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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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\r\n\tVenomous animals on this planet cover more than 100,000 different species of reptile, arthopod, insects, fishes, mollusks, mammalian and others. During a several hundred million years, venomous animals have evolved to produce venom, which is a complex mixture of toxic proteins and peptides. Recently, in the era of genome science, venomics projects (including genome, transcriptome and proteome analyses of various venomous animal species) have been conducted to disclose divergent profiles and the evolution of venom-related genes. Venomics can provide the latest important information about the antivenom and therapeutic strategy against envenomations, new toxin-delived drugs/tools as leading compounds, and sophisticated mechanism of toxin producing and deliver systems. This book will be focusing on the venom and venomics of various venomous animals.
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After graduating, he was a postdoctoral research fellow for the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) and an assistant professor at the Faculty of Science, Kyushu University. In 1997, he became an associate professor at the Faculty of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan. From 2001 to 2020, he was an associate professor at the Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University. Since then, Dr. Ogawa has been a professor at the Graduate School of Agricultural Science at the same university. He is active in the research fields of applied biochemistry (protein engineering), molecular biology (molecular evolution, venomics), and structural biochemistry. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Overall, about 10,000 flavonoids have been recorded which represent the third largest group of natural products following the alkaloids (12,000) and terpenoids (30,000) [1, 10].
Flavonoids are essential constituents of the cells of all higher plants [11]. Plants have evolved to produce flavonoids to protect themselves against fungal parasites, herbivores, pathogens and ultraviolet (UV) radiation [10]. They resemble in their regulatory properties most of the lipid-soluble vitamins but serve, in addition, due to their color, as communicators with the environment. Flavonoids are recognized by pollinators, for example, insects, birds and animals, which contribute to the dispersion of seeds [11]. They act as symbionts, as allelochemicals, as antimicrobial and antiherbivory factors [10, 12]. Many studies have shown that flavonoids exhibit biological and pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, cytotoxic, anticancer, antiviral, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antithrombotic, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, antimalarial, antileishmanial, antitrypanosomal and antiamebial properties [13–15].
The topics that will be discussed in this chapter describe the regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis, the roles of flavonoids in flowers, fruits and roots and mechanisms involved in pollination and their specific functions in the plant.
Flavonoids can be classified according to biosynthetic origin. Flavonoids are characterized by the presence of 15 carbon atoms in their basic skeleton, arranged in the form C6-C3-C6, which corresponds to two aromatic rings A and B linked by a unit of three carbon atoms, which may or may not give rise to a third ring. The rings are labeled A, B and C [15, 16]. The initial step in the biosynthesis of most flavonoids is the condensation of one
A diagram of the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. Key enzymes catalyzing some reactions: PAL, phenylalanine amonialyase; C4H, cinnamate 4-hydroxylase; 4CL, 4-coumaroyl-coenzyme A ligase; CHS, chalcone synthase; CHI, chalcone flavanone synthase; F3H, flavanone 3β-hydroxylase; DFR, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase; FLS, flavonol synthase; IFS, isoflavonoid synthase; AS, anthocianin synthase and UF3GT, UDP glucose: flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase. Adapted from Ref. [
Although the central pathway for flavonoid biosynthesis was conserved in plants, depending on the species, a group of enzymes, such as isomerases, reductases, hydroxylases, modifies the basic flavonoid skeleton, leading to the different flavonoid classes [1, 16], including chalcones and flavanones which are intermediary compounds in biosynthesis and final products present in various parts of the plant. Anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavones and flavonols are other classes only known as end products of biosynthesis. The other important class is the isoflavonoids, which are formed by migration reaction of 2-aryl side chain to 3-position mediated by isoflavone synthase [1, 16, 18].
The retrochalcones are unusual flavonoids and have reversed A and B rings. The biosynthesis is not yet clearly defined but is likely to be derived from the common C15 intermediate of general flavonoid biosynthesis, more specifically from the reduction of dibenzoylmethanes [19–21] or by 2-hydroxylation of a flavanone [22, 23]. These compounds are restricted to relatively few plant species and have been isolated from some species of the families Leguminosae [24], Annonaceae and Basellaceae [25–28].
Several species reported the presence of chalcone dimers bound by a cyclobutane (Figure 2) [29–35]. The phytochemical study of the roots of
Chalcone dimmers isolated from
Flavonoids occur naturally as compounds associated with sugar in conjugated forms (glycosides), without attached sugar as aglycones [1, 36]. They are often hydroxylated in positions 3, 5, 7, 3′, 4′ and 5′. Some of these hydroxyl groups are frequently methylated, acetylated or sulfated. Prenylation usually occurs directly at a carbon atom in the aromatic rings, but O-prenylation has also been found [11]. When glycosides are formed, the glycosidic linkage is normally located in position 3 or 7, and the carbohydrates are commonly L-rhamnose, D-glucose, glucose rhamnose, galactose or arabinose [1, 11]. These changes often alter their solubility, reactivity and stability. The majority of flavonoids are present in the form of glycosides under natural conditions [1].
The chemical nature of flavonoids varies according to the hydroxylation pattern, conjugation between the aromatic rings, glycosidic moieties, methoxy groups and other substituents [37–39]. Flavonoids contain conjugated double bonds and groups (hydroxyl or other substituents) that can donate electrons through resonance to stabilize the free radicals, which originate in the electronic spectra of flavonoids [40].
Studies on flavonoids by UV spectroscopy have shown that most flavonoids consist of two major absorption maxima: band II (240–285 nm) which corresponds to the benzoyl system of the A ring, while band I (300–400 nm) represents the cinnamoyl system of the B ring (Figure 3) [36, 41].
Band II absorption (originated from A-ring benzoyl system) and band I (from the B-ring cinnamoyl system). Adapted from Ref. [
Functional groups attached to the flavonoid skeleton may cause a shift in absorption. The application of standardized UV (or UV-Vis) spectroscopy has for years been used in analyses of flavonoids [11].
Flavonoids have the ability to sequester free radicals, are natural antioxidants derived from plants and are commonly found in foods and beverages [40]. The main structural features of flavonoids required for antioxidant activity can be determined by three fundamental factors: (1) a 3′,4′-dihydroxy (catechol) structure in the B ring favors the electron delocalization (
Structural groups for radical scavenging [
Flavonoids have different activity mechanisms such as free radical scavenging, inactivation of peroxides and other reactive oxygen species, chelation of metals and quenching of secondary lipid oxidation products [40]. The radical scavenging properties associated with the structure of flavonoids defend against oxidative stress and in doing so reduce heart disease, prevent cancer and slow down the aging processes in cells responsible for degenerative diseases [40, 42].
Plant compounds that are perceived by humans to have color are generally referred to as “pigments.” The three main classes of pigments for coloration in plants are: betalains, carotenoids and flavonoids (anthocyanins) [43, 44]. All three classes of pigments act as visible signals to attract insects, birds and animals for pollination and seed dispersal [11, 43].
The pigments that color most flowers, fruits and seeds are flavonoids, which have the widest color range, from pale-yellow to blue [12]. Anthocyanins occur in all plant tissues and provide a wide range of colors ranging from orange/red to violet/blue [44]. They are formed by glycosides that may have several sugars in position 3; when there are no glycosides, the pigments are called anthocyanidins [12]. In addition to various modifications to their structures, their specific color also depends on pH, copigments and metal ions [11, 45].
The basic chromophore of anthocyanins is the flavylium ion [45, 46]. In acidic medium (pH below 2.5), anthocyanins show intensely reddish coloration or orange due the presence of flavylium cation form. When the pH increases from 2.5 to 4–6, the violet anhydrobase is formed first, but it decolorizes rapidly due the predominance of pseudobase carbinol formed by hydration (Figure 5) [11, 39, 47].
A change in the structure of an anthocyanin in aqueous solution as a function of pH [
Since the flower cell sap is usually weakly acidic, in this pH region, most of the anthocyanins are in colorless form Ref. [47]. Hydration of the flavylium cation, which causes decoloration, may be prevented by formation of a complex between this ion and other substances. This phenomenon is called copigmenting [11, 47]. Such complexes are formed by intermolecular, intramolecular rearrangements and self-association, with organic molecules such as flavonoids, tannins, aromatic acids or metal for chelation [46, 47]. The copigmentation has a stabilizing effect as well as a bathochromic effect on anthocyanins [47]. Various flavonols and flavones act as copigments, with anthocyanins leading to an intensification of flower color [32, 45, 46]. So far, the main pigments targeted for flower and fruit color modifications are anthocyanins that contribute to a variety of colors such as red, pink and blue [44].
Humans recognize the color of a compound by perceiving reflected or transmitted light of wavelengths between 380 and 730 nm, while insects recognize light of shorter wavelengths [43]. Anthocyanins contribute to the UV patterns that are visible to insects and serve to signal flowers and fruits that are attractive to pollinators [45]. The light absorption of anthocyanins extends over most of the spectrum. Particularly, anthocyanins have an intense absorption in the 450–560 nm region (visible region), attributed to the hydroxyl cinnamoyl system of the B ring, while the absorption in the 240–280 nm region (UV region), characteristic of all flavonoids, corresponds to the A ring [32, 39].
The different colors produced by pigments are visible only to animals with the right photoreceptors, and many insects have limited color vision at the red end of the spectrum [40]. Due to the structural diversity of anthocyanins, the presence of one determined anthocyanin in the flower might affect the type of pollinators visiting the plant. The color preferences are different for different pollinators, and blue anthocyanins, for example, appear to attract bees more than red ones. Some butterfly and birds species visit red flowers, suggesting that both groups of animals are attracted to red anthocyanins [12, 40, 48].
A study of anthocyanins in two species of the genus
Flavones and flavonols also contribute to flower color hue. Both groups of compounds comprise unpigmented or pale yellow flavonoids and are mostly invisible to the human eye [43, 44]. Studies on flavonoids by spectroscopy have revealed that most flavones and flavonols exhibit two major absorption bands: band I (320–385 nm) represents the B ring absorption, while band II (250–285 nm) corresponds to the A ring absorption [39]. As they absorb UV, which insects recognize, they give color and patterns to flowers to attract insects [43].
Chalcones and aurones, which provide yellow pigmentation in the flowers of several ornamental species, are relatively rare types of flavonoids [49]. The UV spectra of both compounds are characterized by an intense band I and diminished band II absorption [50]. The major absorption band in chalcones (band I) usually occurs in the range 340–390 nm. Band II is usually a minor peak in the 220–270 nm region, while the long wavelength absorption band in aurones is usually found in the 370–430 nm region. They produce the strongest yellow colors owing to their absorbance at longer wavelengths compared to the other types [50, 51]. Chalcones, flavonols, flavones or anthocyanins usually accumulate in sex organs of flowers, including the pollen. In contrast to man, some insects, especially bees, can perceive in the near ultraviolet (340–380 nm) as well as in the visible region. However, insects are possibly attracted to pollen whose color contrasts against petals due to UV reflective or absorptive flavonoids [46].
Pollination is an essential step in the reproductive process of the world’s nearly 300,000 species of flowering plants because it is usually required for the production of seeds. Pollination can result from the action of abiotic forces such as wind and water, but 80% of the Angiosperms rely on animals, including bats, flies, butterflies, beetles and other insects [52]. Such diversity is acquired through evolutionary processes to ensure successful reproduction [44].
The interactions between organisms are fundamental for the determination of plant abundance and distribution pattern in the community, of the productivity of several cultivated species and of the degree of interference on weeds [53]. Weeds are one of the most important factors that impose limitations on the development of agricultural activity in the world and are difficult to eradicate. The success of weeds in different cropping systems is associated, in part, with their ability to produce, store and release to the environment chemicals with allelopathic properties [54].
Allelopathy can be defined as a process by which compounds from the metabolism of a plant are released, preventing the germination, growth and development of other neighboring plants [55]. These compounds are involved in plant-plant interactions or allelopathy [56] and may influence, for example, in the vegetation of a local, in the succession of plants, in the germination of seeds and in the cultures productivity, among others [57]. Among the main groups of compounds with allelopathic potential are highlighted the benzoquinones, coumarins, flavonoids, terpenoids, glycosides, phenolic acids, alkaloids, rotenoids, catechins and tannins [58, 59].
Although flavonoids have many roles in plants, in relation to their role in allelopathy and the inhibition of seedling root growth [56], the activity of flavonoids in plant-plant interactions can be positive or negative [60]. The negative relations are mainly based on inhibiting germination and growth of other plants seedlings [56], as depicted in Table 1.
Flavonoids of different classes with allelopathic potential.
Some flavonoids present a level of phytotoxicity, indicating that allelopathy could be a beneficial function of the flavonoids to the producing plant [65]. Although the relative role of flavonoids in allelopathic interference has been less well-characterized than of some secondary metabolites, some examples of their involvement in autotoxicity and allelopathy are reported [56]. In a previous study, see [65], presented flavonoids as are at least partly responsible for the strong phytotoxic effects of
Allied to the need for understanding the mechanism action of flavonoids, the importance of the study of allelopathy gains more and more attention in agriculture because these interactions could be employed for reducing weed growth.
Biopesticides based on flavonoids displaying allelopathic properties against weeds can potentially be an efficient natural defense against them [62]. In the study [63], the inhibiting activity against weeds of the species
Flavonoids are found in most plant tissues, provide a range of colors that attract pollinators, and, in fruit, they probably serve to attract frugivores that assist in seed dispersal. All of these pigments also function as antioxidants and sunscreens, absorbing wavelengths of ultraviolet. Their biosynthesis appears to be ubiquitous in plants and evolved early during land plant (from primitive green algae) evolution, aiding in plant protection and signaling. The precise mechanism by which flavonoids participate in allelopathy is still unknown, but the significance of allelopathy has gained more attention in agriculture, for example. Plant-plant interactions can influence or determine diversity, productivity and reproduction of a plant community beyond reduction or inhibition of weed growth.
Social media refers to the use of websites and applications to create and share content or to participate in social networking [1]. Technological developments have given rise to various gadgets including smart-phones, tablets, and laptops to robots too. Living in a digitized era, communication has now become easier and faster with the emergence of various social applications available at the click of a button. While many may agree that social media has connected individuals globally, it has also been used to set standards of beauty for males, females as well as the third gender. This in turn has been known to affect the self-esteem of individuals with regards to body image, body modification and how they view themselves in society. In order to be accepted in society females have to battle body image issues from a very young age, where thin is considered to be the ideal body type [2].
\nThis chapter focuses on the effects of social media on standards of beauty. We review the literature on the role of social media and how they affect the physical and psychological beauty of individuals in society.
\nToday, Social Media is one of the most important factors contributing to the mental, emotional, physical and spiritual health of an individual. With the media constantly portraying ideal beauty and body image comparisons, the decisions of men and women’s beauty choices are globally affected.
\n“Body image refers to a person’s perception of their physical self and the thoughts and feelings, positive, negative or both, which result from that perception” [3]. Social media has had a major impact on the perceptual, affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects of body image [3] by encouraging lean body patterns and delivering anti-obesity messages [4]. Eating disorders determine a distorted relationship between the individual, their eating behavior and body shape [5]. Adolescence being a crucial age for positive and negative development of body image, the self-esteem and body dissatisfaction adolescents feel are known predictors of eating disorders [6]. Continuous pursuit for the perfect slender lean body may generate negative feelings which can result in a change in eating behavior, thereby increasing the chances of weight issues and eating disorders [4, 7]. Social media portrays women who are slim as being more beautiful and successful compared to overweight women [8]. Body image misperception and dissatisfaction with body weight highlight an association between body dissatisfaction and psychological wellbeing [9].
\nBody image concerns are common in women and men globally, but social media has now increased these concerns through advertising, videos and the use of social media. Milkie [10] conducted in-depth interviews on 60 white and minority girls to examine the effect of media on self-esteem. Results indicated that most girls felt that the images shown in media were unrealistic and not real. White girls felt that boys evaluated them on the basis of the images found on media platforms whereas the minority girls felt that the images portrayed on media did not meet the expectations of the reference group they oriented themselves with. The evolution from adolescence to adulthood has seen 12–16 teenage girls experience emotional changes in interpersonal and intrapersonal development as well as bodily changes such as sudden weight gain and transition from a young girl to a fully grown woman [11, 12]. In today’s world, the self-presentation of beauty and perceptions of others plays an important role in developing identities in girls [13, 14]. New interactive platforms present in social media demonstrate how self-presentations and peer influences are interrelated with the standards of beauty [15]. Many women may imitate their ideal media personality due to the social, psychological and practical rewards associated with this ideal and the belief that their life would change for the better [16].
\nSocial media comprises of social networking sites, image sharing sites, video hosting sites, community blogs, bookmarking sites and gaming sites. Fellow comparisons about self-image and appearances in teenagers have resulted due to social networking sites (SNSs) such as Instagram and Facebook [17]. Teenage girls engage in online self-presentation of posting selfies and sharing the outfit of the day pictures to differentiate themselves with their peers [18]. Media images of ideal beauty standards influence the content and sharing of pictures teenage girls’ post [19]. Individuals are constantly seeking feedback on SNSs through likes, followers and comments to uphold a perfect and stable image of themselves [20]. Teenage girls are vulnerable to the upward comparison as it means that they need to improve their beauty standards, thereby leaving them dissatisfied with their physical bodies, having doubts about their self-worth and also driving them to self-harm behavior [20, 21].
\nTaking selfies and sharing them on popular social platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and Snapchat has increased at an alarming rate during the recent years. A recent study compared selfie takers and non selfie takers and their perceptions of their selfies versus photographs clicked by others. Results indicated that selfie takers perceived themselves as more attractive and likable in their selfies as opposed to pictures taken by others leading to positive distortions of the self [22]. Biases in self-face recognition were seen in men and women in selecting the most attractive modified pictures of themselves [23]. Selfies are no harm per se. But obsession with physical features reveals a lack of holistic perception of self-generated sub-consciously, following an “outside” standard of beauty not defined by the “inner self” of the receiver.
\nPopular socialites Kim and Khloe Kardashian have been slammed with media reports of them using photoshop to edit Instagram selfies by making unrealistic alterations to look thinner and more toned. Emily Bryngelson, an associate designer struggling with an eating disorder, admitted to deleting pictures if they did not receive enough “likes.” The time spent on Facebook photos was linked to self-objectification, weight dissatisfaction, thin idealization and pursuit of thinness [15].
\nThere are multiple factors that affect the beauty standards in the world today, which involve women and men and the third gender individuals trying new trends to be socially accepted. The purchasing decisions of millennials are influenced majorly by social media [24]. 72% of millennials procure beauty products based on Instagram posts and other social networks [25]. Makeup consists of the application of cosmetic products to beautify or change the way one looks either artistically or to conceal flaws. Jang-Soon and Hye-Jin [26] investigated 240 teenage males’ preferences for makeup use. Results indicated that their appearance was one of the major reasons for their social success. The male respondents who were young, unmarried and city residents had an overall positive perception about cosmetics [26]. With bloggers constantly advertising on social media, cosmetic products, have gained popularity.
\nThe images on social media sites are idealized and unreal, due to digital alteration thereby setting high expectations from individuals in society. Imperfections are removed by airbrushing and using other digitized apps to whiten teeth, slim waists and reduce sizes in order to be accepted as beauty ideals [27]. These techniques may further lead to negative consequences of increased body dissatisfaction, body modification and low self-esteem issues. Unrealistic images of feminity, beauty, success and body shape promoted through social media images are associated with development of eating disorders and body dissatisfaction disorders [28, 29].
\nFilters and beauty apps represent another area in which social media has a major influence. Beauty apps encourage women to see and surveil themselves within a “pedagogy of defect” [30]. They include filters and modification apps, surgery try out apps, and esthetic benchmarking apps which help individuals visualize how they will look after certain changes such as teeth whitening, eye bag removal and also whether the individual looks old or young [31].
\n“Body modification refers to the deliberate or permanent altering of an individual’s human anatomy or appearance” [32]. They involve two aspects: the processes that modify form or contours of the body such as metabolic manipulation (weight lifting, extreme dieting, use of drugs/steroids, hormones), cosmetic surgeries and procedures (liposuction, face-lifts, rhinoplasty, botox, eye lash extensions), genital surgery and sex reassignment surgery, restriction or compression (waist training, foot binding), abrasion (teeth filing, scourging, flagellation), elongation (neck, lips, earlobes), partial or full removal of body parts (breasts, penis, ribs, nose etc.), implantation of foreign objects (silicone implants, decorative items under the skin), and prosthetics (false limbs, finger nails, lenses) and processes that mark the surface of the body such as tattooing, piercing, tanning/bleaching, scarification, branding and hair removal [32].
\nYoung women and teenage girls following fitness boards on Pinterest were likely to have intensions to engage in extreme crash dieting or extreme exercising as a result of social comparison leading them to feelings of inadequacy and body dissatisfaction [33, 34].
\nFrom professional athletes to celebrities, contouring, tattooing and body piercings has gained popularity in today’s society [35]. Individuals who get tattooed refer to it as a piece of art and piercing as fashion accessories, for the purpose of embellishment or as a self-healing effect after having being abused [36, 37, 38, 39]. A survey conducted at an American University found body piercings in 42% of men and 60% of women with piercings involving tongue, lips, nose, navel, genitals, nipple and eyebrow besides the earlobe piercing. Bacterial infections, bleeding and local trauma were common complications faced. “Tattoos were present in 22% of male students and 26% of female students” [40].
\nAnother reason why individuals engage in body modifications is to maintain self-identities and be distinctive from others [41, 42]. Physical endurance, lust for pain, spirituality and cultural traditions, addictions, resistance, sexual motives, group commitments are reasons why individuals adopt modification procedures [43]. Social Media has had a tremendous effect on how individuals perceive and endure painful tattooing and body modifications after viewing popular Instagram and Pinterest handles. Brief exposure to body modifications on popular social networking sites has seen an increase in tattoo searches and body modification procedures in young as well as older individuals, proving the impact of Social Media on Beauty trends in society.
\nSocial media has a robust influence on the beauty, health and hospitality industry with women and men engaging in weight loss and diets to avoid gaining fat identities that impacted their wellbeing in the long run [44, 45, 46]. Women and men have turned to waxing, shaving and removal of unwanted facial and body hair in order to meet the beauty standards of societal acceptance [47, 48]. Women who did not engage in hair removal were negatively evaluated as being dirty or gross [49, 50]. In 2010, a concept of living dolls emerged online with women practicing the art of appearing “doll like.” These women would engage in usage of wide rimmed contact lenses, hair extensions, corsets, photo editing and surgery including, eye widening, breast implants, liposuction and rib removal to enhance their beauty [31]. Even though women knew the risks in false eyelashes and acrylic nails, they still reported to be continuing to engage in it to feel socially accepted [31].
\nSocial networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and other networking sites have the potential to influence positive beliefs and attitudes in individuals [51]. The online platform has given many individuals a feeling of a “sense of belonging.” Men and women are obsessed with images on social media portals and often search for esthetic body types which are not similar to their own body. Instagram and Facebook often have stories of individuals who have fought hard to change beauty standards through sheer dedication and hard work, be it exercising, eating healthy or building self-esteem and body acceptance through support groups and communities found online. Blocking body shamers can help reinforce confidence in men and women globally. Promoting videos on life struggles with weight motivate others to believe in never giving up and taking charge of their lives. Today social media includes individuals of different race, gender, ethnicity and sexual orientation, thereby focusing more on breaking stereotypes and building communities to support each other.
\nWith technology advancing by the minute and newer apps surfacing online, social media has an immediate effect on beauty. Due to the ever changing body images depicted online, individuals are turning to social media handles for acceptance and support. The selfie culture has brought about a positive and negative change in how individuals perceive themselves. While most research today focuses on the negative impacts of social media on beauty, more interest should be laid on body positivity and using social media as a medium for self-acceptance whether beautified or not.
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',metaTitle:"Editorial policies",metaDescription:"Editorial policies",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/editorial-policies",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\\n\\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\n\\n\\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\\n\\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
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\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. 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