'Silva GM, Gomes PJ, Sarkis J. The role of innovation in the implementation of green supply chain management practices. Business Strategy and the Environment. 2019;28(5):1-14. DOI: 10.1002/bse.2283'},{id:"B7",body:'Intravaia D, Viana FLE. The evolution of green supply chain management implementation drivers. In: 5th World Conference on Production and Operations Management Proceedings. 2016. pp. 1-11'},{id:"B8",body:'Bajaj PS, Bansod SV, Paul ID. A review on the green supply chain management (GSCM) practices, implementation and study of different framework to get the area of research in GSCM. In: Techno-Societal 2016, International Conference on Advanced Technologies for Societal Applications. Cham: Springer; 2016. pp. 193-199'},{id:"B9",body:'Dubey R, Gunasekaran A, Papadopoulos T. Green supply chain management: Theoretical framework and further research directions. Benchmarking: An International Journal. 2017;2(1):184-218'},{id:"B10",body:'Lu M, Xie R, Chen P, Zou Y, Tang J. Green transportation and logistics performance: An improved composite index. Sustainability. 2019;11(10):1-17. DOI: 10.3390/su11102976'},{id:"B11",body:'Gandhi M, Vasudevan H. Green supply chain management practices and its impact on business performance. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Intelligent Manufacturing and Automation. Springer; 2019. pp. 601-611. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-2490-1_56'},{id:"B12",body:'Onurlubaş E. Knowledge levels of the consumers about eco-friendly products. The Journal of International Scientific Researches. 2017;2(7):10-18. DOI: 10.23834/isrjournal.343742'},{id:"B13",body:'Pourhejazy P, Kwon OK. A practical review of green supply chain management: Disciplines and best practices. Journal of International Logistics and Trade. 2016;14(2):156-164. DOI: 10.24006/jilt.2016.14.2.002'},{id:"B14",body:'Samajdar A. Green transportation—A step towards a clean environment. In: Envibrary, Your Virtual Library for the Environment. 2018. Envibrary.com Available from: https://envibrary.com/green-transportation/'},{id:"B15",body:'Sun J, Zhu Q . Organizational green supply chain management capability assessment: A hybrid group decision making model application. IEEE Engineering Management Review. 2018;46(1):117-127. DOI: 10.1109/emr.2018.2809907'},{id:"B16",body:'Teter J, Cazzola P, Gul T, Mulholland E, Le Feuvre P, Bennett S, et al. The Future of Trucks: Implications for Energy and the Environment. France: International Energy Agency; 2017. pp. 1-166. DOI: 10.1787/9789264279452-en'},{id:"B17",body:'Khan SAR. Introductory chapter: Introduction of green supply chain management. In: Green Practices and Strategies in Supply Chain Management. China: IntechOpen; 2019. pp. 1-11. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.81088'},{id:"B18",body:'Environmental Protection Department. Green Procurement. The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Hong Kong; 2018. Available from: https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/how_help/green_procure/green_procure.html'},{id:"B19",body:'Franchetti MJ, Elahi B, Ghose S. Green supply chain, logistics, and transportation. In: Green and Lean Management. Portugal: Springer; 2017. pp. 1-16'},{id:"B20",body:'Rostamzadeh R, Govindan K, Esmaeili A, Sabaghi M. Application of fuzzy VIKOR for evaluation of green supply chain management practices. Ecological Indicators. 2015;49:188-203'},{id:"B21",body:'Ren R, Hu W, Dong J, Sun B, Chen Y, Chen Z. A systematic literature review of green and sustainable logistics: Bibliometric analysis, research trend and knowledge taxonomy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020;17(1):1-25. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17010261'},{id:"B22",body:'Sutduean J, Joemsittiprasert W, Jermsittiparsert K. Supply chain management and organizational performance: Exploring green marketing as mediator. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. 2019;5(2):266-283'},{id:"B23",body:'Suhardi AR, Abdul R, Saudi MHM, Sinaga O. Supply chain management and total quality management in textile manufacturing companies, Bandung. Journal of Advanced Research in Dynamical and Control Systems. 2019;11(3):173-177'},{id:"B24",body:'Nguyen MH, Phan AC, Matsui Y. Contribution of quality management practices to sustainability performance of Vietnamese firms. Sustainability. 2018;10(2):1-31. DOI: 10.3390/su10020375'},{id:"B25",body:'Speranza MG. Trends in transportation and logistics. European Journal of Operational Research. 2018;264(3):1-20. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejor.2016.08.032'},{id:"B26",body:'Santha T. Multimodal Transportation and Supply Chain Management; 2015. pp. 91-116'},{id:"B27",body:'Mei J, Messiah EKA. The impact of transportation management system on supply chain management: The effectiveness of Chinese online shopping delivery—The “Kuaidi” system. European Centre for Research Training and Development. 2017;5(2):1-9'},{id:"B28",body:'Romanow P. Role of Transport Operators in the Supply Chain. Poland: Poznan School of Logistics Press; 2016. pp. 165-176'},{id:"B29",body:'Dettmer P. An optimisation model for intermodal transportation in humanitarian logistics: Development of a decision support tool for supply network design in east africa. [Masters Thesis]. Germany: Georg August Universitat Gottingen; 2017'},{id:"B30",body:'Agamez-Arias ADM, Moyano-Fuentes J. Intermodal transport in freight distribution: A literature review. Transport Reviews. 2017;37(6):782-807'},{id:"B31",body:'Rodrigue JP. Developing the logistics sector: The role of public policy. New York: Hofstra University; 2018'},{id:"B32",body:'Forbes. How IKEA Builds Sustainable Innovation into its Business Model to Improve Lives. 2018. Forbes.com Available from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/sap/2018/05/29/how-ikea-builds-innovation-and-sustainability-into-its-business-model-to-improve-lives/#201c5f0577f1'},{id:"B33",body:'Waller M, Meixell MJ, Norbis M. A review of the transportation mode choice and carrier selection literature. The International Journal of Logistics Management. 2008;19(2):183-211'},{id:"B34",body:'Banker S. Pipelines: A Mode of Transportation that Gets No Respect. 2019. Forbes.com. Available from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevebanker/2019/07/01/pipelines-a-mode-of-transportation-that-gets-no-respect/#43d9c55278a2'},{id:"B35",body:'Lahoti N. Micromobility: The next wave of eco-friendly transportation. 2019. Mobisoft.com, Texas. Available from: https://mobisoftinfotech.com/resources/blog/future-of-micromobility/'},{id:"B36",body:'Rubiano LC, Jia W, Darido G. Innovation in the air: Using cable cars for urban transport. USA: World Bank Blogs.com. 2017. Available from: https://blogs.worldbank.org/transport/innovation-air-using-cable-cars-urban-transport'},{id:"B37",body:'Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Drones Deliver Green Transportation Option. United Kingdom: Techxplore; 2018. Available from: https://techxplore.com/news/2018-02-drones-green-option.html'},{id:"B38",body:'Stern NH. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press; 2007'},{id:"B39",body:'Campos JK, Schoeder D. Sustainable distribution in the consumer goods supply chain. In: Proceedings of the Hamburg International Conference of Logistics-21. 2015. Available from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c92a/54b62a5870b7e3e924844ed02c1ffef90bdc.pdf'},{id:"B40",body:'Ho JC, Shalishali MK, Tseng T, Ang DS. Opportunities in green supply chain management. The Coastal Business Journal. 2009;8(1):18-31'},{id:"B41",body:'Jiange TAO. Researches on Establishment Model of Green Logistics System. China: Zhongyuan University of Technology. 2008. pp. 533-537. Available from: http://www.seidatacollection.com/upload/product/201002/12652765911ylezfx9.pdf'},{id:"B42",body:'Ninlawan C, Seksan P, Tossapol K, Pilada W. The implementation of green supply chain management practices in electronics industry. In: World Congress on Engineering 2012; 4-6 July 2012; Vol. 2182. London, UK: International Association of Engineers; 2010. pp. 1563-1568'},{id:"B43",body:'Zhang Y, Liu J. The establishment of green logistics system model. In: Proceedings of 2009 International Conference on Management Science and Engineering. 2009. pp. 892-897'},{id:"B44",body:'Cosimato S, Troisi O. Green supply chain management: Practices and tools for logistics competitiveness and sustainability. The DHL case study. The TQM Journal. 2015;27(2):256-276'},{id:"B45",body:'Sturman C. IKEA Building Sustainable Success. Construction Global; 2017. Available from: https://www.constructionglobal.com/sustainability/ikea-building-sustainable-success'},{id:"B46",body:'PHYS ORG. Renting Flat-Pack Furniture? Ikea’s Push to Go Green. United Kingdom: Phys.org.com. 2019. Available from: https://phys.org/news/2019-04-renting-flat-pack-furniture-ikea-green.html'},{id:"B47",body:'Scania, Sustainable Transport Ikea Encourages Alternative Fuels. Scania.com. Available from: https://www.scania.com/global/en/home/experience-scania/features/ikea-we-encourage-our-carriers-to-use-alternative-fuels.html'},{id:"B48",body:'Navarro P, Cronemyr P, Huge-Brodin M. Greening logistics by introducing process management–A viable tool for freight transport companies going green. Supply Chain Forum: An International Journal. 2018;19(3):204-218'},{id:"B49",body:'Douvartzides SL, Charisiou ND, Papageridis KN, Goula MA. Green diesel: Biomass feedstocks, production technologies, catalytic research, fuel properties and performance in compression ignition internal combustion engines. Energies. 2019;12(5):809'},{id:"B50",body:'Ali Mohammadi Chermahini AH, Mokhtari Sharafabad A. Examination of sustainable transportation in approach to sustainability. International Journal of Urban Management and Energy Sustainability. 2019;2(1):54-59'},{id:"B51",body:'Heiko A, Darkow IL. Energy-constrained and low-carbon scenarios for the transportation and logistics industry. The International Journal of Logistics Management. 2016;27(1):142-166. DOI: 10.1108/ijlm-12-2013-0150'},{id:"B52",body:'Willoughby S. Sustainable Customer Transportation an Opportunities Guide for Retailers and Shopping Centers. World Wildlife Fund. 2011. Available from: http://assets.panda.org/downloads/wwfikea_stop_1.pdf'},{id:"B53",body:'Prill K, Behrendt C, Szczepanek M, Michalska-Pożoga I. A new method of determining energy efficiency operational indicator for specialized ships. Energies. 2020;13(5):1082'},{id:"B54",body:'Qudrat-Ullah H. Innovative solutions for sustainable supply chains: An introduction. In: Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Supply Chains. Cham: Springer; 2018. pp. 3-13'},{id:"B55",body:'Psaraftis HN. Speed optimization vs speed reduction: The choice between speed limits and a bunker levy. Sustainability. 2019;11(8):2249'},{id:"B56",body:'Burki U. Green supply chain management, green innovations, and green practices. In: Innovative Solutions for Sustainable Supply Chains. Cham: Springer; 2018. pp. 81-109'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Raeda Saada",address:"raeda-sa@hotmail.com",affiliation:'
Princess Iman Research and Laboratory Sciences Centre, Royal Medical Services, Amman, Jordan
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9555",type:"book",title:"Green Supply Chain",subtitle:"Competitiveness and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Green Supply Chain - Competitiveness and Sustainability",slug:"green-supply-chain-competitiveness-and-sustainability",publishedDate:"September 22nd 2021",bookSignature:"Tamás Bányai and Ireneusz Kaczmar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9555.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-301-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-300-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-302-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"201248",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamás",middleName:null,surname:"Bányai",slug:"tamas-banyai",fullName:"Tamás Bányai"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"146112",title:"MSc.",name:"Alena",middleName:null,surname:"Řezníčková",email:"alena.reznickova@vscht.cz",fullName:"Alena Řezníčková",slug:"alena-reznickova",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"42102",title:"Nonconventional Method of Polymer Patterning",slug:"nonconventional-method-of-polymer-patterning",abstract:null,signatures:"Oleksiy Lyutakov, Jiri Tuma, Jakub Siegel, Ivan Huttel and Václav Švorčík",authors:[{id:"144876",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdenka",surname:"Kolska",fullName:"Zdenka Kolska",slug:"zdenka-kolska",email:"zdenka.kolska@ujep.cz"},{id:"144929",title:"Prof.",name:"Vaclav",surname:"Svorcik",fullName:"Vaclav Svorcik",slug:"vaclav-svorcik",email:"vaclav.svorcik@vscht.cz"},{id:"146109",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jakub",surname:"Siegel",fullName:"Jakub Siegel",slug:"jakub-siegel",email:"jakub.siegel@vscht.cz"},{id:"146110",title:"MSc.",name:"Ondřej",surname:"Kvítek",fullName:"Ondřej Kvítek",slug:"ondrej-kvitek",email:"ondrej.kvitek@vscht.cz"},{id:"146112",title:"MSc.",name:"Alena",surname:"Řezníčková",fullName:"Alena Řezníčková",slug:"alena-reznickova",email:"alena.reznickova@vscht.cz"}],book:{id:"2384",title:"Polymer Science",slug:"polymer-science",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"139788",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelly",surname:"Ross",slug:"kelly-ross",fullName:"Kelly Ross",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"139918",title:"Dr.",name:"Hale",surname:"Berber",slug:"hale-berber",fullName:"Hale Berber",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"140593",title:"Prof.",name:"Keiji",surname:"Numata",slug:"keiji-numata",fullName:"Keiji Numata",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"142319",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Baker",slug:"peter-baker",fullName:"Peter Baker",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"143205",title:"Prof.",name:"Takahiko",surname:"Nakaoki",slug:"takahiko-nakaoki",fullName:"Takahiko Nakaoki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"143703",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",surname:"Arntfield",slug:"susan-arntfield",fullName:"Susan Arntfield",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"143704",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Cenkowski",slug:"stefan-cenkowski",fullName:"Stefan Cenkowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"144876",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdenka",surname:"Kolska",slug:"zdenka-kolska",fullName:"Zdenka Kolska",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"144929",title:"Prof.",name:"Vaclav",surname:"Svorcik",slug:"vaclav-svorcik",fullName:"Vaclav Svorcik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"146109",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jakub",surname:"Siegel",slug:"jakub-siegel",fullName:"Jakub Siegel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
\\n\\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n\\t
850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
\\n
\\n\\n
During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\\n\\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\\n\\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
\\n
\\n\\n
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+5,700 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n\t
850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
\n
\n\n
During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
\n
\n\n
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6669},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5955},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2457},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12710},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1016},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17716}],offset:12,limit:12,total:134176},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"8,9,10,11,14,15,20,22,24"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11124",title:"Next-Generation Textiles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"093f9e26bb829b8d414d13626aea1086",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hassan Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11124.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11561",title:"Zeolite From Wastes - New Perspectives on Innovative Resources and Their Valorization Process",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3ed0dfd842de9cd1143212415903e6ad",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Belviso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11561.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11922",title:"Watermarking - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9843dc1d810407088ed9eef10768a64b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Joceli Mayer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11922.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"110638",title:"Prof.",name:"Joceli",surname:"Mayer",slug:"joceli-mayer",fullName:"Joceli Mayer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"611776f7f3cc9951a8956d2e3d535a8e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Chatchawal Wongchoosuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"34521",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Chatchawal",surname:"Wongchoosuk",slug:"chatchawal-wongchoosuk",fullName:"Chatchawal Wongchoosuk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11910",title:"Frontiers in Voltammetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fc53a7599a61ed04a0672a7bca81e9c2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajendrachari Shashanka, Dr. Kiran Kenchappa Somashekharappa, Dr. Sharath Peramenahalli Chikkegouda and Dr. Shamanth Vasanth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11910.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"246025",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashanka",surname:"Rajendrachari",slug:"shashanka-rajendrachari",fullName:"Shashanka Rajendrachari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11517",title:"Phase Change Materials - Technology and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1b7a5f2631db5e49399539ade1edf264",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Manish K Rathod",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11517.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"236035",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",surname:"Rathod",slug:"manish-rathod",fullName:"Manish Rathod"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11451",title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8c918a1973786c7059752b28601f1329",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Erman Salih Istifli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11932",title:"New Materials and Enhanced Performance of Sodium-Ion Batteries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"75c27a6f2739e8af817bace95b0e50d6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Fatma SARF",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11932.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"245850",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fatma",surname:"SARF",slug:"fatma-sarf",fullName:"Fatma SARF"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11528",title:"Maintenance Management - Current Challenges, New Developments, and Future Directions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a3e4ad5806a77b0e930fbd4cb191bee2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Germano Lambert-Torres, Dr. Erik Leandro Bonaldi and Dr. Levy Ely Oliveira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11528.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"112971",title:"Prof.",name:"Germano",surname:"Lambert-Torres",slug:"germano-lambert-torres",fullName:"Germano Lambert-Torres"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11760",title:"Applications and Use of Diamond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2edcf9a24450d8655e756e1080defe32",slug:null,bookSignature:"Mr. Evgeniy Lipatov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11760.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"21254",title:"Mr.",name:"Evgeniy",surname:"Lipatov",slug:"evgeniy-lipatov",fullName:"Evgeniy Lipatov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11486",title:"Climate Change - Recent Observations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"741543ff220f5cf688efbf12d3e2f536",slug:null,bookSignature:"Assistant Prof. Terence Epule Epule",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11486.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"348146",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Terence Epule",surname:"Epule",slug:"terence-epule-epule",fullName:"Terence Epule Epule"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11509",title:"Wireless Power Transfer - Perspectives and Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f188555eee4211fc24b6cca361983149",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kim Ho Yeap",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11509.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"126825",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ho",surname:"Yeap",slug:"kim-ho-yeap",fullName:"Kim Ho Yeap"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:38},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:65},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:116},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:174},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4428},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",slug:"campylobacter",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d553bd4f6f1c4b115ca69bd19faac7dc",slug:"hazardous-waste-management",bookSignature:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar, Kavitha Sankarapandian and Yukesh Kannah Ravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9625",title:"Spinocerebellar Ataxia",subtitle:"Concepts, Particularities and Generalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"365a7025fd46eb45de2549bdd9d50b98",slug:"spinocerebellar-ataxia-concepts-particularities-and-generalities",bookSignature:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"221787",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Bozzetto Ambrosi",slug:"patricia-bozzetto-ambrosi",fullName:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1",title:"Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology",parent:null,numberOfBooks:2684,numberOfSeries:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:58078,numberOfWosCitations:107732,numberOfCrossrefCitations:65297,numberOfDimensionsCitations:141080,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera-Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores-Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11158",title:"New Advances in Semiconductors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"238b808626f765e883b9bff8b62eae18",slug:"new-advances-in-semiconductors",bookSignature:"Alberto Adriano Cavalheiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201848",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto Adriano",middleName:null,surname:"Cavalheiro",slug:"alberto-adriano-cavalheiro",fullName:"Alberto Adriano Cavalheiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10851",title:"Progress in Volcanology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6cfc09f959efecf9ba95654b1bb4b987",slug:"progress-in-volcanology",bookSignature:"Angelo Paone and Sung-Hyo Yun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182871",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Paone",slug:"angelo-paone",fullName:"Angelo Paone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10821",title:"Automation and Control",subtitle:"Theories and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18463c2291ba306c4dcbabd988227eea",slug:"automation-and-control-theories-and-applications",bookSignature:"Elmer P. Dadios",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10632",title:"Theory and Practice of Tunnel Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ba17749f9d0b6a62d584a3c320a1f49",slug:"theory-and-practice-of-tunnel-engineering",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10632.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2684,seriesByTopicCollection:[{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],seriesByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:9248,totalCrossrefCites:162,totalDimensionsCites:393,abstract:null,book:{id:"2270",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"60680",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76082",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16114,totalCrossrefCites:178,totalDimensionsCites:384,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"36171",doi:"10.5772/36942",title:"Research of Calcium Phosphates Using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy",slug:"research-of-calcium-phosphates-using-fourier-transformation-infrared-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:9225,totalCrossrefCites:130,totalDimensionsCites:375,abstract:null,book:{id:"1591",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Materials Science, Engineering and Technology"},signatures:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina and Natalija Borodajenko",authors:[{id:"110522",title:"Prof.",name:"Liga",middleName:null,surname:"Berzina-Cimdina",slug:"liga-berzina-cimdina",fullName:"Liga Berzina-Cimdina"},{id:"112181",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalija",middleName:null,surname:"Borodajenko",slug:"natalija-borodajenko",fullName:"Natalija Borodajenko"}]},{id:"41411",doi:"10.5772/53659",title:"Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact",slug:"textile-dyes-dyeing-process-and-environmental-impact",totalDownloads:20608,totalCrossrefCites:97,totalDimensionsCites:305,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues de Oliveira, Elisa Raquel Anastácio Ferraz, Juliano Carvalho Cardoso, Maria Valnice Boldrin Zanoni and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De Oliveira"},{id:"149074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Valnice",middleName:null,surname:"Zanoni",slug:"maria-valnice-zanoni",fullName:"Maria Valnice Zanoni"},{id:"153502",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"153504",title:"MSc.",name:"Gisele",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gisele-oliveira",fullName:"Gisele Oliveira"},{id:"163377",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",slug:"juliano-cardoso",fullName:"Juliano Cardoso"},{id:"163393",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraz",slug:"elisa-ferraz",fullName:"Elisa Ferraz"}]},{id:"17237",doi:"10.5772/24553",title:"Hydrogels: Methods of Preparation, Characterisation and Applications",slug:"hydrogels-methods-of-preparation-characterisation-and-applications",totalDownloads:65847,totalCrossrefCites:86,totalDimensionsCites:277,abstract:null,book:{id:"248",slug:"progress-in-molecular-and-environmental-bioengineering-from-analysis-and-modeling-to-technology-applications",title:"Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering",fullTitle:"Progress in Molecular and Environmental Bioengineering - From Analysis and Modeling to Technology Applications"},signatures:"Syed K. H. Gulrez, Saphwan Al-Assaf and Glyn O Phillips",authors:[{id:"58120",title:"Prof.",name:"Saphwan",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Assaf",slug:"saphwan-al-assaf",fullName:"Saphwan Al-Assaf"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35255",title:"Mechanical Transmissions Parameter Modelling",slug:"mechanical-transmissions-parameter-modelling",totalDownloads:7279,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1982",slug:"mechanical-engineering",title:"Mechanical Engineering",fullTitle:"Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Isad Saric, Nedzad Repcic and Adil Muminovic",authors:[{id:"101313",title:"Prof.",name:"Isad",middleName:null,surname:"Saric",slug:"isad-saric",fullName:"Isad Saric"}]},{id:"68505",title:"Research Design and Methodology",slug:"research-design-and-methodology",totalDownloads:24813,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"There are a number of approaches used in this research method design. The purpose of this chapter is to design the methodology of the research approach through mixed types of research techniques. The research approach also supports the researcher on how to come across the research result findings. In this chapter, the general design of the research and the methods used for data collection are explained in detail. It includes three main parts. The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. The purpose of this section is to indicate how the research was conducted throughout the study periods.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",middleName:null,surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"}]},{id:"67558",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Principle and Applications",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-and-applications",totalDownloads:10511,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"The characterization of the diversity of species living within ecosystems is of major scientific interest to understand the functioning of these ecosystems. It is also becoming a societal issue since it is necessary to implement the conservation or even the restoration of biodiversity. Historically, species have been described and characterized on the basis of morphological criteria, which are closely linked by environmental conditions or which find their limits especially in groups where they are difficult to access, as is the case for many species of microorganisms. The need to understand the molecular mechanisms in species has made the PCR an indispensable tool for understanding the functioning of these biological systems. A number of markers are now available to detect nuclear DNA polymorphisms. In genetic diversity studies, the most frequently used markers are microsatellites. The study of biological complexity is a new frontier that requires high-throughput molecular technology, high speed computer memory, new approaches to data analysis, and the integration of interdisciplinary skills.",book:{id:"7728",slug:"synthetic-biology-new-interdisciplinary-science",title:"Synthetic Biology",fullTitle:"Synthetic Biology - New Interdisciplinary Science"},signatures:"Karim Kadri",authors:[{id:"290766",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadri",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"kadri-karim",fullName:"Kadri Karim"}]},{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:12245,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"HVAC systems are milestones of building mechanical systems that provide thermal comfort for occupants accompanied with indoor air quality. HVAC systems can be classified into central and local systems according to multiple zones, location, and distribution. Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"70315",title:"Some Basic and Key Issues of Switched-Reluctance Machine Systems",slug:"some-basic-and-key-issues-of-switched-reluctance-machine-systems",totalDownloads:1238,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Although switched-reluctance machine (SRM) possesses many structural advantages and application potential, it is rather difficult to successfully control with high performance being comparable to other machines. Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82385",title:"Cyclodextrins as Bricks for Tuning Polymer Properties",slug:"cyclodextrins-as-bricks-for-tuning-polymer-properties",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105688",abstract:"Cyclodextrins are natural cyclic oligosaccharides with a cone shape delimiting a hydrophobic cavity. The rims of cyclodextrins can be functionalized in order to improve their properties. Based on this, cyclodextrins can be linked to polymer chains, which further allows the tuning of the polymer properties. This review describes the methods of polymer functionalization with cyclodextrins and highlights the changes in the physicochemical properties of these materials. This chapter is focused on polymers in solution and in gel states. Cyclodextrin-based polymers are evaluated by various physicochemical methods, such as rheology, calorimetry, and spectroscopy (electron paramagnetic resonance, fluorescence, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), etc.). Both natural and synthetic polymers are considered in this chapter.",book:{id:"11901",title:"Cyclodextrins - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11901.jpg"},signatures:"Ludmila Aricov, Anca Ruxandra Leontieș, Iulia Matei and Gabriela Ioniță"},{id:"82443",title:"Phase Noise in OFDM",slug:"phase-noise-in-ofdm",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105551",abstract:"Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) technique provides high data rate with high spectral efficiency for operating close to the Shanon capacity bounds. With the advantages of simple channel equalization, robustness against frequency selectivity of the channel, and efficient implementation, this is a widely deployed technique. Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing access (OFDMA), the multiple access technique using OFDM, has the great potential for providing high spectral efficiency due to its integrated space-frequency and multiuser diversity. Besides all the advantages, OFDM/A is very susceptible to transceiver’s impairments such as phase noise (PHN), carrier frequency offset, and in-quadrature phase imbalance effect. Phase noise is the random fluctuation in phase of the sinusoidal waveform used for frequency up/down conversion of baseband signals to/from RF (radio frequency). This occurs due to the inherent imperfections of oscillators used for this purpose. This chapter addresses the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing/multiple access system performance under the impact of transceiver oscillator phase noise.",book:{id:"10990",title:"Multiplexing - Recent Advances and Novel Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10990.jpg"},signatures:"Kamayani Shrivastav"},{id:"82360",title:"Development and Usage of Electronic Teaching Technologies for the Economic Training of Students in a Technical University",slug:"development-and-usage-of-electronic-teaching-technologies-for-the-economic-training-of-students-in-a",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105610",abstract:"In this chapter, the experience of the Department of Economic Theory in the development and use of electronic technologies in teaching economic theory for students of technical directions is described. The necessity of electronic testing in the context of the concept of practice-oriented teaching has been substantiated. The stages of development and structure of electronic testing are presented. The process of forming the base of test tasks is described. The structure of the software is stated. The experience of approbation and application of testing technology is presented. The influence of electronic testing technology on teaching methods is shown. The issues of electronic support of business games are considered. Electronic technologies are considered as a necessary and essential element in the organization and implementation of business games developed at the department. An assessment of the impact of electronic testing and electronic support of business games on the quality of the educational process is given.",book:{id:"11170",title:"Quality Control",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11170.jpg"},signatures:"Valeryi Semenov"},{id:"82348",title:"Biochar Development as a Catalyst and Its Application",slug:"biochar-development-as-a-catalyst-and-its-application",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105439",abstract:"Biochar is a carbon-rich pyrogenic material that is made from carbon-neutral sources (i.e., biomass). It offers key strategies for carbon capture and storage (CCS) as well as being an environmentally friendly means of soil amendment. The recent recognition of biochar as a versatile media for catalytic applications has prompted preliminary research into biochar’s catalytic capacity and mechanistic practices via various routes. This chapter provides a review of biochar production technologies, biochar’s catalyst development, and its application in various catalytic processes as well as descriptions of the benefits and drawbacks of the various applications currently available. The characteristics of biochar-based catalysts, challenges of effective application of this catalyst system, emerging application, prospects, and future work consideration for effective utilization of biochar-based catalysts were presented.",book:{id:"11537",title:"Biochar - Productive Technologies, Properties and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11537.jpg"},signatures:"Stephen Okiemute Akpasi, Ifeanyi Michael Smarte Anekwe, Jeremiah Adedeji and Sammy Lewis Kiambi"},{id:"82418",title:"Bayesian Networks for Decision Support in Emergency Response: A Model for Missing Person Investigations",slug:"bayesian-networks-for-decision-support-in-emergency-response-a-model-for-missing-person-investigatio",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105047",abstract:"The successful operation of Emergency services (Police, Fire, Medical Emergency) relies heavily upon Information Systems and particularly Decision Support Systems. Missing person cases consume resources from the already overstretched resources of Police Forces. Such cases predominantly come from at-risk groups such as children in care, people suffering from depression, or elderly people suffering from dementia. This chapter reviews current practices used for missing person cases and describes a decision support model based on Bayesian networks.",book:{id:"11068",title:"Contemporary Issues in Information Systems - a Global Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11068.jpg"},signatures:"Denis Reilly"},{id:"82437",title:"Water Availability for the Environmental Flow in Two Rivers of Mexico under Climate Change",slug:"water-availability-for-the-environmental-flow-in-two-rivers-of-mexico-under-climate-change",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104881",abstract:"Adaptation to climate change requires, among others, the modification of river flow regimes to account for the change in household, agricultural, industry, and energy water consumption as well as their short/medium/long-term socioeconomic impact. In this study, the comparative analysis of the variation of the precipitation in relation to the availability of water in the Yautepec and Cuautla rivers in Morelos, Mexico, for the previous period and subsequent period is carried out, to determine the change in the availability of water in the ecosystem. In winter (February), an increase in rainfall on the Yautepec and Cuautla River was observed, where annual seasonal agriculture and Pine and Oyamel forest are the characteristic vegetation. In autumn (October), a decrease in precipitation takes place. The flows in some regions do not coincide with the increase in the percentage of precipitation (Oaxtepec and Las Estacas Stations) and point out the synergistic effect of the human use of the water resource and the effects of climate change. On Ticumán Station, the depletion of the flow only can be associated with the use of the resource by human influence. The modifications caused by alteration of a river’s flow regime and climatic change must be studied through comparative multidisciplinary studies that give to decision-makers the design of environmental flows.",book:{id:"11532",title:"River Basin Management - Under a Changing Climate",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11532.jpg"},signatures:"Rebeca González-Villela, Alfonso Banderas Tarabay and Marco Mijangos Carro"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:803},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:28,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"82285",title:"Parvovirus Vectors: The Future of Gene Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105085",signatures:"Megha Gupta",slug:"parvovirus-vectors-the-future-of-gene-therapy",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:153,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78849",title:"Application of Vermicompost Fertilizer in Aquaculture Nutrition: Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100326",signatures:"Sonnia Nzilani Musyoka and Rita Nairuti",slug:"application-of-vermicompost-fertilizer-in-aquaculture-nutrition-review",totalDownloads:71,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Nutrition - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11416.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"78543",title:"Pulmonary Vein: Embryology, Anatomy, Function and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100051",signatures:"Chan I-Ping and Hsueh Tung",slug:"pulmonary-vein-embryology-anatomy-function-and-disease",totalDownloads:182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78564",title:"Anatomy of the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta): The Essentials for the Biomedical Researcher",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99067",signatures:"Christophe Casteleyn and Jaco Bakker",slug:"anatomy-of-the-rhesus-monkey-macaca-mulatta-the-essentials-for-the-biomedical-researcher",totalDownloads:348,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"77999",title:"Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (BALT) Histology and Its Role in Various Pathologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99366",signatures:"Tuba Parlak Ak",slug:"bronchus-associated-lymphoid-tissue-balt-histology-and-its-role-in-various-pathologies",totalDownloads:212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78242",title:"Genomic Instability and Cyto-Genotoxic Damage in Animal Species",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99685",signatures:"María Evarista Arellano-García, Olivia Torres-Bugarín, Maritza Roxana García-García, Daniel García-Flores, Yanis Toledano-Magaña, Cinthya Sofia Sanabria-Mora, Sandra Castro-Gamboa and Juan Carlos García-Ramos",slug:"genomic-instability-and-cyto-genotoxic-damage-in-animal-species",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78503",title:"Biomechanics of the Canine Elbow Joint",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99569",signatures:"Thomas Rohwedder",slug:"biomechanics-of-the-canine-elbow-joint",totalDownloads:179,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:12,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10664",title:"Animal Reproduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",slug:"animal-reproduction",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yusuf Bozkurt and Mustafa Numan Bucak",hash:"2d66af42fb17d0a6556bb9ef28e273c7",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction",editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition - Production, Health and Environment",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",slug:"advanced-studies-in-the-21st-century-animal-nutrition",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"László Babinszky, Juliana Oliveira and Edson Mauro Santos",hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10497",title:"Canine Genetics, Health and Medicine",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10497.jpg",slug:"canine-genetics-health-and-medicine",publishedDate:"June 2nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Rutland",hash:"b91512e31ce34032e560362e6cbccc1c",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Canine Genetics, Health and Medicine",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/25600/images/system/25600.jpg",institutionString:"Independent Researcher",institution:{name:"Harran University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9081",title:"Equine Science",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9081.jpg",slug:"equine-science",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Rutland and Albert Rizvanov",hash:"ac415ef2f5450fa80fdb9cf6cf32cd2d",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Equine Science",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8460",title:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8460.jpg",slug:"reproductive-biology-and-technology-in-animals",publishedDate:"April 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi and Katy Satué Ambrojo",hash:"32ef5fe73998dd723d308225d756fa1e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",editors:[{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",middleName:null,surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73376/images/system/73376.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"429683",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"bilal-khalid",fullName:"Bilal Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429683/images/system/429683.png",biography:"Dr. Bilal Khalid received a Ph.D. in Industrial Business Administration from KMITL Business School, Bangkok, in 2021, and a master’s in International Business Management from Stamford International University, Bangkok, in 2017. Dr. Khalid\\'s research interests include leadership and negotiations, digital transformations, gamification, eLearning, blockchain, Big Data, and management of information technology. Dr. Bilal Khalid also serves as an academic editor at Education Research International and a reviewer for international journals.",institutionString:"KMITL Business School",institution:{name:"King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin is an Associate Professor of International Business at Laval University, Canada. He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. He is also co-managing editor of Transnational Corporations Review and a guest editor for Electronic Commerce Research and Journal of Internet Technology.",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"189147",title:"Dr.",name:"Hailan",middleName:null,surname:"Salamun",slug:"hailan-salamun",fullName:"Hailan Salamun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189147/images/19274_n.jpeg",biography:"Hailan Salamun, (Dr.) was born in Selangor, Malaysia and graduated from Tunku Ampuan Jamaah Religious High School at Shah Alam. Obtained a degree from the International Islamic University (UIA), Gombak in the field of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage. Next, I furthered my studies to the professional level to obtain a Diploma in Education at UIA. After serving for several years in school, I furthered my studies to the Master of Dakwah and Leadership at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi. I graduated with a Doctor of Philosophy in Principalship Leadership from the University of Malaya (UM) in 2010. I am currently a senior lecturer in the Department of Nationalism and Civilization, Center for Basic and Continuing Education, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu. Prior to that, I had served in several educational institutions such as schools, the Institute of Teacher Education (IPG), and also the University of Malaya. I am also actively involved in paper presentation, writing and publishing. My research interests are focused on leadership, education, society and Islamic civilization. This area of research requires a detailed understanding of Islamic studies and research studies in leadership. Another research interest that I have explored recently is the politics of the Malay community and also the leadership of the mosque.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"442081",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrey",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"audrey-addy",fullName:"Audrey Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"437993",title:"Mr.",name:"Job",middleName:null,surname:"Jackson",slug:"job-jackson",fullName:"Job Jackson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Management College of Southern Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"428495",title:"Prof.",name:"Asyraf",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Rahman",slug:"asyraf-ab-rahman",fullName:"Asyraf Ab Rahman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"429650",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacqueline",middleName:null,surname:"Kareem",slug:"jacqueline-kareem",fullName:"Jacqueline Kareem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Christ University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421041",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Ramdas",slug:"sunil-kumar-ramdas",fullName:"Sunil Kumar Ramdas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jain University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421833",title:"Mr.",name:"Eugene",middleName:null,surname:"Owusu-Acheampong",slug:"eugene-owusu-acheampong",fullName:"Eugene Owusu-Acheampong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"239876",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Mourão",slug:"luciana-mourao",fullName:"Luciana Mourão",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Salgado de Oliveira",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"421735",title:"Dr.",name:"elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"addy",slug:"elizabeth-addy",fullName:"elizabeth addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442083",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"james-addy",fullName:"James Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437991",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque",slug:"muhammad-hoque",fullName:"Muhammad Hoque",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421006",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Uster",slug:"anna-uster",fullName:"Anna Uster",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470243",title:"Dr.",name:"Md Samim",middleName:null,surname:"Al Azad",slug:"md-samim-al-azad",fullName:"Md Samim Al Azad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470244",title:"Dr.",name:"Slimane",middleName:null,surname:"Ed-dafali",slug:"slimane-ed-dafali",fullName:"Slimane Ed-dafali",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421011",title:"Dr.",name:"Afatakpa",middleName:null,surname:"Fortune",slug:"afatakpa-fortune",fullName:"Afatakpa Fortune",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"446057",title:"Mr.",name:"Okedare",middleName:null,surname:"David Olubukunmi",slug:"okedare-david-olubukunmi",fullName:"Okedare David Olubukunmi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421778",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatimah",middleName:"Saeed",surname:"AlAhmari",slug:"fatimah-alahmari",fullName:"Fatimah AlAhmari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421024",title:"Prof.",name:"Harold Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Patrick",slug:"harold-andrew-patrick",fullName:"Harold Andrew Patrick",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421065",title:"Ms.",name:"Euzália",middleName:null,surname:"do Rosário Botelho Tomé",slug:"euzalia-do-rosario-botelho-tome",fullName:"Euzália do Rosário Botelho Tomé",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kalala Ndalamba",slug:"ken-kalala-ndalamba",fullName:"Ken Kalala Ndalamba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421826",title:"Dr.",name:"Inusah",middleName:null,surname:"Salifu",slug:"inusah-salifu",fullName:"Inusah Salifu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"420823",title:"Prof.",name:"Gardênia da Silva",middleName:null,surname:"Abbad",slug:"gardenia-da-silva-abbad",fullName:"Gardênia da Silva Abbad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437613",title:"MSc.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Legentil",slug:"juliana-legentil",fullName:"Juliana Legentil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"94",type:"subseries",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",keywords:"Environmental protection, Socio-economic development, Resource exploitation, Environmental degradation, Climate change, Degraded ecosystems, Biodiversity loss",scope:"
\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null},editorialBoard:null},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"82124",title:"Assessment of Diversity, Growth Characteristics and Aboveground Biomass of Tree Species in Selected Urban Green Areas of Osogbo, Osun State",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104982",signatures:"Omolara Aremu, Olusola O. Adetoro and Olusegun Awotoye",slug:"assessment-of-diversity-growth-characteristics-and-aboveground-biomass-of-tree-species-in-selected-u",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg",subseries:{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7437",title:"Nanomedicines",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7437.jpg",slug:"nanomedicines",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",hash:"0e1f5f6258f074c533976c4f4d248568",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Nanomedicines",editors:[{id:"63182",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Akhyar",middleName:null,surname:"Farrukh",slug:"muhammad-akhyar-farrukh",fullName:"Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63182/images/system/63182.png",institutionString:"Forman Christian College",institution:{name:"Forman Christian College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/146112",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"146112"},fullPath:"/profiles/146112",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()