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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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The Coastal Zone is strategically important from environmental, economic, and societal points-of-view. Coastal zones are densely populated, concentrating human settlements, leisure activities, fisheries, and other marine industries. In the last decades, the population, economic assets, and urbanizations in the coastal zones have experienced a rapid growth, and a continuous increase of population in these regions is expected for the near future [1, 2]. The intensification of anthropic activities in coastal regions can boost their vulnerability to extreme events and, consequently, augment damages, cause injuries, and even loss of lives. In the present context of climate changes, an increase in the frequency and strength of extreme events have been reported [2], with potentially severe consequences for both society and environment, affecting human health and infrastructures, and resulting in the loss of property and habitats [3, 4]. For example, a loss of 70% of the coastal wetlands by 2080 is predicted due to a combination of sea-level rise, intensification of coastal urbanization, and increase of constructions for flood defense [5, 6]. Wetlands are highly productive areas, essential not only for fisheries and nature conservation, but also as a natural protection against floods. Their loss can have high socio-economic costs. Thus, extreme events, climate change conditions, and anthropogenic activities can put at risk the Coastal Zone’s prolific flora and fauna and the ecosystem services they provide (e.g., food, fisheries, tourism, cultural services, energy, water abstraction, raw materials, water desalination/treatment, climate, and natural hazard regulation).
In this context, there is a need for scientific and technical information available to decision-makers, to support a sustainable coastal management, and avoid serious damages and higher losses for the littoral populations and coastal environments [7, 8]. This information is crucial to implement early warning systems and find solutions to reduce the negative impacts associated with extreme events (floods, droughts, storm surges, and coastal storms), climate change, and man-made interventions in the Coastal Zone. These can help to reduce exposure and vulnerability, mitigate the associated risks and promote the adaptation and the resilience of the communities to the potential adverse impacts, even though risks cannot be fully mitigated.
Effective protection of the Coastal Zone requires a comprehensive understanding of its morpho-hydrodynamic processes, as well as of the effects of these processes on the territory and the ecosystems. Coasts are land-ocean transition areas and, therefore, Coastal Zone assessment must consider land-ocean interactions, including estuaries and marine areas [9]. Meteorological, oceanographic, morphological, chemical, and biological parameters, obtained through
A complete estuarine/coastal dynamics characterization and, particularly, the assessment of future conditions, could be achieved through results obtained with numerical models [7, 11]. These models provide predictions of future trends and outcomes for different scenarios, hence supporting the implementation of sustainable action plans. Nevertheless, it should be noticed that field data is crucial for proper implementation of numerical models. Measured data are needed to define the models’ initial states, forcing conditions, and static computation of calibration parameters values, or its dynamic computation using data assimilation techniques. Field data are also required to assess the numerical models performance comparing model results to measurements. So, despite the fact that advanced numerical models are excellent tools to understand the Coastal Zone behavior, comprehensive periodic or continuous monitoring campaigns in estuarine and coastal regions are still crucial to ensure the effectiveness of model application. Moreover, some of the complex morpho-hydrodynamic processes that take place in the coastal environment are still poorly understood. The combination of numerical and field monitoring methodologies should be pursued to improve our knowledge about those processes.
Considerable effort has been made to provide the most accurate estimations for the complex estuarine/coastal circulation, using either simple box models or complex numerical model suites. With the development of high-resolution numerical modeling systems, essential decision-making support instruments became available for an effective and integrated marine and coastal management. Numerical models are essential to properly assess the effect of each forcing driver, accurately representing the dynamical processes of estuarine/coastal systems [10]. Their input can be manipulated to represent the impact of changes in initial and boundary conditions, topo-bathymetric features, and coastal structures [12]. They can help to overcome the lack of field observations and measurements, allowing a full characterization of the morpho-hydrodynamic, chemical, and biological behavior of coastal regions, and providing valuable information to promote population, services and ecosystems safety [13, 14].
The current modeling tools available for coastal and estuarine studies allow an almost complete representation of the physical conditions of these areas. There is a large variety of models and techniques. The numerical techniques can be based on several methods, such as finite element, finite difference, finite volume, boundary element, or Eulerian-Lagrangian. The time integration algorithms can be explicit, implicit, semi-implicit, or characteristic-based. The functions can be of the first, second, or higher order, and the spatial dimensions can be one-dimensional (either in the horizontal plane 1DH or in the vertical 1DV), two-dimensional depth integrated (2DH) or lateral integrated (2DV), or three-dimensional (3D) [15, 16]. It is therefore important to properly select the adequate numerical model tool for the specific problem(s) the user wants to solve. This selection should be made in each case considering a compromise between the available data for model calibration and validation, the objectives of the model simulations and the available computational resources.
The most powerful modeling suites currently available (Delft3D, open TELEMAC-MASCARET, SWASH, ROMS, MOHID, SELFE, ADCIRC, Tuflow-FV, FVCOM, Mike21, etc.) are able to simulate several physical processes and environmental actions, such as flood/ebb cycles, bathymetry dynamics, friction, river discharge, water levels dynamics, currents velocity, wind action, waves, density effects, sediment transport, or Coriolis force, among others. Normally, numerical tools to model these processes are available in different and separate modules that the user can select depending on the desired complexity of the solutions. Modeling suites can also contain additional modules that allow the characterization of biological and ecological processes that are fundamental for water quality assessment, recurring to both Lagrangian and Eulerian transport approaches, including larvae migration, ecological status, nutrients concentration, pollutant evolution, etc. But, even these biogeochemical modules are completely dependent on the results obtained by the modules that represent the hydrodynamic patterns. The hydrodynamic conditions (water levels, currents velocities, temperature, and salinity) resulting, for example, from the complex interaction between tides, waves, storm surge, wave set-up, and river discharge, will define the main transportation patterns of sediments, larvae and pollutants with a direct effect on the ecosystems.
Most of the numerical models applied to coastal and estuarine regions can be implemented in 2DH/V or 3D configurations. 2DH simulations simplify the computational requirements by solving the shallow water equations. It has been demonstrated that this kind of models can accurately reproduce current velocity, flood extent, and water levels, being useful to complement risk assessment tools and early warning systems, because less computational resources are required and the numerical solutions are much faster obtained. Several authors used 2DH models with satisfactory results [14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24], though 3D models are required to properly represent several processes, like vertical stratification, vertical current profiles, turbulent mixing processes, sediment transport, turbidity, water quality, effects of salinity, and temperature gradients on river plumes or salt-wedge estuarine configurations [25, 26, 27, 28].
Regarding the equations and their approximations, 3D models are normally based on the Navier-Stokes equations or its depth-integrated version, the shallow water equations, which are applicable when the horizontal scale is much greater than the vertical scale. The shallow water equations applied to 1DH or 2DH problems are also known as Saint-Venant equations [29]. Despite their wide applicability, shallow water equations are not able to properly represent small relative amplitude waves propagating in shallow water conditions, which is of upmost importance to simulate the superposition between waves and currents, the effects of the waves on the sediment transport, the waves interaction with the bottom, or other wave processes, as shoaling, reflection, refraction, diffraction and decomposition [16, 30]. For this purpose, more sophisticated models are needed, like the ones of Boussinesq, Korteweg de Vries, Serre, or Green-Naghdi. These models include additional terms that take into account the nonhydrostatic effects of free surface curvature. Boussinesq equations [31, 32] are derived from the Navier-Stokes equations by depth-averaging them considering the pressure as nonhydrostatic [33]. Boussinesq-type equations can account nonlinear and dispersive effects considering various degrees of accuracy. The Korteweg de Vries equation, which was first introduced by Boussinesq and rediscovered by Korteweg and de Vries [32, 34] describes weakly nonlinear shallow water waves, allowing the representation of solitary wave solutions [35]. However, it must be considered that the wave dynamic becomes strongly nonlinear in the final stages of shoaling, particularly in the surf and swash zones. To properly represent this phenomenon and provide a correct description of the waves up to the breaking point, fully nonlinear equations should be considered, as the Serre or Green-Naghdi equations. Serre equations [36], also known as the Su-Gardner equations, are deduced from the fundamental equations of fluid mechanics, but taking into account the incompressibility of the fluid, the vertical uniformity of the velocity field and the conservation laws [16]. Finally, Green-Naghdi nonlinear equations [37] considers the 3D water-wave problem with a free surface and a variable bottom, and taking into account that the fluid can be rotational [38].
A comparison between the effectivity of different models and approximations is a really difficult task if the models are not implemented for the same region and considering the same initial/forcing conditions. Nevertheless, there are already some works where the capabilities of different numerical models are compared. Walstra et al. [39] applied the PISCES and the Delft3D models to coastal environments, depicting a general good overall agreement of both models, except for Delft3D under low wave conditions and for PISCES when a flow generated by the breaking of the waves on the shoal is presented. Rahman and Venugopal [25] compared 3D versions of open TELEMAC-MASCARET and Delft3D to represent the hydrodynamic conditions of the Pentland Firth and also the tidal regime energy in that area. Open TELEMAC-MASCARET seems to show the best consistency with the field data, although Delft3D also obtained good results for water level variations. The same models but in a 2DH version were selected by Iglesias et al. [14] to model floods at the Douro estuary. A small underestimation and overestimation of Delft3D and open TELEMAC-MASCARET, respectively, were observed for surface elevation for nonflood scenarios. For historical floods, the two models obtained very similar results, despite using different numerical approximations. The different numerical approximations of Mike 21 FM, Delft3D, and Delft3D FM were tested by Symonds et al. [24], confirming that despite the differences in the grids configuration, all the approaches accurately predict hydrodynamic conditions in complex estuarine regions. They also demonstrate that the unstructured models present a higher computational efficiency.
There is, hence, a wide range of numerical models that can be applied to estuarine/coastal zones to proper characterize these complex areas and gain a deep understanding of their hydrodynamic characteristics. Through the implementation of numerical algorithms, the circulation in these systems can be reproduced and different hydrodynamic processes can be represented. And knowledge about the hydrodynamic patterns influenced by bottom morphological changes may allow assessment and forecasting of the effects of hazardous and extreme events, anthropogenic intervention, or climate change. Hydrodynamic modeling has therefore been the focus of a large number of previous works in estuarine environments [11, 14, 17, 21, 22, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50].
Nowadays, the available powerful computational resources and complex numerical model suites allow the implementation of high-resolution studies with accurate results. Some examples are the works of Dias et al. [50] and Jones and Davies [46] for estuarine tides, Pinho and Vieira [44] for estuarine salt-water intrusion, Robins and Davies [21] and Sutherland et al. [43] for estuarine and coastal morpho-hydrodynamic behavior, Pinho et al. [45] and Iglesias et al. [14] for estuarine flood studies, Pinho et al. [51] for coastal waters hydrodynamics and water quality, Antunes do Carmo et al. [16] for agitation in harbors, Antunes do Carmo and Seabra-Santos [30] for coastal protection, and Monteiro et al. [22] for coastal circulation and river plumes. However, every modeling system has its own advantages and limitations, and model solutions will display uncertainties related with errors, calibration parameters, or model assumptions and forcing functions. Given the need for accurate forecasts, finding and implementing new solutions to avoid such errors is crucial. A single model can have biases, high variability, or inaccuracies related with the specification of initial conditions or the representation of physical processes in the models, causing large uncertainties in numerical prediction systems that can affect the reliability of the obtained results [52]. So, why not use several models to reduce uncertainties?
The e
Two types of
To combine the outputs of different models, several statistical techniques can be applied, considering the mean, the median, a linear regression, weighted average, or linear programming techniques, among others [52, 57, 63, 64, 65]. Computing the mean of the
The
The need for an accurate forecasting based on numerical models becomes clear when the Douro and Minho estuarine regions are analyzed. Although these estuaries, located in the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula, are separated by a distance of less than 100 km (Figure 1), their dynamics and environmental conditions are completely different (Table 1). Despite presenting similar seasonal river flow regimes (Figure 2), with minimum values in summer and maximum values in the rainy winter season, flow values and patterns differ. For the Minho river, between 1970 and 2018, a maximum daily mean river flow of 4600 m3/s was measured at Frieira dam; whereas the Douro presented a maximum daily mean river flow of 10,990 m3/s at Crestuma-Lever dam between 1986 and 2018. The difference between these two systems is also evident when river flood peak discharges associated with different return periods are estimated (Table 2). The different river discharge patterns suffice to support the need for a focused and local hydrodynamic characterization of the two estuaries when trying to avoid future risks related with human interventions (dredging, ports, alterations in the estuarine banks, designing of breakwaters, etc.), extreme events such as coastal and estuarine floods or storm surges, sea-level rise and the increase in the number and/or intensity of extreme events associated with climate change predictions. However, a comparison of the main estuaries characteristics and bathymetric conditions (Table 1 and Figures 1 and 3), reinforces this necessity. For the river flood peak discharges analysis, we assumed that the probability distribution for extreme flow events follows a Gumbel law [67]. Daily mean river flow data was provided by the SNIRH-
Minho and Douro estuaries’ location and bathymetry (in metres—vertical datum MSL-mean sea level). The horizontal coordinates of the bathymetric maps are in datum PT-TM06/ETRS89.
Douro | Minho | |
---|---|---|
Hydrographic basin (km2) | 97,603 | 17,080 |
River length (km) | 927 | 300 |
Estuarine mouth | Artificial (breakwaters) | Natural (rocks) |
Estuarine limit | Artificial (dam) | Natural (limit of tide penetration) |
Estuarine extension (km) | 21 | 35 |
Estuarine river flow | Artificial (dam) | Artificial (dam) |
Mean depth (m) | −13.8 | −7.6 |
Maximum estuarine width (m) | 1,300 | 2,100 |
Minimum estuarine width (m) | 135 | 160 |
Main characteristics of each considered estuary.
Box plots representing the monthly minimum (lower whisker), lower quartile (25%, bottom box limit), median (red line), upper quartile (75%, top box limit), and maximum (upper whisker) daily mean river flow values of the Douro and Minho rivers flows, from 1986 to 2018 and from 1970 to 2018, respectively. Data source: SNIRH (
T (years) | Q Douro (m3/s) | Q Minho (m3/s) |
---|---|---|
10 | 7,655 | 3,308 |
20 | 9,215 | 3,944 |
50 | 11,235 | 4,767 |
100 | 12,748 | 5,383 |
200 | 14,256 | 5,998 |
500 | 16,246 | 6,809 |
1000 | 17,749 | 7,421 |
River flood average daily extreme discharges (Q) associated with different return periods (T).
Minho and Douro estuaries’ bathymetric profile for the estuarine central axis (in metres—vertical datum MSL-mean sea level).
The bathymetric map for the Minho estuary (Figure 1) was constructed using several topographic and bathymetric data sets: topographic data provided by the Portuguese Direção Geral do Território (DGT; http://www.dgterritorio.pt/) as a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) obtained from a nation-wide altimetric survey carried on in 2011 with a LiDAR (light detection and ranging); and bathymetric data provided by the Portuguese
The Douro River is one of the major rivers of the Iberian Peninsula. It flows from the Sierra de Urbion, in Spain, to the Atlantic Ocean, in northern Portugal, ending in an urban estuary surrounded by two major cities: Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia (Figure 1). The Douro is a highly dynamic narrow estuary with torrential regimes that produce strong currents and recurrent severe floods that cause serious damage to the riverine populations and navigation problems [68, 72]. Its dynamics is mainly forced by freshwater flows, being very dependent on highly variable natural conditions and on the hydropower production schedule of the Crestuma-Lever dam and of the other 50 national and international river basin dams. For flow rates above 800 m3/s, the river water masses rush to the sea and seawater intrusion is prevented. For flow rates below 800 m3/s, the ocean water enters the estuary, which acquires a salt-wedge configuration [73]. This has a strong effect on the freshwater residence time, which can vary from 8 h to more than 2 weeks [74]. The bathymetric configuration of the Douro estuary presents an irregular distribution with depths generally varying between 0 and 10 m (Figures 1 and 3). Depths up to 28 m can be found associated with narrower sections, outer bends, and former sites of sediments extraction [72]. At the southern margin of the estuary’s mouth lies a wetland (São Paio Bay) and an estuarine sand spit (Cabedelo) that partially obstructs the river mouth, protecting the estuary from the ocean’s storm waves. This sand spit is made up of fluvial and maritime sediments, and its morphodynamics is conditioned by natural (wind, rainfall, river flow, waves, tides and storm surges) and human (breakwaters and dams construction, sand extraction, and dredging) processes [68, 75, 76]. To prevent erosion of the sand spit or its excessive migration into the navigation channel, maintaining both navigability and bank protection, a new detached breakwater was built parallel to the head of the sandbar, and the existing northern breakwater was extended. These structures, concluded in 2008, interfere with local sedimentary and hydrodynamic patterns, significantly increasing the area and volume of the sand spit in a relatively short period (∼10 years) [68, 77]. Historical records reveal ruptures or partial destruction of the sandbar during river flood events, allowing for a rapid discharge of excess water and reducing the risk of urban flooding [68]. Now, with a stronger sandbar, its rupture is less probable and the effect of a flood is likely to be harsher, both in terms of economic losses and structural damage [14].
There are some previous works that aimed to reproduce the Douro estuary dynamics using numerical models. Silva [78] implemented a 2D depth-averaged (2DH) hydrodynamic model for the lower estuarine area, to represent the effect of several engineering works on the main currents configuration. Using the 1994 configuration, he found that relatively small alterations of the estuarine mouth conditions can produce marked changes in the currents strength and direction for normal winter conditions (river flow ∼1000 m3/s). The impact of the structures at the estuary’s mouth on hydrodynamics, salt-water intrusion, and sediment transport was also presented by Pinho et al. [79], considering several scenarios of mean river flow. Their solutions, which were obtained using two coupled models: one for hydrodynamics and another for sediment transport, revealed maximum current velocities and maximum erosion at the estuarine mouth between the breakwaters. Similar patterns were obtained by Portela [72] and Iglesias et al. [14]. Particularly, Iglesias et al. [14] implemented two different numerical models for the Douro river to depict the effect of the sand spit in the floods water levels, demonstrating that the new breakwaters configuration and the strengthening of the sand spit will probably produce an increase in high-water levels during flood conditions, with expected severe impacts on the estuary banks. River floods were also simulated by Araújo et al. [80]. However, their work was focused on numerical model meshes development rather than on the socio-economical impacts of floods. Other related research are the modeling works of Azevedo et al. [81, 82], which related the estuary’s hydrodynamic behavior with contaminant dispersion, biogeochemistry, and primary production, and the work of Mendes et al. [83], which evaluated the potential effect of sea-level rise in the Douro estuary.
The Minho River is an international river as well; it separates Spain and Portugal in its last 70 km, flowing into the Atlantic Ocean between A Guarda (Spain) and Caminha (Portugal). The Minho estuary is a very shallow water body, with a mean depth of 4 m, but regions close to 20-m depth can be found associated with a narrowing of the main channel, that increases flow velocities and, consequently, erosion (Figures 1 and 3) [84, 85]. Estuarine flows are mainly controlled by the Frieira dam, whose reservoir feeds a hydroelectric power plant located 80 km upstream from the estuary mouth. Due to the low river flow values (see Figure 2), the average water residence time in this estuary is 1.5 days [86]. The tributaries of the Minho between Frieira and the estuarine mouth can provide some additional freshwater to the estuary, but they have a minor influence given their small drainage basins.
One of the most important characteristics of the Minho estuarine region is its large diversity of habitats and its importance for the nursery and feeding of marine species and for ecosystem functioning [87, 88]. For this reason, this estuary is protected by Portuguese and Spanish conservation statutes, preserving a low level of industrialization. Despite the fact that the Minho ecosystem has been intensively studied in terms of its morpho-hydrodynamic characteristics, water quality, biodiversity, populations, and pollution, its dynamics is still essentially unknown [89, 90]. One of this estuary’s main problems is the strong siltation related with high sediment deposition and low currents velocities, which are due to flow rate smoothing by the dam, and the consequent reduction of the frequency and intensity of floods [91, 92]. Being the hydrographic zero the level of the lowest astronomical tide, which is 2 m below the local mean sea level, the area above the hydrographic zero between the river mouth, and 14 km upstream represents about 70% of the total area, indicating a high degree of sedimentation. The morphodynamic patterns generated by silting produced several bathymetric constraints to navigation, such as strangulation or intense variations of bathymetry, and various islands and sandbars that emerge during low tide [85, 93]. Also, during the low water level period of spring tides, the connection between the estuary and the sea is restricted to two shallow channels, causing serious problems for navigation. Dredging campaigns are often carried out to keep the navigation channel open, with possible implications for the morphological evolution of the estuary and adjacent coastal areas [94], and for bottom habitats.
In terms of numerical modeling, there is a lack of publications for this estuary, probably due to the scarcity of
Nevertheless, several conclusions about the morpho-hydrodynamic behavior of the Minho estuary can be inferred from previous works. The estuarine processes may be dominated by the river flow or by the tide depending on the magnitude of these two forcing parameters. Extreme river flows can change the circulation pattern within the entire estuarine and coastal region, restricting the entrance of oceanic water to the mouth of the estuary. In such cases, the tide acts as a resistance to the fluvial flow. Current velocities of the ebb are higher than the velocity during flood, which produces a higher duration of the ebb. This effect is stronger for low river flows. As expected, currents exhibit higher velocities in the narrower sections, particularly at the mouth of the estuary, but they are also stronger during spring tides than during neap tides. The described hydrodynamic patterns will have a direct effect on sediment transport, which is directly proportional to the strength of the flow and the amplitude of the tide. Similar conclusions were obtained by Iglesias et al. [96] using realistic river flow and tide scenarios. Their numerical solutions show a tide dominated estuary, with a visible tidal effect even for extreme river flows. For low river flow conditions, a large part of the estuarine region is dry, becoming exposed to the wind action. In this situation, river flow is confined to two shallow channels in the estuarine area. During high flow conditions, most of the estuary is flooded, with intense currents throughout the estuarine region, except in the widest part upstream from the river mouth, where the estuary widens and the cross-sectional area increases significantly.
The characteristics of an estuarine region depend on numerous drivers that define not only the estuarine behavior, but also its ecosystems and human settlement distribution. In this chapter, these relationships, and differences between estuaries, are highlighted, comparing two near-by but completely different estuarine regions of the northern Portuguese coast. The comparison reinforces the need to analyze each region separately, considering the specific configuration of each estuary for the definition of management protocols, to minimize any potential vulnerability and to allow mitigation of risks and hazardous effects.
The Douro estuary is an urban estuary, where effects of extreme events, anthropic activities, and climate changes will mostly generate problems in urban environments, reflected in structural damages, economic losses, and impacts on tourism and navigation activities. In the Minho estuary, the same phenomena will have different impacts, mostly affecting ecosystems and biodiversity, due to habitat loss and the migration and loss of autochthonous species. In comparison to the Douro estuary, the Minho presents a smaller concentration of population and human activities on its banks. Thus, economic impacts will mainly be caused by changes in the fishing and tourism activities.
The modeling tools that have been developed so far, and which were described above, although extremely useful, need to be further developed. In the case of the Douro estuary, a complete hydrodynamic characterization, which considers the present topo-bathymetric configuration is still needed to fully unravel the estuarine dynamics, assess evolution trends, forecast future developments, including the effects of possible future human interventions, as well as to estimate the risks of flooding and the effect of sea-level rise associated with global warming. The numerical models developed for the Minho estuary are clearly insufficient for a complete characterization of this complex region, as well as for a reliable forecast of, for instance, hazardous events effects. Numerical models, capable of representing the estuarine stratification and its links with tide, river flow, and waves, are key tools to understand the distribution of biota and the functioning of the ecosystem, and to anticipate possible future conditions considering climate change and sea-level rise conditions. In addition, numerical models capable of representing the transport of larvae, pollutant, and sediments in a realistic way are crucial to describe estuarine trends, assess effects of anthropogenic intervention, quantify water residence times and sedimentary/erosive processes, as well as anticipate the effect of extreme river flows.
Next to stressing the relevance of performing regional modeling studies, this chapter also provides a thorough characterization of different available models, techniques, and physical processes simulations, including comparisons of several models performances, underlining the importance of choosing the modeling tool that best suits the numerical problem at hand and the computational means available to the user.
All these facts highlight the relevance of research projects dedicated to improve numerical modeling tools that provide a deeper understanding of the estuarine and coastal zones and represent the dynamics of the systems over time (past and present situations). One example is the project
This research was partially supported by the Strategic Funding UID/Multi/04423/2013 through national funds provided by FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). This contribution has also been funded by project EsCo-Ensembles (PTDC/ECI-EGC/30877/2017), co-funded by NORTE2020, Portugal 2020, and the European Union through the ERDF, and by FCT through national funds.
Antioxidants either endogenous or exogenous are essential substances to regulate the oxidative process. The endogenous antioxidants known as glutathione, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), have an inhibition role on free radicals during oxidation [1]. Nevertheless, either these antioxidant mechanisms are inadequate or for a better healthy life, exogenous antioxidants should be preferred [2]. The exogenous antioxidants which are especially called natural antioxidants such as vitamins, flavonoids, polyphenols, minerals, plants and phytochemicals, are derived from foods and medicinal plants. Over the years, the relationship between natural antioxidants and health has been discussed due to their important efficiencies. Generally, natural antioxidants have a wide range of effects especially antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, immunomodulatory, and antiviral [3, 4, 5]. Belong these, natural antioxidants have been drawing great attention for scientific studies.
\nThere are several multidisciplinary studies with natural antioxidants that have focused on human and animal experiments. The researchers have examined to understand the mechanisms of antioxidants on oxidative stress. They have been widely documented the knowledge of free radicals with antioxidants by identifying the oxidative stress pathway, cellular efficiencies and general health impact [6, 7]. Besides, although higher clinical complications have been observed in diseases, the mechanisms for the use of natural antioxidants are still not fully understood.
\nSince the past century, there have been essential diseases needed to determine how diseases progress and how the world could control them. Environmental factors, insufficient water, climate changes or new viruses influence the spread of contagious disease, and thereby cause epidemics. Nevertheless, The World Health Organization (WHO) has been still working on epidemiological studies to identify the possible sources of outbreaks, and to observe the pathogens spread from one region to different regions of the world [8]. Throughout history, there have been many significant pandemics recorded in human history. Some examples of the most up to date are Influenza virus (H1N1), Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), Ebola, Zika, Yellow Fever, Cholera, Malaria, and Tuberculosis [9].
\nToday, in response to pandemics, people have been transformed into plants and phytochemicals to protect their health. Also, researchers have advocated that these natural foods could meet antioxidant protection. However, studies are still ongoing. This chapter aims to summarize the essential natural antioxidants, their mechanism, and their effects on pandemic diseases.
\nIn recent years, climate change, lack of safe drinking water, poor living conditions and food insecurity have been the main causes of illness, epidemics and pandemics. Besides, there are also many chemicals or toxins, which can contaminate food, drink, and medicines that cause death, injury or harm to organs. The WHO reported that besides environmental changes, many diseases can occur in animals and can be transmitted if animals and people come into close contact, for example, animal husbandry, wildlife trade, etc. Also, urbanization and air travel are essential factors for outbreaks nowadays. First and foremost, flights across the world can cause illness in other countries. This means that the pathogen has a new home, and a pandemic is realized within hours [8].
\nThe WHO indexed the 21st century’s serious diseases, which threaten public health and have no therapeutic strategies, especially vaccines or new medicines, in 2018. Some important as follows: Influenza virus (H1N1), Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), Ebola, Zika, Yellow Fever, Cholera, Malaria, Tuberculosis. It was also reported that in the 21st century, epidemics can spread faster and farther than ever. Besides that, the last announced one, coronavirus-disease 2019 (COVID-19), was accepted as a pandemic disease by the WHO.
\nThe global strategy is to eliminate and eradicate these illnesses through vaccines or medical investments. The WHO also recommends fresh foods and healthy nutrition during pandemics, which positively affect immunity [10]. The key vision of the relationship between nutrition, their role in immunity, and stress management was highlighted. Recent advances are also being critically demonstrated in antioxidant compounds, herbal ingredients, and pharmaceutical products with literature. The coronavirus diseases such as MERS, SARS, and COVID-19, it was reviewed that vitamin C, D and E, have an important role in the regulation of T cell differentiation in immunity [11]. Also, Leite Diniz et al. [12] reviewed that several natural antioxidants can have antiviral properties on metabolic modulation, and can treat the clinical symptoms in SARS, MERS, and COVID-19.
\nNevertheless, it was reviewed that some herbal remedies such as geranium, green tea, pomegranate or Echinacea may be safer than drugs against influenza infections due to the anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant activities of herbs and their extracts [13]. Also, it was showed that all these herbs and extracts have potential effects on respiratory complications and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Kaihatsu et al. [14] reported that natural phenolic compounds and coffee ingredients can inhibit the influenza virus by possessing radical scavenging activity. Moreover, flavonoids in citrus fruits have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities on the pulmonary system which showed by a bronchial epithelium model study [15].
\nThe effect of thyme and its volatile oils may affect the penetration of the virus into the host cell or block viral proteins that are necessary for the virus to enter the host cells. Thyme may also act as an antiviral against intracellular viruses. In the meantime, evidence shows that natural compounds have plays a key role in alternative treatments to fight SARS-CoV-2. Recently determined that SARS-CoV-2 has spike glycoprotein consisted of two units. The first unit initiating virus attachment to the host cell surface and the second unit responsible for the virus-host membrane. Subunits are of great clinical importance as inhibition of the receptor binding domain which is the first step to hinder viral infections. Studies have shown that carvacrol, anethole, cinnamaldehyde, thymol, camphene, pulegone, ocimene and menthol showed good binding affinities and those natural compounds may contribute to the stability of the complex protein ligand [16, 17].
\nFurthermore, the potential effects of marine algal antioxidants on viral diseases has been reported [18]. Besides, some researchers reported that natural foods and natural compounds can have antibacterial and antiviral effects on cellular and molecular pathways, and thereby immunity is improved in several outbreaks such as Ebola, Cholera, Malaria and Tuberculosis [19, 20, 21].
\nPandemics are old as humanity as well as natural antioxidants. Several natural foods and antioxidants have been used for healthy nutrition. However, the impact of several pandemics in the last century, there has been a growing interest between healthy food, nutrition, natural antioxidants and disease. Researchers studied the new therapeutic possibilities of the natural antioxidant for this purpose.
\nA healthy life is associated with the oxidative status of the organism. In a cellular mechanism, the oxidative process starts with oxygen generation to energy. Thereby, free radicals occur as a consequence of energy in mitochondria. The rest products are reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) which have a role in toxicological and pathological conditions. On the contrary, both ROS and RNS positively affect the cellular mechanism and immune system when they are at low levels, which means a normal metabolic process. Free radicals produce against stress conditions and antioxidants during the normal healthy condition, which is also called homeostasis. So, the body tries to maintain the oxidant and antioxidant balance.
\nOxidative stress markers, ROS and RNS, produce homeostasis through enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. Enzymatic reactions include cellular oxidase system like peroxidase, NADPH oxidase, hydrogen peroxidase. On the other side, the non-enzymatic process is based on organic compounds of the organism; for example, oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria [22, 23]. ROS and RNS are formed from endogenous and exogenous sources that belong to several physiological and psychological mechanisms. Endogenous sources are generally occurring by immune cell activation, infection, excessive exercise, aging, or mental stress. However, environmental pollutants, drugs, heavy metals or radiation are exogenous sources, and are metabolized in free radical processes [22, 24].
\nThe oxidative mechanism interacts with the antioxidant, endogenous, or exogenous mechanism. Both antioxidant mechanisms are capable of neutralizing free radicals and protecting the body. Endogenous antioxidant activity is the organism’s first defensive system against free radicals. SOD, GPx, glutathione reductase, and CAT are the most important endogenous antioxidant in a healthy organism. Exogenous antioxidants are nutrients produced from foods and supplements, particularly vitamins E and C, flavonoids, phytochemicals, and certain essential plant-based antioxidants. These compounds can inactivate oxidizing agents and also inhibit inflammatory activation. They can modulate the enzymatic process and inflammatory mediators, including cytokines and peptides [25].
\nOxidative stress, which includes significant bodily activities, is an imbalance between the oxidizing and antioxidant processes. If the oxidative stress cannot be regulated, several damages occur in an organism. While free radicals and oxidants are in excess production, antioxidant reactions are limited, thereby oxidative stress is generated. Several membranes or cellular structures and systems are also adversely affected by this status. Cellular proteins, lipids, lipoproteins, DNA or RNA, and oxidizing compounds, and also critical systems such as cardiovascular, neurological, or immunity, are damaged. For instance, the chains of free radicals react, and the peroxidation of lipids exists. Besides, protein damage affects the structure of the cell membrane as well as the lower antibody output. Also, enzyme activity is reduced due to proteins and occurs in several molecular and cellular mutations. These changes reflect body systems, and diseases can be occur [25].
\nThere are several significant diseases reviewed for oxidative stress in both humans and animals (Figure 1). Cancer is one of the most important one, creates complex changes in an organism such as chromosomal defects or induced free radicals activation. Another critical disease is cardiovascular disease related to stress, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, etc. Studies showed that cardiac structure changes, especially heart failure, hypertrophy, ischemia, or atherosclerosis, generate oxidative stress [26, 27]. Nevertheless, oxidative status and its generation have been described for neurological, pulmonary, and other diseases. It was reported that loss of neuron production and progression stimulates the oxidative process, thereby neurological diseases are presented [28]. The pulmonary diseases are qualified by inflammation and activation of redox transcript factors [29]. Also, researchers have been studied the generation of ROS and RNS in autoimmune and renal diseases, or several other diseases [30, 31, 32]. The importance of the immune system is interested in low antibody production and low protein which concluded in increasing the risks of diseases. Besides that, macrophages’ infiltration of activated immune cells causes inflammation and oxidative damage [30]. Nevertheless, some drugs, heavy metals, or lipid peroxidation molecules are accepted as strong free radicals inducers [33]. The fact that oxidative stress has a large place during inflammation and diseases is inevitable.
\nOxidative stress related diseases.
Oxidative stress has a crucial role in disease onset and development. During viral infections, there may be an increase in the production of oxidizing species not neutralized by the antioxidant system, causing oxidative stress that promotes cell damage [34, 35, 36]. However, it was reviewed that in viral diseases, viruses can control oxidative stress on their benefits in cellular replication [37]. Viruses especially can change the activation of the immune system signaling pathway in oxidative status [38, 39]. ROS and RNS production are triggered by cytokines, and thereby, cell death occurs due to the imbalance between the production of reactive species and the host’s anti-oxidative status. Also, RNA viruses bring about changes in the body’s antioxidant defense system. Viruses are responsible for this by affecting enzymes like SOD and CAT, as well as lowering ascorbic acid, carotenoids and reduced glutathione [40, 41, 42]. Recently, in a pandemic disease COVID-19, lung damage occurs due to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which alter the oxidative stress [43]. Zhao [44] also determined that another immune response of pro-inflammatory cytokines against oxidative stress is activated phagocytes cells in COVID-19. Nevertheless, generated oxidative stress is also associated with nucleic acid damage in viral mutations. It was reported that human coronavirus disease (HCoVs) and SARS are identified by genetic mutations, and also mutations in spike protein [45]. Nevertheless, influenza viruses have been demonstrated with induced oxidative stress with the activation of the Nrf2 pathway in nuclear translocation, and expression in alveolar epithelial cells [46]. Similarly, the hepatitis C virus (HCV) has been linked with genes and phosphorylation of Nrf2 [47]. It was reviewed that the Nrf2 pathway has a critical inhibition role of viral genes [37].
\nManagement of pathogenic effects of viral diseases can be described by the mutual interaction between oxidant and antioxidant status control. Therefore this interaction is also associated with a healthy environment, balanced nutrition, and exogenous antioxidants.
\nThe antioxidant process begins with oxidation when it damages a free radical compound, and then it follows by attempting to restore the body. An antioxidant may act as a pro-oxidant, which has generated ROS and RNS into two ways; breaking the chain and preventing it [48]. A chain breaking antioxidant may stabilize the formation of free radicals in the oxidative state, e.g., lipid peroxidation. Vitamins C and E, or carrots may be accepted in these anti-oxidants that break the chain. On the other hand, endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione, GPx, CAT, and SOD, may inhibit the initiation and propagation steps, consequently delaying the oxidant process.
\nAlong with current literature, there have been several natural antioxidants reviewed for diseases or pandemic diseases [12, 49]. Each of these antioxidant properties is the neutralization capability of oxidative stress (Table 1).
\nNatural Antioxidants | \n|||
---|---|---|---|
Vitamins | \nMinerals | \nPlants | \nPhtyochemicals | \n
Vitamin E | \nSelenium | \nGarclic | \nPolyphenols | \n
Vitamin C | \nZinc | \nGinger | \nFlavonoids | \n
Beta carotene | \nCopper | \nThyme | \nCarotenoids | \n
Lycopene | \nIron | \nEchinacea | \n\n |
\n | \n | Spirulina | \n\n |
\n | \n | Liquorice | \n\n |
Natural antioxidants.
Vitamins, C, E and beta-carotene, which also called as primary antioxidants, have the beneficial effect either in health or diseases. Nevertheless, excessive doses of vitamins can be harmful rather than safe. So there has been ongoing research on nutritional antioxidants. WHO recommends antioxidants for malnutrition, disease, and pandemic-related needs [10]. Besides, nutritionists have endorsed antioxidant foods for humans first, while they have also pointed out that supplements may help.
\nVitamins E and C have a higher antioxidative capacity among vitamins. Vitamin E (also known as tocopherol or alpha-tocopherol) has been reported to protect cellular membranes from lipid peroxide. Studies have suggested that vitamin E may be used in breast cancer, arthritis, some cardiovascular and neurological diseases. Besides, it was determined that the long-term use of vitamin E is acceptable as being available. Sources of vitamin E include vegetable oils, walnuts, cereals, eggs, poultry, and meat [50].
\nNonetheless, vitamin C, called ascorbic acid, is essential for carnitine, neurotransmitter biosynthesis, and collagen. This vitamin has antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, and immunomodulatory effects, which has also reduced the incidence of cancers. Also, vitamin C acts alongside vitamin E to quench free radicals. Vitamin C is found throughout natural sources such as fruits, vegetables, and tomatoes [51].
\nBeta-carotene, which is an active ingredient of pro-vitamin A, is a powerful antioxidant. Beta-carotene has the potential to quench oxygen during oxidative stress. This pro-vitamin has an antioxidant effect on cardiovascular diseases and cancer in particular. Beta-carotene comprises many foods, mainly green plants, spinach, carrots, oils, mangoes, apricots, and a watermelon [52, 53]. Another essential carotenoid, lycopene, is a vegetable nutrient that has protective effects on pulmonary cells and cancer. Lycopene was shown to be capable of balancing free radicals. The best source of lycopene is cooked tomato, juice, and sauce [54]. What are more, more red and pink fruits have this vitamin, like watermelon, grapefruit.
\nHigh doses of vitamins are recommended for using safely during pandemics. It was reported that especially Vitamin C has used for the treatment of cardiovascular, pulmonary disease as well as sepsis or nephropathy. It was evaluated that vitamin C can improve the mechanical ventilation of patients [55].
\nThere are several antioxidant minerals, in particular, selenium, zinc, copper, and iron. Selenium is an essential mineral in several vegetables, mushrooms, meat, and seafood, with anticarcinogenic and immunomodulatory effects. Selenium also plays a crucial role in thyroid function, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and pulmonary diseases [48]. Selenium contains about 35 antioxidant proteins, which reduce free radicals and allow cytoprotective antioxidant genes [56]. The mineral targets hydrogen peroxide and transforms it into water.
\nThe other minerals Mn, Cu, Zn, and Fe, can maintain the endogenous antioxidants. Fe and Cu can suppress free radicals’ formation by keeping bound to transport proteins. A high dose of Fe may negatively affect Zn′s absorption to damage the immune system. It was reported that the increase of Zn in the cell has an antiviral effect in COVID-19 [57]. Also, Te Velthuis et al. [58] determined that a low dose of Zn inhibits replicating the virus in SARS.
\nNevertheless, Cu is an essential mineral for cellular respiration, iron metabolism, and reducing oxidative stress. It was observed that Cu has an antiviral effect in some diseases such as COVID-19, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), or bronchitis [59, 60]. On the other hand, according to some kinds of literature, Fe and Cu may be toxic due to an increase of viral replication and mortality in diseases, for example, HIV or COVID-19 [60]. Therefore, it was accepted that Cu and Fe must be taken in sufficient doses for the biological mechanism [61].
\nAs the pandemic diseases continuing, humans should boost their immune system by taking sufficient minerals. Optimal nutrition can exist with dietary nutrient intake including especially vitamins and minerals.
\nEarlier scientific studies have shown that commonly used wild edible plants, spices and herbal teas have high antiviral activity against a variety of viruses. There is also evidence that some of these drugs are used for various types of coronavirus diseases as potential phyto antiviral agents [62].
\nNatural antioxidants can alternate the multiple pathological processes in oxidative stress, primarily oxidative damage, inflammation, genetic changes, growth factors, etc. It was reviewed that natural antioxidants, mostly plants, and phytochemicals, can improve either oxidant status or antioxidant capacity [12]. Several plants are alternative medicines, such as ginger, garlic, curcumin, thyme, licorice,
Garlic, which is the most crucial spice worldwide, has a remarkably enhanced immune system booster. It may boost the activity of natural killer cells during immune deficiency. This medicinal herb has been approved as a therapeutic agent for homeostasis [65]. Furthermore, garlic has been used against cancer and cardiovascular disease [66]. This interesting spice, which has been used as a seasoning herb and traditional medicine in immunity and viral diseases, has several compounds such as saponin, cardio glycoside, and flavonoids [67, 68, 69]. Antiviral effects in garlic depend on inhibition of viral replication effects, viral protein synthesis, and viral DNA polymerization [70]. Also, garlic and its extracts have been shown to improve CAT and GPx enzymes and act as a collector of hydroxyl radicals [71]. It was reviewed that garlic and its extracts may be an alternative medicinal herbs against COVID-19 [72].
\nGinger is a well-known herb with several effects such as treating sickness, colic, and appetite, controlling gastrointestinal problems, and respiratory infections. It is also accepted as a neuroprotectant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral, and anticancer [73, 74]. This herb can maintain homeostasis by cooling the body, and reduce high fever. It was also reported that ginger shows its effect by inhibiting productions of nitric oxide and superoxide [75, 76]. Chang et al. [77] reported that ginger can block the viral attachment in respiratory epithelium, and is effective in human respiratory syncytial virus.
\nA blue-green microalga named Spirulina is a popular superfood with several beneficial effects such as antioxidant, antiviral, immunomodulatory, etc. [5]. It was reported that Spirulina could inhibit viral replication by blocking replication [78]. Hernández-Corona et al. [79] found that Spirulina inhibited the viral cell penetration and replication in a virus disease named herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1). It was reviewed that the antiviral features of Spirulina are belonged to acidic polysaccharides extract such as calcium spirulina. Moreover, studies suggested that Spirulina may be safe for managing influenza outbreaks, however, additional investigations are needed. [80, 81, 82].
\nEssential oils are aromatic oily liquids derived from plant material. These natural products have been widely used, in particular fragrances, cosmetics, aromatherapy, and herbal medicine, spices, nutrition, and agriculture. Essential oils have a known biological activity, including antibacterial, antiviral, anti-fungal, and anti-inflammatory effects [83].
\n\n
Thyme, curcumin, and licorice have been used for decades safely for both therapeutic and treatments. The ingredients of the essential oils of the origanum species were linalol, γ terpinene, p-cymenon, thymol and myrcene. Thymus’s essential oil consists primarily of thymol. Other components found other than thymol are carvacrol, linalyl acetate, linalool, γ-terpinene, p-cymene and geraniol. Numerous studies have been carried out over the application of detected phenolic compounds as an antioxidant and antiviral activities have been tested, and it shows the antiviral effects against respiratory syncytial virus, Coxsackie virus, and herpes simplex virus type 1 [86]. Zhang et al. [86] reported that a significant ingredient of thyme has antiviral and antioxidant features. Curcumin is an active supplement to inhibit the activation of cytokines and neutrophils in the lungs. Many clinical studies have evaluated its effect on inflammation, immunity, microbial, and viral conditions [87]. It was also reported that curcumin could induce the glutathione level as a scavenger of free radicals [37]. On the other hand, an exciting herb named licorice can grow in many geographical structures worldwide. It was reported that licorice could reduce hepatocellular damage in hepatitis B and C. Nevertheless, it has an antiviral effect on HIV and SARS virus [88]. Also, licorice has an immunomodulatory effect, and it can induce respiratory activity [89]. It was determined that licorice shows these activities by its extracts named triterpene, saponins, and flavonoids [90].
\nScientific studies on different species of cistus have shown that different species of the plant contain useful phytochemical products. Plant-derived polyphenols have been shown to be strong antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, cytotoxic and anti-cancer properties with potential health benefits [91].
Begun to be remembered with the existence of human beings, the olive was the symbol of peace and healthy life in every period of life from antiquity. Olive leaf traditionally used against hypertension, diuretic, antipyretic, appetizing and against constipation [93]. The olive leaf contains much more oleuropein than other parts. It has demonstrated that it is a phytochemical active against numerous diseases. Principal active constituents of the olive leaf are oleanolic acid and calcium elenolate compounds. These compounds have been shown to have anti-viral activity against many viruses such as parainfluenza, herpes simplex, pseudorabies, polioviruses (type-1, −2, and − 3), rhinoviruses, mycoviruses, coxsackievirus [94].
\nPhytochemicals are produced in plants, which are also referred to as naturally occurring plant chemicals. Several studies have demonstrated that flavonoids or phytochemicals may block these diseases’ enzymatic activities [12, 95]. The most significant phytochemical compounds, polyphenols, flavonoids, and carotenoids, have been identified as antioxidants [96]. Polyphenols referred to as resveratrol and ellagic acid, are natural compounds in green tea, red wine, whole grains, grapes, and berries. They have potent antioxidants, metabolic, and cardiovascular effects. They can inhibit the proliferation of lung cancer cells by increasing autophagy [97, 98]. Resveratrol and ellagic acid may also help protect DNA and balance cell cycles. Also, it was reported that there is insufficient information on side effects and efficacy. Hence, traditional treatments need to be discussed before treatment.
\nNevertheless, it was reported that flavonoids have an inhibition role in macrophages against inflammatory cytokines production in viral diseases [99]. There are some crucial plants included flavonoids, such as green tea, grapes, apples, and
Plant carotenoids were considered in terms of their role as mediators of free radicals through oxidation or oxygenation [108]. Furthermore, carotenoids act as chemical quench, which is necessary for the antioxidant function. They may reduce the risk of disease, in particular cancer and cardiovascular disease. The most important carotenoids are lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthine, beta-carotene found in tomatoes, carrots and watermelon.
\nTraditional medicinal herbs are rich compounds used in the development of medicines. They have centuries of experience with the use of herbal remedies for prevention and treatment. There are many medicinal herbs scattered geographically throughout the world. As such, further investigations are necessary to identify differences.
\nSeveral clinical approaches have been agreed upon to deal with oxidative stress. Lately, for healthy living, the use of antioxidant supplements has been targeted to provide adequate homeostasis for humans and animals in many diseases or pandemics. Besides the prevention strategies such as isolation, hygiene, and control, nutrition, mostly natural antioxidants, is essential for improving antiviral activity against viral and pandemic diseases such as SARS, COVID-19 and, HIV etc.
\nNatural antioxidants have been used in many therapeutic practices because of their enzyme inhibition and their inhibitory effect on viral protein receptors. In addition, natural antioxidants may enhance immunity during diseases. As well, they have been the subject of multidisciplinary studies [109]. The WHO also acknowledged that there was insufficient evidence of herbal medicines for the treatment or treatment of viral diseases in humans, especially COVID-19 [110].
\nThroughout history, there have been significant pandemic diseases such as the 1918 influenza pandemic (H1N1 virus), HIV and COVID-19. During pandemics, nutrition is as important as health, hygiene, or self-isolation standards. To that end, predominantly natural antioxidants have been used in therapeutic practices. Many herbal medicines, plants, and their extracts have inhibitory effects on pandemic diseases or their symptoms. These nutrients have been investigating their immune-modulating, antiviral, and antioxidant effects for decades. However, all these effects of natural antioxidants are not equal. Research into the health performance of these nutrients is therefore necessary.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n The World Health Organization Influenza virus Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Coronavirus-disease 2019 Human coronavirus disease Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus Human immunodeficiency virus Reactive oxygen species Reactive nitrogen species Glutathione peroxidase Catalase Superoxide dismutase Hepatitis C Virus Copper Ferrous Zinc
\n Vitamin C Vitamin E provitamin A Spirulina Thymol Oleanolic acid and calcium elenolate compounds Gallocatechin Bioflavonoid compound Polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids Linalol, γ terpinene, p-cymenon, thymol, myrcene Superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase, catalase Polyphenols Catechin, quercetin
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